Mekatronika

Introduction to
Microprocessors
From: Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
Microprocessor
A microprocessor incorporates most or all of the
functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single
integrated circuit (IC). [1]
The first microprocessors emerged in the early 1970s
and were used for electronic calculators, using BCD
arithmetics on 4-bit words.
Other embedded uses of 4 and 8-bit microprocessors,
such as terminals, printers, various kinds of automation
etc, followed rather quickly.
Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with 16-bit
addressing also led to the first general purpose
microcomputers in the mid-1970s.
Microprocessor
Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor
(actual size: 126.75 mm) in its packaging
Central processing unit

A central processing unit (CPU), or sometimes just called
processor, is a description of a class of logic machines that
can execute computer programs.
This broad definition can easily be applied to many early
computers that existed long before the term "CPU" ever
came into widespread usage. However, the term itself and
its initialism have been in use in the computer industry at
least since the early 1960s (Weik 1961).
The form, design and implementation of CPUs have
changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their
fundamental operation has remained much the same.

Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, usually oneof-a-kind, computer. However, this costly method of designing
custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to
the development of mass-produced processors that are suited for
one or many purposes.
This standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete
transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly
accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC).
The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and
manufactured in very small spaces (on the order of millimeters).
Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have
increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far
beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines.
Modern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to
cell phones to children's toys.

Prior to the advent of machines that resemble today's
CPUs, computers such as the ENIAC had to be
physically rewired in order to perform different tasks.
These machines are often referred to as "fixedprogram computers," since they had to be physically
reconfigured in order to run a different program.
Since the term "CPU" is generally defined as a software
(computer program) execution device, the earliest
devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the
advent of the stored-program computer.
... like being inside the computer
slartmagazine.com
EDVAC, one of the first electronic stored program computers.
ENIAC
The idea of a stored-program computer was already present during ENIAC's

design, but was initially omitted so the machine could be finished sooner. On June
30, 1945, before ENIAC was even completed, mathematician John von Neumann
distributed the paper entitled "First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC."
It outlined the design of a stored-program computer that would eventually be
completed in August 1949 (von Neumann 1945). EDVAC was designed to perform
a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. These
instructions could be combined to create useful programs for the EDVAC to run.
Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were stored in high-speed computer
memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer. This
overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the large amount of time and
effort it took to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task.
With von Neumann's design, the program, or software, that EDVAC ran could be
changed simply by changing the contents of the computer's memory. [1]
ENIAC
ENIAC, short for Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer,[1] was
the first general-purpose electronic computer. Precisely, it was the first
high-speed, purely electronic, Turing-complete, digital computer capable
of being reprogrammed to solve a full range of computing problems,[2]
since earlier machines had been built with some of these properties.
ENIAC was designed and built to calculate artillery firing tables for the U.S.
Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory.
The contract was signed on June 5, 1943 and Project PX was constructed
by the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering
from July, 1943. It was unveiled on February 14, 1946 at Penn, having cost
almost $500,000. ENIAC was shut down on November 9, 1946 for a
refurbishment and a memory upgrade, and was transferred to Aberdeen
Proving Ground, Maryland in 1947. There, on July 29 of that year, it was
turned on and would be in continuous operation until 11:45 p.m. on
October 2, 1955.
Glen Beck (background) and Betty Snyder

(foreground) program the ENIAC in BRL
building 328. (U.S. Army photo)
Programmers Betty
Jean Jennings (left)
and Fran Bilas
(right) operate the
ENIAC's main
control panel at the
Moore School of
Electrical
Engineering. (U.S.
Army photo from the
archives of the ARL
Technical Library)
Cpl. Irwin Goldstein (foreground) sets the switches on one of the

ENIAC's function tables at the Moore School of Electrical
Engineering. (U.S. Army photo)
Microprocessor
Processors were for a long period constructed out of small
and medium-scale ICs containing the equivalent of a few to
a few hundred transistors.
The integration of the whole CPU onto a single VLSI chip
therefore greatly reduced the cost of processing capacity.
From their humble beginnings, continued increases in
microprocessor capacity has rendered other forms of
computers almost completely obsolete (see history of
computing hardware), with one or more microprocessor as
processing element in everything from the smallest
embedded systems and handheld devices to the largest
mainframes and super computers.
Microprocessor
Three projects
arguably delivered a
complete
microprocessor at
about the same time,
namely Intel's 4004,
the Texas Instruments
(TI) TMS 1000, and
Garrett AiResearch's
Central Air Data
Computer (CADC).
The 4004 with cover removed (left) and as

actually used (right).
ARCHITECTURES
8-bit designs
16-bit designs
32-bit designs
64-bit designs in personal computers
Multicore designs
RISC
Special-purpose designs
microcontrollers, digital signal processors (DSP) and

graphics processing units (GPU).
65xx
ARM family
Altera Nios, Nios II
Atmel AVR architecture (purely microcontrollers)
EISC
RCA 1802 (aka RCA COSMAC, CDP1802)
DEC Alpha
Intel
MOS Technology 6502

Western Design Center 65xx
4004, 4040
8080, 8085
8048, 8051
iAPX 432
i860, i960
Itanium
Motorola 6800
Motorola 6809
Motorola 68000 family, ColdFire
[[MotoG4, G5
LatticeMico32
M32R architecture
MIPS architecture
Motorola
NSC 320xx
OpenCores OpenRISC architecture
PA-RISC family
National Semiconductor SC/MP ("scamp")
Signetics 2650
SPARC
SuperH family
Transmeta Crusoe, Efficeon (VLIW architectures, IA-32 32-bit Intel x86 emulator)
INMOS Transputer
x86 architecture
Intel 8086, 8088, 80186, 80188 (16-bit real mode-only x86 architecture)
Intel 80286 (16-bit real mode and protected mode x86 architecture)
IA-32 32-bit x86 architecture
x86-64 64-bit x86 architecture
XAP processor from Cambridge Consultants

Xilinx
Zilog
MicroBlaze soft processor

PowerPC405 embedded hard processor in Virtex FPGAs
Z80, Z180, eZ80
Z8, eZ8
and others
Introduction to
Semiconductor Materials
Louis E. Frenzel
A presentation of eSyst.org
Prerequisites
To understand this presentation, you should
have the following prior knowledge:
Draw the structure of an atom, including electrons,
protons, and neutrons.
Define resistance and conductance.
Label an electronic schematic, indicating current flow.
Define Ohms and Kirchhoffs laws.
Describe the characteristics of DC and AC (sine wave)
voltages.
Student Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of viewing this presentation, you
should be able to:
Define conductor, insulator and semiconductor, and
state the resistance or conductance of each.
Name at least three semiconductor materials and state
the most widely used.
Name the basic structure of material and explain how it
is formed with atoms.
Define doping and name the two types of
semiconductor material formed with doping.
Name the current carriers in N and P-type material.
Explain how current flows in semiconductor material.
Electronic Materials
The goal of electronic materials is to

generate and control the flow of an
electrical current.
Electronic materials include:
1. Conductors: have low resistance which
allows electrical current flow
2. Insulators: have high resistance which
suppresses electrical current flow
3. Semiconductors: can allow or suppress
electrical current flow
Conductors
Good conductors have low resistance so
electrons flow through them with ease.
Best element conductors include:
Copper, silver, gold, aluminum, & nickel
Alloys are also good conductors:

Brass & steel
Good conductors can also be liquid:

Salt water
Conductor Atomic Structure

The atomic structure of
good conductors usually
includes only one
electron in their outer
shell.
It is called a valence
electron.
It is easily striped from the
atom, producing current
flow.
Copper Atom
Insulators
Insulators have a high resistance so current
does not flow in them.
Good insulators include:
Glass, ceramic, plastics, & wood
Most insulators are compounds of several

elements.
The atoms are tightly bound to one another
so electrons are difficult to strip away for
current flow.
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials that essentially
can be conditioned to act as good conductors,
or good insulators, or any thing in between.
Common elements such as carbon, silicon,
and germanium are semiconductors.
Silicon is the best and most widely used
semiconductor.
Semiconductor Valence Orbit

The main
characteristic of a
semiconductor
element is that it has
four electrons in its
outer or valence
orbit.
Crystal Lattice Structure

The unique capability
of semiconductor
atoms is their ability to
link together to form a
physical structure
called a crystal lattice.
The atoms link
together with one
another sharing their
outer electrons.
These links are called
covalent bonds.
2D Crystal Lattice Structure
3D Crystal Lattice Structure
Semiconductors can be Insulators

If the material is pure semiconductor material like
silicon, the crystal lattice structure forms an excellent
insulator since all the atoms are bound to one another
and are not free for current flow.
Good insulating semiconductor material is referred to
as intrinsic.
Since the outer valence electrons of each atom are
tightly bound together with one another, the electrons
are difficult to dislodge for current flow.
Silicon in this form is a great insulator.
Semiconductor material is often used as an insulator.
Doping
To make the semiconductor conduct electricity,
other atoms called impurities must be added.
Impurities are different elements.
This process is called doping.
Semiconductors can be Conductors

An impurity, or element
like arsenic, has 5
valence electrons.
Adding arsenic (doping)
will allow four of the
arsenic valence
electrons to bond with
the neighboring silicon
atoms.
The one electron left
over for each arsenic
atom becomes available
to conduct current flow.
Resistance Effects of Doping

If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping,
there will be lots of extra electrons so the
resistance of the material will be low and
current will flow freely.
If you use only a few boron atoms, there will
be fewer free electrons so the resistance will
be high and less current will flow.
By controlling the doping amount, virtually
any resistance can be achieved.
Another Way to Dope

You can also dope a
semiconductor material with an
atom such as boron that has
only 3 valence electrons.
The 3 electrons in the outer orbit
do form covalent bonds with its
neighboring semiconductor
atoms as before. But one
electron is missing from the
bond.
This place where a fourth
electron should be is referred to
as a hole.
The hole assumes a positive
charge so it can attract electrons
from some other source.
Holes become a type of current
carrier like the electron to
support current flow.
Types of Semiconductor Materials

The silicon doped with extra electrons is
called an N type semiconductor.
N is for negative, which is the charge of an
electron.
Silicon doped with material missing

electrons that produce locations called holes
is called P type semiconductor.
P is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.
Current Flow in N-type Semiconductors

The DC voltage source
has a positive terminal that
attracts the free electrons
in the semiconductor and
pulls them away from their
atoms leaving the atoms
charged positively.
Electrons from the
negative terminal of the
supply enter the
semiconductor material
and are attracted by the
positive charge of the
atoms missing one of their
electrons.
Current (electrons) flows
from the positive terminal
to the negative terminal.
Current Flow in P-type Semiconductors

Electrons from the
negative supply terminal
are attracted to the
positive holes and fill them.
The positive terminal of the
supply pulls the electrons
from the holes leaving the
holes to attract more
electrons.
Current (electrons) flows
from the negative terminal
to the positive terminal.
Inside the semiconductor
current flow is actually by
the movement of the holes
from positive to negative.
In Summary
In its pure state, semiconductor material is an excellent
insulator.
The commonly used semiconductor material is silicon.
Semiconductor materials can be doped with other atoms to
add or subtract electrons.
An N-type semiconductor material has extra electrons.
A P-type semiconductor material has a shortage of
electrons with vacancies called holes.
The heavier the doping, the greater the conductivity or the
lower the resistance.
By controlling the doping of silicon the semiconductor
material can be made as conductive as desired.
Introduction to
CMOS VLSI
Design
Case Study: Intel Processors
Outline
Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
Scaling from 4004 to Pentium 4
Courtesy of Intel Museum
CMOS VLSI Design
Slide 2
4004
First microprocessor (1971)
For Busicom calculator
Characteristics
10 m process
2300 transistors
400 800 kHz
4-bit word size
16-pin DIP package
Masks hand cut from Rubylith
Drawn with color pencils
1 metal, 1 poly (jumpers)
Diagonal lines (!)
CMOS VLSI Design
Slide 3
8008
8-bit follow-on (1972)
Dumb terminals
Characteristics
10 m process
3500 transistors
500 800 kHz
8-bit word size
18-pin DIP package
Note 8-bit datapaths
Individual transistors visible
CMOS VLSI Design
Slide 4
8080
16-bit address bus (1974)
Used in Altair computer
(early hobbyist PC)
Characteristics
6 m process
4500 transistors
2 MHz
8-bit word size
40-pin DIP package
CMOS VLSI Design
Slide 5
8086 / 8088
16-bit processor (1978-9)
IBM PC and PC XT
Revolutionary products
Introduced x86 ISA
Characteristics
3 m process
29k transistors
5-10 MHz
16-bit word size
40-pin DIP package
Microcode ROM
CMOS VLSI Design
Slide 6
80286
Virtual memory (1982)
IBM PC AT
Characteristics
1.5 m process
134k transistors
6-12 MHz
16-bit word size
68-pin PGA
Regular datapaths and
ROMs
Bitslices clearly visible
CMOS VLSI Design
Slide 7
80386
32-bit processor (1985)
Modern x86 ISA
Characteristics
1.5-1 m process
275k transistors
16-33 MHz
32-bit word size
100-pin PGA
32-bit datapath,
microcode ROM,
synthesized control
CMOS VLSI Design
Slide 8
80486
Pipelining (1989)
Floating point unit
8 KB cache
Characteristics
1-0.6 m process
1.2M transistors
25-100 MHz
32-bit word size
168-pin PGA
Cache, Integer datapath,
FPU, microcode,
synthesized control
CMOS VLSI Design
Slide 9
Pentium
Superscalar (1993)
2 instructions per cycle
Separate 8KB I$ & D$
Characteristics
0.8-0.35 m process
3.2M transistors
60-300 MHz
32-bit word size
296-pin PGA
Caches, datapath,
FPU, control
CMOS VLSI Design
Slide 10
Pentium Pro / II / III
Dynamic execution (1995-9)

3 micro-ops / cycle
Out of order execution
16-32 KB I$ & D$
Multimedia instructions
PIII adds 256+ KB L2$
Characteristics
0.6-0.18 m process
5.5M-28M transistors
166-1000 MHz
32-bit word size
MCM / SECC
CMOS VLSI Design
Slide 11
Pentium 4
Deep pipeline (2001)

Very fast clock
256-1024 KB L2$
Characteristics
180 90 nm process
42-125M transistors
1.4-3.4 GHz
32-bit word size
478-pin PGA
Units start to become
invisible on this scale
CMOS VLSI Design
Slide 12
Summary
104 increase in transistor count, clock frequency
over 30 years!
CMOS VLSI Design
Slide 13
Computer History
Charles Babbage
English inventor
1791-1871
taught math at
Cambridge University
invented a viable
mechanical computer
equivalent to modern
digital computers
history.ppt 21-Jan-03
Babbages first computer
built in early 1800s

special purpose calculator
naval navigation charts
difference engine
Babbages second computer

Analytical engine
general-purpose
used binary system
punched cards as input
branch on result of
previous instruction
Ada Lovelace (first
programmer)
machined parts not
accurate enough
never quite completed
analytical engine, 1834

invention of the light bulb, 1878

Sir Joseph Wilson Swan
English physicist and electrician
first public exhibit of a light bulb in 1878
Thomas Edison
American inventor, working independently of Swan
public exhibit of a light bulb in 1879
had a conducting filament mounted in a glass bulb from
which the air was evacuated leaving a vacuum
passing electricity through the filament caused it to heat up,
become incandescent and radiate light
the vacuum prevented the filament from oxidizing and
burning up
Edisons legacy
Edison continued to experiment with light bulbs
in 1883, he detected electrons flowing through
the vacuum of a light bulb
from the lighted filament
to a metal plate mounted inside the bulb
this became known as the Edison Effect

he did not develop this any further
invention of the diode (late 1800s)

John Ambrose Fleming
an English physicist
studied Edison effect
to detect radio waves and to convert them to electricity
developed a two-element vacuum tube

known as a diode
electrons flow within the tube

from the negatively charged cathode
to the positively charged anode
today, a diode is used in circuits as a rectifier
the switching vacuum tube, 1906

Lee de Forest introduced a third
electrode into the vacuum tube
American inventor
the new vacuum tube was called a

triode
new electrode was called a grid
this tube could be used as both an

amplifier and a switch
many of the early radio transmitters were built by de Forest
using triodes
triodes revolutionized the field of broadcasting
their ability to act as switches would later be important in
digital computing
on/off switches in digital computers

earliest:
electromechanical relays
solenoid with mechanical contact points
physical switch closes when electricity animates magnet
1940s:
vacuum tubes
no physical contacts to break or get dirty
became available in early 1900s
mainly used in radios at first
1950s to present
transistors
invented at Bell Labs in 1948
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley
Nobel prize, 1956
electromechanical relay
10
photo of an electromechanical relay
11
transistor evolution
first transistor made from materials
including a paper clip and a razor
blade
later packaged in small ICs
eventually came VLSI

Very Large Scale Integration
millions of transistors per chip
12
the integrated circuit (IC)

invented separately by 2 people ~1958
Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments
Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor (1958-59)
1974
Intel introduces the 8080 processor
one of the first single-chip microprocessors
13
ICs are fabricated many at a time
14
functional view of transistor contents
15
a TTL chip
16
Moores law
deals with steady rate of miniaturizion of technology
named for Intel co-founder Gordon Moore
not really a law
more a rule of thumb
a practical way to think about something
observation that chip density about doubles every 18

months
also, prices decline
first described in 1965
experts predict this trend might continue until ~2020
limited when size reaches molecular level
17
transistors - building blocks of computers
microprocessors contain many transistors
(ENIAC):
19,500 vacuum tubes and relays
Intel 8088 processor (1st PC): 29,000 transistors
Intel Pentium II processor:
7 million transistors
Intel Pentium III processor: 28 million transistors
Intel Pentium 4 processor:
logically, each transistor acts as an on-off switch

transistors combined to implement logic gates
AND, OR, NOT
gates combined to build higher-level structures

adder, multiplexor, decoder, register,
18
Electrical Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), 1940s
an early computer
developed at UPenn
Size: 30 x 50 room
18,000 vacuum tubes
1500 relays
weighed 30 tons
designers
John Mauchly
J. Presper Eckert
19
Intel 8088 microprocessor (single chip)

used in first IBM personal computer
IBM PC released in 1981
4.77 MHz clock
16 bit integers, with an 8-bit data bus
transfers took two steps (a byte at a time)
1 Mb of physical memory address limitation
8-bit device-controlling chips

29,000 transistors
3-micron technology
speed was 0.33 MIPS
later version had 8 MHz clock
Pentium 4 chip has

electrical paths now
as small as .13 micron
speed was 0.75 MIPS.

20
Moores Law example
DEC
LSI-11,
Early 1980s
DEC
PDP-11,
mid 1970s
These 2 computers were functionally equivalent.
21
the end
22
MSE-630 Week 2
Conductivity, Energy Bands and
Charge Carriers in
Semiconductors
Objectives:
To understand conduction, valence energy
bands and how bandgaps are formed
To understand the effects of doping in
semiconductors
To use Fermi-Dirac statistics to calculate
conductivity and carrier concentrations
To understand carrier mobility and how it is
influenced by scattering
To introduce the idea of effective mass
To see how we can use Hall effect to determine
carrier concentration and mobility
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
Ohm's Law:
V = I R
voltage drop (volts)
current (amps)
e-
(cross
sect.
area)
resistance (Ohms)
I
V
L
Resistivity, and Conductivity, :
--geometry-independent forms of Ohm's Law

E: electric
field
intensity
Resistance: R
V I

L
A
L
L
A A
resistivity
(Ohm-m)
J: current density
I
conductivity
MSE-512
3
Resistivity and Conductivity as charged

particles
mobility, =
V
E
Where V
is the average
velocity
is the average distance between

collisions,
divided by the average time between
collisions,
d
V
t
d
t
t
d
MSE-512
CONDUCTION IN TERMS OF ELECTRON AND

HOLE MIGRATION
Concept of electrons and holes:
valence
electron
electron hole
pair creation
Si atom
+
no applied
electric field
electron hole
pair migration
- +
applied
electric field
applied
electric field
Electrical Conductivity given by:
n e e p e h
# electrons/m3
# holes/m3
electron mobility
hole mobility
MSE-512
11
CONDUCTIVITY: COMPARISON
-1
Room T values (Ohm-m)

METALS
conductors
Silver
6.8 x 107
Copper
6.0 x 107
Iron
1.0 x 107
CERAMICS
Soda-lime glass 10-10
Concrete
10-9
Aluminum oxide <10-13
SEMICONDUCTORS
POLYMERS
Polystyrene
Silicon
4 x 10-4
Polyethylene
Germanium 2 x 100
GaAs
10-6
semiconductors
<10-14
10-15-10-17
insulators
MSE-512
4
As the distance between

atoms decreases, the
energy of each orbital
must split, since
according to Quantum
Mechanics we cannot
have two orbitals with
the same energy.
The splitting results in bands of

electrons. The energy difference
between the conduction and valence
bands is the gap energy We must
supply this much energy to elevate an
electron from the valence band to the
conduction band. If Eg is < 2eV, the
material is a semiconductor.
CONDUCTION & ELECTRON TRANSPORT

Metals:
-- Thermal energy puts
many electrons into
a higher energy state.
Energy States:
Energy
-- the cases below

for metals show
that nearby
energy states
are accessible
by thermal
fluctuations.
empty
band
+
net e- flow
Energy
empty
band
filled
band
filled states
partly
filled
valence
band
filled states
GAP
filled
valence
band
filled
band
MSE-512
6
ENERGY STATES: INSULATORS AND

SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors:
--Higher energy states not

accessible due to gap.
Energy
empty
band
filled states
GAP
filled
valence
band
filled
band
--Higher energy states

separated by a smaller gap.
Energy
empty
band
GAP
filled states
Insulators:
filled
valence
band
filled
band MSE-512
7
PURE SEMICONDUCTORS: CONDUCTIVITY VS T

Data for Pure Silicon:
-- increases with T
--opposite to metals
electrical conductivity,
(Ohm-m)-1
104
101
100
pure
(undoped)
10-1
10-2
50 100
Energy
empty
band
GAP
filled states
103
102
undoped e
1000
T(K)
E gap / 2 kT
material
Si
Ge
GaP
CdS
electrons
filled
can cross
valence gap at
band
higher T
filled
band
band gap (eV)

1.11
0.67
2.25
2.40
MSE-512
10
Simple representation of silicon atoms bonded in a crystal.

The dotted areas are covalent or shared electron bonds.
The electronic structure of a single Si atom is shown
conceptually on the right. The four outermost electrons are
the valence electrons that participate in covalent bonds.
Electron (-) and hold (+) pair

generation represented b a broken
bond in the crystal. Both carriers are
mobile and can carry current.
Portion of the periodic table relevant
to semiconductor materials and
doping. Elemental semiconductors
are in column IV. Compound
semiconductors are combinations of
elements from columns III and V, or
II and VI.
Doping of group IV semiconductors

using elements from arsenic (As, V)
or boron (B, III)
Intrinsic carrier concentration vs.
temperature.
INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC CONDUCTION

Intrinsic:
# electrons = # holes (n = p)
--case for pure Si
Extrinsic:
--n p
--occurs when impurities are added with a different
# valence electrons than the host (e.g., Si atoms)
N-type Extrinsic: (n >> p)
P-type Extrinsic: (p >> n)
Phosphorus atom
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
n e e
4+ 5+ 4+ 4+
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
no applied
electric field
Boron atom
hole
conduction 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
electron
4+ 3+ 4+ 4+
valence
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
electron
Si atom
no applied
electric field
p e h
MSE-512
12
Equations describing Intrinsic and

Extrinsic conduction
Using the Fermi-Dirac equation, we can find the number of charge carrier per
unit volume as:
Ne = Noexp(-Eg/2kT)
Nois a preexponential function,
Egis the band-gap energy and
kis Boltzmans constant (8.62 x 10-5 eV/K)
If
If
Eg > ~2.5 eV
0 < Eg < ~2.5 eV
the material is an insulator

the material is a semi-conductor
Semi-conductor conductivity can be expressed by:

s(T) = so exp(-E*/nkT)
E* is the relevant gap energy (Eg, Ec-Ed or Ea)
n is 2 for intrinsic semi-conductivity and 1 for extrinsic semiMSE-512
conductivity
DOPED SEMICON: CONDUCTIVITY VS T
102
101
100
10-1
0.0052at%B
doped
0.0013at%B
pure
(undoped)
10-2
50 100
1000
T(K)
1021/m3 of a n-type donor

impurity (such as P).
--for T < 100K: "freeze-out"
thermal energy insufficient to
excite electrons.
--for 150K < T < 450K: "extrinsic"
--for T >> 450K: "intrinsic"
doped
undoped
3
2
1
intrinsic
104
103
--extrinsic doping level:
extrinsic
electrical conductivity,
(Ohm-m)-1
lower the activation energy to

produce mobile electrons.
extrinsic conduction...
freeze-out
-- increases doping
--reason: imperfection sites
Comparison: intrinsic vs
conduction electron
concentration (1021/m3)
Data for Doped Silicon:
MSE-512
0
0
200 400 600 T(K)
13
Dopant designations and

concentrations
Resistivity as a function of
charge mobility and number
When we add carriers by doping, the number of additional carrers, Nd, far
exceeds those in an intrinsic semiconductor, and we can treat conductivity as
= 1/ = qdNd
Simple band and bond representations of pure

silicon. Bonded electrons lie at energy levels
below Ev; free electrons are above Ec. The
process of intrinsic carrier generation is
illustrated in each model.
Simple band and bond representations of doped

silicon. EA and ED represent acceptor and donor
energy levels, respectively. P- and N-type
doping are illustrated in each model, using As as
the donor and B as the acceptor
Behavior of free carrier concentration

versus temperature. Arsenic in silicon is
qualitatively illustrated as a specific
example (ND = 1015 cm-3). Note that at high
temperatures ni becomes larger than 1015
doping and nni. Devices are normally
operated where n = ND+. Fabrication occurs
as temperatures where nni
Probability of an electron occupying

a state. Fermi energy represents the
energy at which the probability of
occupancy is exactly .
Fermi level position in an undoped (left),

N-type (center) and P-type (right)
semiconductor. The dots represent free
electrons, the open circles represent
mobile holes.
The density of allowed states at an

energy E.
Integrating the product of the probability of occupancy with the density of

allowed states gives the electron and hole populations in a
semiconductor crystal.
Effective Mass
In general, the curve of Energy vs. k is nonlinear, with E increasing as k increases.
E = mv2 = p2/m = h2/4m k2
We can see that energy varies inversely with
mass. Differentiating E wrt k twice, and
solving for mass gives:
2
h
m
2
d E
2
2
dk
*
Effective mass is significant because it

affects charge carrier mobility, and
must be considered when calculating
carrier concentrations or momentum
Effective mass and other semiconductor properties may be found in

Appendix A-4
Substituting the results from the previous slide into the expression for the
product of the number of holes and electrons gives us the equation above.
Writing NC and NV as a function of ni and substituting gives the equation
below for the number of holes and electrons:
In general, the number of electron

donors plus holes must equal the
number of electron acceptors plus
electrons
The energy band gap gets smaller with

increasing temperature.
Fermi level position in the forbidden band for a

given doping level as a function of temperature.
In reality, band structures are highly

dependent upon crystal orientation. This
image shows us that the lowest band gap
in Si occurs along the [100] directions,
while for GaAs, it occurs in the [111]. This
is why crystals are grown with specific
orientations.
The diagram showing the
constant energy surface
(3.10 (b)), shows us that
the effective mass varies
with direction. We can
calculate average effective
mass from:
1 1 1
2

*
mn 3 ml mt
P-N RECTIFYING JUNCTION

Allows flow of electrons in one direction only (e.g., useful
to convert alternating current to direct current.
Processing: diffuse P into one side of a B-doped crystal.

Results:
n-type
+ p-type
+ +
--No applied potential:
+ +
- - no net current flow.
--Forward bias: carrier
flow through p-type and
n-type regions; holes and
electrons recombine at
p-n junction; current flows.
--Reverse bias: carrier
flow away from p-n junction;
carrier conc. greatly reduced
at junction; little current flow.
+ - n-type
+
++- - +-
p-type
+p-type
+ +
+ +
n-type
MSE-512
14
Piezoelectrics
Field
produced
by stress:
Strain
produced
by field:
Elastic
modulus:
1
E
gd
= electric field
= applied
stress
E=Elastic
modulus
d = piezoelectric
constant
g = constant
MSE-512
APPLIED MAGNETIC FIELD
Created by current through a coil:

Applied
magnetic field H
N turns total
L = length of each turn
current I
Relation for the applied magnetic field, H:
NI
H
L
current
applied magnetic field

units = (ampere-turns/m)

:
=1.257
Bo o H
106 /(
)

Bo o H (1 m )
:
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
Measures the response of electrons to a magnetic

field.
Electrons produce magnetic moments:
magnetic moments
electron
nucleus
electron
spin
Adapted from Fig.

20.4, Callister 6e.
Net magnetic moment:

--sum of moments from all electrons.
Three types of response...
Hysteresis Loop
Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials
MAGNETIC
STORAGE
Information is stored by magnetizing material.
Head can...
recording medium
--apply magnetic field H &

align domains (i.e.,
magnetize the medium).
--detect a change in the
magnetization of the
medium.
recording head
Two media types:

--Particulate: needle-shaped
-Fe2O3. +/- mag. moment
along axis. (tape, floppy)
--Thin film: CoPtCr or CoCrTa

alloy. Domains are ~ 10-30nm!
(hard drive)
~2.5m ~60nm
Sheet Resistivity
V
R=
I
EL
JA
s is the sheet resistivity

L
L
t w
L
s
w
Sheet resistivity is the

resistivity divided by
the thickness of the
doped region, and is
denoted /
w
If we know the area per square, the
resistance is s n squares area
/ square
MSE-512
Conductivity
Charge carriers follow a
random path unless an
external field is applied.
Then, they acquire a drift
velocity that is dependent
upon their mobility, mn and the
strength of the field, x
Vd = -mn x
The average drift velocity, vav is dependent

Upon the mean time between collisions, 2t
Charge Flow and Current Density

Current density, J, is the rate at
which charges, cross any plane
perpendicular to the flow direction.
J = -nqvd = nqmnx = sx
n is the number of charges, and
-19
q is the charge (1.6 x 10
C)
The total current density depends upon the total charge

carriers, which can be ions, electrons, or holes
J = q(nmn + pmp) x
OHMs Law:
V = IR
Resistance, R(W) is an extrinsic quantity. Resistivity, r(Wm), is the

corresponding intrinsic property.
= R*A/l
Conductivity, s, is the reciprocal of resistivity: s(Wm)-1 = 1/r
Semiconductor Basics
Chapter 1
Atomic Structure
Elements are made of atoms
110 Elements; each has an atomic

structure
Today, quarks and leptons, and their
antiparticles, are candidates for being
the fundamental building blocks from
which all else is made!
Bohr Model
Atoms have planetary structure

Atoms are made of nucleus (Protons
(+) & Neutrons) and electrons (-)
110 th element is called Darmstadtium (Ds)
Atomic Structure
Atoms go around the nucleolus in their orbits

discrete distances
Each orbit has some energy level
The closer the orbit to the nucleus the less
energy it has
Group of orbits called shell
Electrons on the same shell have similar energy
level
Valence shell is the outmost shell
Valence shell has valence electrons ready to
be freed
Number of electrons (Ne) on each shell (n)
Ne = 2n2
First shell has 2 electrons

Second shell has 8 electrons (not shown here)
Valence Shell
Atoms are made of valence

shell and core
Core includes nucleus and
other inner shells
For a Carbon atom the atomic

number is 6
Core charge = 6 P + 2 e =
(+6)+(-2)=(+4)
Remember the first shell has 2
electrons
Elements
Basic categories
Conductors
Examples: Copper, silver

One valence electron , the e
can easily be freed
Always free
electrons
Insulators
Free
electrons
Valence electrons are tightly

bounded to the atom
Semiconductors
Silicon, germanium (single

element)
Gallium arsenide, indium
phosphide (compounds)
They can act as conductors or
insulators
Conduction band is
where the electron
leaves the valence shell
and becomes free
Valence band is where
the outmost shell is
Semiconductors
Remember the further away from the

nucleus the less energy is required
to free the electrons
Germanium is less stable
Less energy is required to make the

electron to jump to the conduction
band
When atoms combine to form a solid,

they arrange themselves in a
symmetrical patterns
Semiconductor atoms (silicon) form
crystals
Intrinsic crystals have no impurities
Conduction Electrons and Holes
Electrons exist only within

prescribed energy bands
These bands are separated by
energy gaps
When an electron jumps to the
conduction band it causes a hole
When electron falls back to its initial
valence recombination occurs
Consequently there are two
different types of currents
Hole current (electrons are the

minority carriers)
Electron current (holes are the
minority carriers)
Remember: We are interested in electrical current!
Doping
By adding impurities to the intrinsic

semiconductor we can change the
conductivity of the material this is called
doping
N-type: pentavalent (atom with 5 valence

electrons) impurity atoms are added
N-type doping
P-type doping
[Sb(Antimony) + Si]
Negative charges (electrons) are generated
N-type has lots of free electrons
P-type: trivalent (atom with 3 valence

electrons) impurity atoms are added
[B(Boron) + Si]
Positive charges (holes) are generated
P-type has lots of holes
Diodes
N region has lots of free electrons

P region has lots of holes
At equilibrium: total number positive and negative
charges is the same (@ room temp)
At the pn junction the electrons and holes with
different charges form an electric field
In order to move electrons through the electric field
(generate current) we need some force (voltage)
This potential difference is called barrier voltage

When enough voltage is applied such that electrons
are moved then we are biasing the diode
Two layers of positive and negative charges for
depletion region the region near the pn-junction is
depleted of charge carriers)
Biasing Types of a Diode
Forward bias
Connected to the
negative side of
the battery
Bias voltage VBias > barrier voltage

VBar
Reduction in + and ions smaller
depletion region
VBar Depends on material, doping,
temp, etc. (e.g., for silicon it is 0.7 V)
Reverse bias
Connected to the
positive side of
the battery
Essentially a condition that prevents

electrons to pass through the diode
Very small reverse break down current
Larger depletion region is generated
A
Anode
p region
K
Cathode
n region
Biasing Types of a Diode (Forward)

Small dynamic resistance
Conventional
Current Flow
I (Forward)
Moving
electrons
VBias
Conventional
Current Flow
K
Cathode
n region
Anode
p region
p
Biasing Types of a Diode (Reverse)

Large resistance
Very Small
Moving
Electrons:
Reverse Current)
Instant pull of
electrons
VBias
Holes are left
behind; large
depletion region
Conventional
Current Flow
K
Cathode
n region
Anode
p region
p
I-V Characteristic of a Diode
Forward bias: current passes through
Reveres bias: No current passes through
The knee is where VBias=VBar

At point B VBias < VBar Very little current
Note that at the knee the current increases rapidly but V(forward)
stays almost the same
When VBias < VBar Very little current (mu or nano Amp)
At the knee, the reverse current increases rapidly but the reverse
voltage remains almost the same
Large reverse current can result in overheating and possibly
damaging the diode (V=50V or higher typically)
Overheating results from high-speed electrons in the pregion knocking out electrons of atoms in n-region from their
orbit to the conduction band
Hence, we use limiting resistors
Electrons moving
from n to p region
Modeling a Diode (Forward Biasing)
Use rd
(internal resistance)
- Not linear!
Complete Modeling of a Diode

Note that IF is the actual direction of electron current
Forward bias: VBias = VF + IF(RLIMIT+rd); rd is typically given, VF typically is 0.7 V
Reverse bias: VBias = VR + IR * RLIMIT; IR is typically given
VF
Showing the Actual electron direction
VR
Example
Find the current through the diode and the
voltage across the resistor.
Assume rd = 10 ohm
VF
Biasing? Forward biased
Forward bias: VBias = VF + IF(RLIMIT+rd)
10 = 0.7 + IF(RLIMIT+10) IF=9.21 mA
VF=0.7+IF*rd = 792 mV
VRLIMIT = IF * RLIMIT = 9.21V
Example
Find the current through the diode and the
voltage across the resistor.
Assume IR = I uA
VR
Note: Reverse biased
Reverse bias: VBias = VR + IR * RLIMIT
VRLIMIT = IR*VRLI MIT = 1mA
VR=VBIAS-VRLIMIT=4.999 V
Forward Bias
Calculate the voltage across the resistor.
Reverse Bias
Calculate the voltage across the resistor.
Do this example on your own:

i1
U3
+
-4.182m
Key = Space
V2
V1
30 V
30 V
Reverse
Bias
1k
DC 1e-009
J1
Make sure you can calculate and

find all currents- Hint: find Vn, first
R1
U1
R2
Vn
1.5k
-0.021m A
4.7k
DC 1e-009
i2
Forward
Bias
i3
R3
4.7k
R4
U2
D2
-19.459
DIODE_VIRTUAL
DC 1M
U3
+
6.114m
Key = Space
DC 1e-009
J1
R1
1k
U1
R2
1.5k
2.984m
V2
V1
30 V
30 V
Reverse
Bias
Forward
Bias
4.7k
DC 1e-009
Vn
R3
4.7k
R4
DIODE_VIRTUAL
Access this file from my web page
D2
U2
0.683
-
DC 1M

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Introduction to

Central processing unit

Central processing unit

Central processing unit

... like being inside the computer

EDVAC, one of the first electronic stored program computers.

The idea of a stored-program computer was already present during ENIAC's

Glen Beck (background) and Betty Snyder

Cpl. Irwin Goldstein (foreground) sets the switches on one of the

The 4004 with cover removed (left) and as

microcontrollers, digital signal processors (DSP) and

MOS Technology 6502

XAP processor from Cambridge Consultants

MicroBlaze soft processor

Student Learning Outcomes

The goal of electronic materials is to

Alloys are also good conductors:

Good conductors can also be liquid:

Conductor Atomic Structure

Most insulators are compounds of several

Semiconductor Valence Orbit

Crystal Lattice Structure

2D Crystal Lattice Structure

3D Crystal Lattice Structure

Semiconductors can be Insulators

Semiconductors can be Conductors

Resistance Effects of Doping

Another Way to Dope

Types of Semiconductor Materials

Silicon doped with material missing

Current Flow in N-type Semiconductors

Current Flow in P-type Semiconductors

Case Study: Intel Processors

CMOS VLSI Design

CMOS VLSI Design

Case Study: Intel Processors

CMOS VLSI Design

Case Study: Intel Processors

CMOS VLSI Design

Case Study: Intel Processors

CMOS VLSI Design

Case Study: Intel Processors

CMOS VLSI Design

Case Study: Intel Processors

CMOS VLSI Design

CMOS VLSI Design

Case Study: Intel Processors

CMOS VLSI Design

Pentium Pro / II / III

Dynamic execution (1995-9)

CMOS VLSI Design

Deep pipeline (2001)

Case Study: Intel Processors

CMOS VLSI Design

Case Study: Intel Processors

CMOS VLSI Design

Babbages first computer

built in early 1800s

Babbages second computer

analytical engine, 1834

invention of the light bulb, 1878

this became known as the Edison Effect

invention of the diode (late 1800s)

developed a two-element vacuum tube