Building Materials and Construction

6. DOORS, WINDOWS AND STAIRS

Doors and Windows
A door may be defined as a framework of wood, steel, aluminum, glass or a combination of these
materials secured in an opening left in a wall for the purposes of providing access to the users.
The function of a door is to give access to building and to different parts of the building and to
deny the access whenever necessary. Number of doors should be minimum possible. The size of
the door should be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the largest object likely
to use the doors.
A window may be defined as an opening made in a wall for the purpose of providing day light,
vision and ventilation. Windows must also provide insulation against heat loss, and in some
cases, against sound. The construction of window is identical to that of door. Window consists of
a window frame and shutter.
Location of doors and windows
1. The number of doors in a room should be kept minimum.
2. Doors should preferably be placed in the corner of the room.
3. If there are two doors in a room, the doors should preferably be located in opposite walls.
4. The size and number of windows should be decided after due consideration to
distribution of light, ventilation and privacy of the occupants.
5. The location of a window should also meet the functional requirements of the room, such
as interior decoration, arrangement of furniture, etc.
6. The windows should be located opposite to each other as far as possible.
7. The windows should be located in the prevalent wind direction.
8. The windows sill should be located about 70 to 80 cm above the floor level of the room.
Size of doors and windows
The size of door depends on the requirement of the room and its size. In general, the size of door
should be such that it would allow the free movement of the large object or tallest person likely
to use the door. The height of the door should not be less than 1.8 m in any case. The width of the
door would be 0.4 to 0.6 times the height of the door.
The following sizes of doors are normally adopted for various types of buildings:
Residential Buildings
Internal doors: 0.9 m X 2.1 m
External doors: 1.0 m X 2.1 m

WC and bathrooms: 0.75 m X 2.1 m

Garages: 2.5 m X 2.25 m

Public Buildings
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1.2 m X 2.1 m
1.2 m X 2.25 m
The size of windows would be governed by the total area of window space needed. The
following criteria should be kept in mind while designing the windows:
1. Width of window: 1/8 (width of room + height of room)
2. There should be one square metre of window space for every 30 to 40 m3 of inside
content of the room.
3. The area of windows opening should be at least 15% of the floor area of the room.
Technical terms
Figs. 1 and 2 show respectively a door and a window. The following are the technical terms
applied to doors and windows:
1. Frame: It is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members, forming an enclosure, to
which the shutters are fixed.
2. Shutters: These are the openable parts of a door or window. It is an assembly of styles,
panels and rails.
3. Head: This is the top or uppermost horizontal part of a frame.
4. Sill: This is the lowermost or bottom horizontal part of a window frame. Sills are
normally not provided in door frames.
5. Horn: These are the horizontal projections of the head and sill of a frame to facilitate the
fixing of the frame on the wall opening. The length of horns is kept about 10 to 15 cm.
6. Style: Style is the vertical outside member of the shutter of a door or window.
7. Top rail: This is the top most horizontal member of a shutter.
8. Lock rail: This is the middle horizontal member of a door shutter, to which locking
arrangement is fixed.
9. Bottom rail: This is the lowermost horizontal member of a shutter.
10. Intermediate or cross-rails: These are additional horizontal rails, fixed between the top
and bottom rails of a shutter. A rail fixed between the top rail and lock rail is called frieze
rail.
11. Panel: This is the area of shutter enclosed between the adjacent rails.
12. Mullion: This is a vertical member of a frame, which is employed to sub-divide a
window or a door vertically.
13. Transom: This is a horizontal member of a frame, which is employed to sub-divide a
window opening horizontally.
14. Hold fasts: These are mild steel flats (section 30mm X 6mm), generally bent into Zshape, to fix or hold the frame to the opening. The horizontal length of hold fast is kept
about 20cm, and is embedded in the masonry.

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15. Jamb: This is the vertical wall face of an opening which supports the frame.
16. Reveal: It is the external jamb of a door or window opening at right angles to the wall
face.
17. Rebate: It is depression or recess made inside the door frame, to receive the door shutter.
Types of Doors
Various types of doors are in use which may be classified on the basis of arrangement of shutters,
method of constructions, principles of working operations and materials used. Commonly used
doors are briefly explained below:
1. Battened and Ledged Doors: Battens are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 20 mm thick
wooden boards. Their length is that of door opening. The battens are connected by horizontal
planks, known as ledges of size 100 to 200 mm wide and 30 mm thick. Usually three ledges
are used one at top, one at bottom and the third one at mid-height. This is the simplest form
of door and the cheapest also. Battens are secured by tongued and grooved joint.
2. Battened, Ledged and Braced Doors: If doors are wide apart from using battens and ledges
diagonal members, known as braces, are provided to strengthen the door. Figure shows a
typical battened, ledged and braced door. Sometimes above two types of shutters are
provided within wooden frame work and in those cases they may be called as battened,
ledges and framed doors.

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Fig.: Battened and Ledged Doors

Fig.: Battened, Ledged and Braced Doors

Fig.: Framed and Panelled Doors

3. Framed and Panelled Doors: This type of door consists of vertical members, called styles
and horizontal members called rails. The styles and rails are suitably grooved to receive
panels. The panels may be of wood, A.C. sheet, glasses etc. The panels may be flat or of
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raised type to get good appearance. These are very commonly used doors. They may be of
single shutter or of double shutter. Figure shows few types of panelled doors. If glass panels
are used they may be called as glazed doors.
4. Flush Doors: The shutters of these doors are made of plywood or block boards. They are of
uniform thickness. These shutters are available with different attractive vineer finishes. The
time consumed in making such doors at site is quite less. These doors are suitable for interior
portion of a building. Nowadays flush doors are commonly used in residential and office
buildings. Figure shows typical flush door.
5. Louvered Doors: Whenever privacy as well as ventilation is required such doors can be
used. Louvers are the glass, wooden or A.C. sheet strips fixed in the frame of shutter such
that they prevent vision but permit free passage of air. The doors may be fully or partially
louvered. Such doors are commonly used for public bathrooms and latrines.

Fig.: Flush Doors

Fig.: Louvered Doors

Fig.: Revolving Doors

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6. Revolving Doors: It consists of a centrally placed pivot to which four radiating shutters are
attached. The central pivot is supported on ball bearing at the bottom and has a bush bearing
at the top. The shutters may be partly or fully made up of glass. A circular space of entrance
is provided within which shutters rotate. As shutters rotate they give entrance on one side and
exit on other side. These doors are preferred in public buildings like stores, banks, hotels,
theatres where continuous use of doors is necessary. They are very much required in entrance
to air conditioned public buildings. Figure shows a typical revolving door.

Fig.: Plan of Swing Door

Fig.: Plan of Sliding Door
7. Swing Doors: Swing door has its shutter attached to the frame by means of double action
springs. Hence shutter can move both inward and outward. They may be single shuttered or
double shuttered. Such doors are preferred in offices and banks. Since these doors can open
on both sides it is desirable to provide glass panels or peep holes to enable user to see the
persons from other side.
8. Sliding Doors: In this type of doors, shutter slides on the sides. For this purpose runners and
guide rails are provided. Sliding shutters may be one, two or even three. Such doors are used
in banks, offices etc. The arrangement of such shutters in plan is shown in Fig. 8.28.
9. Collapsible Doors: Steel channels 16 to 20 mm wide are used as verticals. They are placed
with 12 to 20 mm gap. Steel flats 16 mm to 20 mm wide and 5 mm thick are hinged to them
as shown in Fig. The rollers are provided at their top as well as at bottom so that shutter can
be pulled or pushed sideways with slight force. There may be single or double shutters.
Usually these doors are used for additional safety. They are commonly used for front doors,
bank locker rooms, and school and college entrance doors.
10. Rolling Shutters: Figure shows a typical rolling shutter door. It consists of a frame, a drum
and a shutter made of thin steel plates. The width of the door may vary from 2 to 3 m. The
shutter moves on steel guides provided on sides and can easily roll up. For this
counterbalancing is made with helical springs on the drum. The shutter can be easily pulled
down. This type of doors is commonly used as additional doors to shops, offices, banks,
factory, and buildings from the point of safety.
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Fig.: Collapsible steel Door

Fig.: Rolling Shutter

Types of windows
Various windows used may be classified on the basis of materials used, types of shutters, types of
openings of shutters and the position of windows.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Fixed windows.
Pivoted windows.
Double hung windows.
Sliding windows.
Casement windows.
Glazed windows.
Louvered windows.
Metal windows.

9. Bay windows.
10. Clere-storey windows.
11. Corner windows.
12. Dormer windows.
13. Gable windows.
14. Lantern windows.
15. Skylights.

1. Fixed windows: In such type of windows the glazed shutter is permanently fixed in the
windows frame. This type of window is provided when light and vision is only needed in the
room. No ventilation is possible through such windows.
2. Pivoted windows: In these windows, the shutters are allowed to rotate about the pivots fixed
to the windows frame. The windows frame has no rebate. The shutter can rotate
horizontally or vertically depending on the position of pivot.
3. Double hung windows: This type of window mainly consists of a frame and two shutters
arranged one above the other, which can move vertically upward or downward by means of
cords passing over pulleys and are connected by corner weights at other ends by open at top
or bottom to the desired extent by pulling the weights suitably. Ventilation can be easily
controlled by these windows.
4. Casement windows: It is an ordinary window, which is commonly used in residential as
well as in public buildings. The shutters of the window open like shutters of the doors. The
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window has a frame and shutters consist of styles, top rail, bottom rail, intermediate rails,
vertical and horizontal sash bars with glass panels. The panels may be glazed or partly
glazed.
5. Sliding windows: This type of window consists of sliding shutters which move on roller
bearing and can slide either horizontally or vertically. These windows are similar to sliding
doors. Such windows are provided in trains, buses, shops, bank counters etc.

Fixed windows

Double hung windows

Pivoted windows

Wooden casement windows

6. Glazed windows: This type of windows consists of shutters in which panels are fully glazed.
The frame of each shutter has two vertical styles, top rail and bottom rail. The panel space
between the styles and the rails is suitably divided by small wooden members placed
horizontally and vertically to suit the requirements. These bars are known as sash bars or
glazing bars. The sash bars have rebates to receive glass panels. The glass panels are secured
in position either by putty or timber beads and nails. If the window opening is large, the
window frame may have mullions and transome. These are also called as sash windows.
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7. Louvered windows: In this type of window the styles of shutter are grooved to receive the
louvers. The louvers are generally fixed but sometimes, the louvers can be raised and
lowered by means of some operating devices. For economical construction the angle of
inclination of louvers to the vertical styles should be 45 0. The louvers slope downward to the
outside in order to run-off the rainwater. Sometimes venetian shutters are provided in which
louvers are pivoted to the frame at both ends and every louver is connected by a small hinge
to a vertical batten. When the batten is pulled up or down, the gap between the louvers are
opened or closed. These types of windows are commonly used for bathrooms, water closets,
workshops and other places where privacy is main consideration. Sometimes this window is
also known as venetianed window.

Glazed windows

Louvered windows

8. Metal windows: Use of metal windows is becoming very popular these days. They are used
in residential as well as in public buildings. They are strong and cheap also. These windows
are made from metals like mild steel, aluminum, bronze, stainless steel etc. Mild steel being
cheapest of all the metals, hence steel window work out to be most economical. Mild steel
sections are used for fabrication of these windows. They are available in wide range of
standard sizes. The commonly used sections are angle sections, Z-sections, T-sections and
channel sections. These windows are directly fixed in the masonry opening in the wall or it
may be fixed into wooden frame already fitted in the window opening in the wall. Bronze,
aluminum and stainless steel are considered to be the best metals for windows construction.
9. Bay windows: A window projecting outward from the walls of room is known as bay
window. This projection may be triangular, circular, rectangular or polygonal in plan. These
windows provided an increased area of opening for the admission of light and ventilation.
They also provide extra space in the room and improve overall appearance of the building.

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Metal windows

Bay windows

10. Clere-storey windows: These windows are provided near the top of the main roof for the
purpose of light and ventilation. The location of such windows are above the verandah roof,
hence these are termed as clere-storey windows. These windows also improve the appearance
of the building. The window shutter is horizontally pivoted and the window can be opened or
closed by use of two cords, one attached to the top rail and other to the bottom rail of the
shutter. To prevent the entry of rainwater in the room, it is however important that the upper
part of the shutter opens inside and the lower part opens outside.
11. Corner windows: These windows are located in the corner of the room. Corner window has
two faces at right angles. Due to this, it is possible to admit light and air from two directions.
In addition, it also improves the architectural view of the building.
12. Dormer windows: It is the vertical window built in the sloping side of a pitched roof. It
provides proper ventilation and light for enclosed space below the roof. It also improves the
appearance of the building.
13. Gable windows: The window provided at the gable end of a pitched roof is termed as gable
window.
14. Lantern windows: These windows are provided over the flat roofs to ensure more light and
air to the inner of a building. These windows project above the roof level. They admit light
from vertical faces or inclined faces. They have many shapes in plan.
15. Skylights: A skylight is provided on the sloping side of a pitched roof. The window projects
above the top sloping surface. The window being parallel to the sloping surface. The skylight
is provided to admit natural light to the room below of it. The opening for skylight is made
by cutting the common rafters suitably. The framework of skylight supporting the glass
panels consists of trimming pieces, curb frame, bottom rail and top rail. The opening so made
is properly treated by lead flushing to make the roof surrounding of openings waterproof.
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Clere-storey Window

Corner Window

Dormer and Gable Window

Ventilators: These are openings in the walls near the roof for the purpose of light and exit of
foul gases. The shutter of the ventilator is horizontally pivoted and can be opened or closed by
use of two cards, one attached to its top rail and other to the bottom rail. The top edge of the
shutter opens inside and the bottom edge opens outside so as to prevent the entry of rainwater in
the room.

Door with ventilator

Window with ventilator

Window with ventilator

Fixtures and Fastenings

The fixtures and fastenings of doors and windows can be if iron, brass or aluminum. They are
made in different shapes and sizes to suit the requirements of different sizes and types of doors
and windows. The following types of fixtures and fastenings are required for doors, windows and
ventilators:
1. Hinges.
2. Handles.
3. Bolts.
4. Locks.
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Various Fixtures and Fastenings

Stairs
A structure placed between two floors that have a series of steps that allows you to move up or
down freely to different level. Stairs give access from floor to floor. The space/room housing
stairs is called staircase. Stairs consists of a number of steps arranged in a single flight or more
number of flights.
Technical terms
The definitions of some technical terms, which are used in connection with design of stairs, are
given.
Step: It is a portion of a stair which permits ascent and descent. It is comprised of tread and
riser.
Tread: It is the upper horizontal projection of a step in a stair case is called tread. It is also
known as going.
Riser: Vertical portion of a step providing a support to the tread.
Rise: Vertical distance between two consecutive treads.
String: The support to the side of the stair that holds the treads and risers in place.
Waist: The thickness of the structural slab in case of an RCC stair is known as a waist.
Soffit: The bottom surface of a stair slab.
Flight: A series of steps without any platform, break or landing in their direction.

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Landing: It is a horizontal slab provided between two flights. It allows the climber to rest
before climbing again in the same direction or provides a safe place to turn and continue
climbing the stair.
Nosing: The front edge of the tread usually rounded as a safety measure and now often in a
different finish or material so we can define the front edge of the treads making it easier to
see them, climb the stair and they often have a nonslip nosing to reduce accidents.
Baluster: The vertical member of wood or metal supporting the handrail.
Handrail: A continuous rail on top of the balustrade to aid the stair user in climbing and
descending the stair.
Balustrade or barrister: The combined framework of handrail and balusters.
Newel Post: This is the vertical member which is placed at the ends of flights to connect
handrail.
Winders: These are tapering steps which are provided for changing the direction of a stair.
Scotia: It is a moulding provided under the nosing to improve the elevation of the step.
Headroom: It is the minimum clear vertical distance between the tread and ceiling.
Line of nosing: It is an imaginary line touching of each tread and is parallel to the slope of
the stair.
Pitch or slope: It is the angle which the line of nosing of the stair makes with the
horizontal.
Strings or stringers: These are the sloping members which support the steps in a stair.
They run along the slope of the stair.

Location of stairs
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The stairs should be located so as to provide easy access to the occupants of the building. The
stairs should well-lighted and well-ventilated and must have convenient and spacious
approaches. In case of public buildings, the stair should be located near the main entrance and in
case of residential buildings, the stair should be centrally located so as to have access from all the
rooms without disturbing the privacy of rooms. In case of big buildings, there may be more than
one stair.
Requirements of good stairs
a) Width: The width of stair should be sufficient for two persons to pass on it
simultaneously and for furniture, etc. to be carried up and down the stair. The minimum
width of a stair is taken as about 800 mm. If the width of stair exceeds 1.80 m, it is
desirable to provide a central handrail. Minimum width is 0.9 m in residential buildings
and 1.5 m to 2.5 m in public buildings.
b) Number of Steps in a Flight: Maximum number of steps in a flight should be limited to
12 to 14, while minimum is 3. Suitable landings should be provided to give comfort and
safety to the users of the stair.
c) Rise and tread: Rise and tread provided should be uniform. In residential buildings the
rise must not be more than 230 mm and going of less 230 mm while in public buildings
rise must not be more than 180 mm and a going of not less than 270 mm. The wider the
going, the less should be the riser and greater the rise, the less should be the going.
d) Handrails: Handrails should be provided at a convenient height of a normal person
which is from 800 mm to 900 mm. When a flight consists of more than three steps, a
handrail at least on one side is considered a necessity. The wide stairs should be provided
with handrails on both the sides. Very wide stairs, as required for public buildings, should
be provided with a central handrail.
e) Pitch: The inclination of a stair to the horizontal should be limited to 300 to 450.
f) Headroom: The provision of adequate headroom is a necessity in a good stair. It should
preferably not less than 2 m.
g) Materials and workmanship: The stair should be constructed of sound materials and
good workmanship so as to impart durability and strength to the stair. The stairway
provides a path by which fire can spread from one floor to another and hence the fire
protection of the staircases is extremely important. The materials used for the linings of
walls and ceiling of staircase should be non-combustible and of low flame spread.
Types of stairs
The stairs may be built with wood, concrete masonry or with cast iron. Wooden stairs are not
safe, because of the danger of fire. However, they are used in unimportant buildings to access to
small areas in the upper floors. Cast iron or steel stairs in the spiral forms were used commonly

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to reduce stair case area. In many residential buildings masonry stairs are also used. Reinforced
concrete stairs are very commonly used in all types of buildings.
Based on the shapes stairs may be classified as:
(a) Straight stairs
(b) Dog legged stairs
(c) Well or open-newel stairs
(d) Geometrical stairs
(e) Spiral stairs
(f) Turning stairs.
Straight Stairs: If the space available for stair case is narrow and long, straight stairs may be
provided. Such stairs are commonly used to give access to porch or as emergency exits to cinema
halls. In this type all steps are in one direction. They may be provided in single flight or in two
flights with landing between the two flights.

Straight stairs
Dog Legged Stairs: It consists of two straight flights with 180 turn between the two. They are
very commonly used to give access from floor to floor. Figure shows the arrangement of steps in
such stairs.
Well or Open-newel Stairs: It differs from dog legged stairs such that in this case there is 0.15
m to 1.0 m gap between the two adjacent flights. Figure shows a typical open newel stair.

Dog legged stairs

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Geometrical Stairs: This type of stair is similar to the open newel stair except that well formed
between the two adjacent flights is curved. The hand rail provided is continuous.

Geometrical stairs
Spiral or Helical Stairs: These stairs are commonly used as emergency exits. It consists of a
central post supporting a series of steps arranged in the form of a spiral. At the end of steps
continuous hand rail is provided. Such stairs are provided where space available for stairs is very
much limited. Figure shows a typical spiral stair. Cast iron, steel or R.C.C. is used for building
these stairs.
Turning Stairs: Apart from dog legged and open newel type turns, stairs may turn in various
forms. They depend upon the available space for stairs. Quarter turned, half turned with few
steps in between and bifurcated stairs are some of such turned stairs. Figure shows a bifurcated
stair.

Spiral stairs

Bifurcated stairs

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Fixing of rise and tread
The height of the floor is generally known. The procedure for determining the number of treads
and risers is as follows:
a. The position of first and last risers is determined with regard to the positions of doors,
windows, verandahs etc.
b. A convenient height for the riser is assumed.
c. Number of risers = total height of floor / height of riser.
d. Number of treads in a flight = number of treads 1.
This is due to the fact that the surface of the upper floor forms the tread for the top step.
Example: Let us suppose assume that the height of floor is 3.5 m. Assuming a riser of 140 mm,
No. of risers = 3.5 / 0.14 = 25
No. of treads for stair with single flight = (25 1) = 24
No. of treads for stair with double flight = (25 2) = 23
Depending upon the space available for staircase, the type of stair is selected.

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