2015-16

NUCLEAR BATTERY

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

A SUBJECT SEMINAR REPORT ON

NUCLEAR BATTERIES

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of A

Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
In
Electrical and Electronic
Submitted by
NITISH SINHA
USN- 1BI12EE034
Under the guidance of
Prof. H.B.NAGESH
Associate Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERIN

BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BANGALORE-560004
2015-2016
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NUCLEAR BATTERY

BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

K.R. ROAD, BANGALORE-560004

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the subject seminar report entitled NUCLEAR BATTERY is a work
done by NITISH SINHA bearing USN 1BI12EE034 during the year 2015-16 in partial

fulfilment for the award of degree of BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS of the VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL

UNIVERSITY, BELAGAVI. This report has been approved as it satisfies the academic
requirement prescribed for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering.

Name of the student

: NITISH SINHA

University Seat Number : 1BI12EE034

Prof H.B.NAGESH
Associate Professor
Dept. of EEE, BIT

BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Dr. P.Pramila
Professor and H.O.D
Dept. of EEE, BIT

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NUCLEAR BATTERY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I owe my sincerest gratitude Prof H.B.NAGESH Associate Professor,

Department of Electrical and electronics Engineering, Bangalore Institute of

Technology, for his invaluable guidance and assistance, without which my

subject seminar would not be completed.

I would like to thank Dr. P.Pramila, Professor and Head of Department,

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,Bangalore Institute of
Technology ,for facilitating the subject seminar process.

I am also indebted to Prof J.Ashwathanarayanappa, Associate Professor,

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Bangalore Institute of

Technology, Prof. M. R. Prapulla ,Associate Professor, Department of

Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Bangalore Institute of Technology

and Dr. Swarnalatha Srinivas, Associate Professor, Department of Electrical

and Electronics Engineering, Bangalore Institute of Technology, for their
patient listening and assistance during the deliverance of my seminar.

NITISH SINHA
USN- 1BI12EE034

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ABSTRACT

Nuclear batteries harvest energy from radioactive specks and supply power to micro
electromechanical systems (MEMS). This paper describes the viability of nuclear batteries
for powering realistic MEMS devices. Nuclear batteries are not nuclear reactors in
miniatures, but the energy comes from high-energy particles spontaneously emitted by
radioactive elements. Isotopes currently being used include alpha and low energy beta
emitters. Gama emitters have not been considered because they would require a substantial
amount of shielding. The sources are available in both solid and liquid form. Nuclear
batteries use the incredible amount of energy released naturally by tiny bits of radioactive
material without any fission or fusion taking place inside the battery. These devices use thin
radioactive films that pack in energy at densities thousands of times greater than those of
lithium-ion batteries. Because of the high energy density nuclear batteries are extremely
small in size. Considering the small size and shape of the battery the scientists who developed
that battery fancifully call it as "DAINTIEST DYNAMO". The word 'dainty' means pretty.

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Chapter 1.

INDEX

Page no

Nuclear Battery 6
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Historical Development
1.3 Types of Radio Isotopes

Chapter 2

Energy Production Mechanism. 12

2.1 Betavoltaics
2.2 Direct Charging Generators
2.3 Optoelectrics

Chapter 3 19

Fuel Considerations 18

Chapter 4

Nuclear Battery in our life.. 20

4.1 Advantage
4.2 Disadvantage
4.3 Application

Chapter 5

Conclusion 25
References

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Chapter 1

Nuclear Battery
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The terms atomic battery, nuclear battery and tritium battery are used to describe a
device which uses energy from the decay of a radioactive isotope to generate
electricity. Like nuclear reactors they generate electricity from atomic energy, but
differ in that they do not use a chain reaction. Compared to other batteries they are
very costly, but have extremely long life and high energy density, and so they are
mainly used as power sources for equipment that must operate unattended for long
periods of time, such as spacecraft, pacemakers, underwater systems and automated
scientific stations in remote parts of the world.

Today we have small, compact, reliable, lightweight and self-contained rugged power
supplies to provide electrical power in such applications as electric automobiles,
homes, industrial, agricultural, recreational, remote monitoring systems, spacecraft
and deep-sea probes. Radar, advanced communication satellites and especially high
technology weapon platforms will require much larger power source than todays
power systems can deliver. For the very high power applications, nuclear reactors
appear to be the answer. However, for intermediate power range, 10 to 100 kilowatts
(kW), the nuclear reactor presents formidable technical problems.

Because of the short and unpredictable lifespan of chemical batteries, however,

regular replacements would be required to keep these devices humming. Also, enough
chemical fuel to provide 100 kW for any significant period of time would be too
heavy and bulky for practical use. Fuel cells and solar cells require little maintenance,
and the latter need plenty of sun.
Thus the demand to exploit the radioactive energy has become inevitably high.
Several methods have been developed for conversion of radioactive energy released
during the decay of natural radioactive elements into electrical energy. A grapefruitsized radioisotope thermo-electric generator that utilized heat produced from alpha
particles emitted as plutonium-238 decay was developed during the early 1950s.

Since then the nuclear has taken a significant consideration in the energy source of
future. Also, with the advancement of the technology the requirement for the lasting
energy sources has been increased to a great extent. The solution to the long term
energy source is, of course, the nuclear batteries with a life span measured in decades
and has the potential to be nearly 200 times more efficient than the currently used
ordinary batteries. These incredibly long-lasting batteries are still in the theoretical
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and developmental stage of existence, but they promise to provide clean, safe, almost
endless energy.

Unlike conventional nuclear power generating devices, these power cells do not rely
on a nuclear reaction or chemical process do not produce radioactive waste products.
The nuclear battery technology is geared towards applications where power is needed
in inaccessible places or under extreme conditions.
Long-lived power supplies for remote and even hostile environmental conditions are
needed for space and sea missions. Nuclear batteries can uniquely serve this role. In
spite of relatively low power, the nuclear battery with packaging can have an energy
density near a thousand watt-hours per kilogram, which is much greater than the best
chemical battery. Moreover, radioactive isotopes are available on the market for
reasonable prices and low power electronics are becoming increasingly more versatile.
Therefore, nuclear batteries are commercially relevant today.
The researchers envision its uses in pacemakers and other medical devices that would
otherwise require surgery to repair or replace. Additionally, deep-space probes and
deep-sea sensors, which are beyond the reach of repair, would benefit from such
technology. In the near future this technology is said to make its way into commonly
used day to day products like mobile and laptops and even the smallest of the devices
used at home. Surely these are the batteries of the near future.

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1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

A radioisotope electric power system developed by inventor Paul Brown is a scientific
breakthrough in nuclear power. The battery utilizes the energy given off by decaying
Radioactive material, converting it directly into a continuous AC electrical current.
Unlike conventional nuclear generating devices, the power cell does not rely on a
nuclear reaction or chemical process and does not produce radioactive waste products.

Dr. Paul M. Brown

(Died April 7, 2001)

Brown's first prototype power cell produced 100,000 times as much energy per gram
of strontium-90 (the energy source) than the most powerful thermal nuclear battery yet
in existence. The Nuclear battery yielded 7500 watts per gram of strontium90.
Compare this to an advanced device recently developed by the US Dept. of Energy
Byproducts Utilization Program. Their state oft heart thermal nuclear battery produced
0.063 watts per gram of strontium-90.
The key to the nuclear battery is Brown's discovery of a method to harness the
magnetic energy given off by the alpha and beta particles inherent in nuclear material.
Alpha and beta particles are produced by the radioactive decay of certain naturally
occurring and manmade nuclear material (radionuclides).
The electric charges of the alpha and beta particles have been captured and converted
to electricity for existing nuclear batteries, but the amount of power generated from
such batteries has been very small. Alpha and beta particles also possess kinetic
energy by successive collisions of the particles with air molecules or other molecules.
The bulk of the R&D of nuclear batteries in the past has been concerned with this heat
energy which is readily observable and measurable.

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The magnetic energy given off by alpha and beta particles is several orders of
magnitude greater than either the kinetic energy or the direct electric energy produced
by these same particles. However, the myriads of tiny magnetic fields existing at any
tie cannot be individually recognized or measured. This energy is not captured locally
in nature to produce heat or mechanical effects, but instead the energy escapes
undetected. Brown has invented a way to "organize" these magnetic fields so the great
amounts of otherwise unobservable energy could be harnessed.
The weight of the strontium-90 used to generate 75 watts of power in the nuclear
prototype is approximately the same as the weight of 2 millimeters of wire cut off the
end of a small paper clip. Projected sizes of the nuclear battery will range from the
size of a soup can to the size of a small barrel or waste can for a 50 kilowatt model.
The alpha and beta particles utilized in the nuclear battery have a limited ability to
penetrate matter Alpha particles can be contained by a piece of paper Beta particles
require 0.03" of aluminum. The Nuclear battery is housed in a stainless steel, high
vacuum container, making it a safe, impermeable source of power.
The main drawback of Mr. Browns prototype was its low efficiency, and the reason
for that was when the radioactive material decays, many of the electrons lost from the
semiconductor material. With the enhancement of more regular pitting and the
introduction of better fuels the nuclear batteries are thought to be the next generation
batteries and there is hardly any doubt that these batteries will be available in stores
within another decade.

1.3 TYPES OF RADIO ISOTOPES

Atomic batteries use radioisotopes that produce low energy beta particles or
sometimes alpha particles of varying energies.
Promethium-147 and technetium-99 radiation that would require heavy shielding.

Promethium, originally promethium, is a chemical element with the symbol Pm

and atomic number 61. All of its isotopes are radioactive it is one of only two such
elements that are followed in the periodic table by elements with stable forms, a
distinction shared with technetium. Chemically, promethium is a lanthanide, which
forms salts when combined with other elements. Promethium shows only one stable
oxidation state of +3 however, a few +2 compounds may exist.
Promethium is the only lanthanide and one of only two elements among the first 83
that has no stable (or even long-lived) isotopes. This is a result of a rarely occurring
effect of the liquid drop model and stabilities of neighbour element isotopes it is also
the least stable element of the first 84. The primary decay products are neodymium
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and samarium isotopes (promethium-146 decays to both, the lighter isotopes generally
to neodymium via positron decay and electron capture, and the heavier isotopes to
samarium via beta decay).
Technetium is a chemical element with symbol Tc and atomic number 43. It is the
element with the lowest atomic number in the periodic table that has no stable
isotopes every form of it is radioactive. Nearly all technetium is produced
synthetically, and only minute amounts are found in nature. Naturally occurring
technetium occurs as a spontaneous fission product in uranium ore or by neutron
capture in molybdenum ores. The chemical properties of this silvery grey, crystalline
transition metal are intermediate between rhenium and manganese
Technetium, with atomic number (denoted Z) 43, is the lowest-numbered element in
the periodic table that is exclusively radioactive. The second-lightest, exclusively
radioactive element, promethium, has an atomic number of 61
Radioisotopes such as tritium, plutonium-238 and strontium-90, have been tested and
have been used.
Tritium (symbol T or 3H, also known as hydrogen-3) is a radioactive isotope of
hydrogen. The nucleus of tritium (sometimes called a triton) contains one proton and
two neutrons, whereas the nucleus of protium (by far the most abundant hydrogen
isotope) contains one proton and no neutrons. Naturally occurring tritium is extremely
rare on Earth, where trace amounts are formed by the interaction of the atmosphere
with cosmic rays. The name of this isotope is formed from the Greek word
meaning
"third".
Tritium
is
produced
in nuclear
reactors by neutron
activation of lithium-6. This is possible with neutrons of any energy, and is
an exothermic reaction yielding 4.8 MeV. In comparison, the fusion of deuterium with
tritium releases about 17.6 MeV of energy.
6
4
3
+ n
( 2.05 MeV ) +
( 2.75 MeV )
3Li
2He
1T

Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen, which allows it to readily bind to hydroxyl radicals,

forming titrated water (HTO), and to carbon atoms. Since tritium is a low energy beta
emitter, it is not dangerous externally (its beta particles are unable to penetrate the
skin), but it is a radiation hazard when inhaled, ingested via food or water, or absorbed
through the skin.
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Plutonium-238 (also known as Pu-238 or 238Pu) is a radioactive isotope of plutonium

that has a half-life of 87.7 years.
Plutonium-238 is a very powerful alpha emitter and unlike the other isotopes of
plutonium it does not emit significant amounts of other, more penetrating and thus
more problematic radiation. This makes the plutonium-238 isotope suitable for usage
in radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) and radioisotope heater units one
gram of plutonium-238 generates approximately 0.5 watts of thermal power.
The main application of Pu-238 is as the heat source in radioisotope thermoelectric
generators (RTGs).

RTG technology was first developed by Los Alamos National Laboratory during the
1960s and 1970s to provide radioisotope thermoelectric generator power for cardiac
pacemakers. Of the 250 plutonium-powered pacemakers Medtronic manufactured,
twenty-two were still in service more than twenty-five years later, a feat that no
battery-powered pacemaker could achieve.

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CHAPTER 2

ENERGY PRODUCTION MECHANISM

2.1 BETAVOLTAICS

Betavoltaics were invented over 50 years ago. Early pacemakers used betavoltaics
based on promethium, but were phased out as cheaper lithium-ion batteries were
developed.

Betavoltaics is an alternative energy technology that promises vastly extended battery

life and power density over current technologies.
Betavoltaics are generators of electrical current, in effect a form of a battery, which
use energy from a radioactive source emitting beta particles (electrons). The
functioning of a betavoltaics device is somewhat similar to a solar panel, which
converts photons (light) into electric current. Beta voltaic technique uses a silicon
wafer to capture electrons emitted by a radioactive gas, such as tritium. It is similar to
the mechanics of converting sunlight into electricity in a solar panel. The flat silicon
wafer is coated with a diode material to create a potential barrier. The radiation
absorbed in the vicinity of and potential barrier like a p-n junction or a metalsemiconductor contact would generate separate electron-hole pairs which in turn flow
in an electric circuit due to the voltaic effect. Of course, this occurs to a varying
degree in different materials and geometries.
A pictorial representation of a basic Betavoltaic conversion as shown in figure
1.Electrode A (P-region) has a positive potential while electrode B (N-region) is
negative with the potential difference provided by me conventional means.

Fig 1. BETAVOLTAICS CELL

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The junction between the two electrodes is comprised of a suitably ionisable medium
exposed to decay particles emitted from a radioactive source.
The energy conversion mechanism for this arrangement involves energy flow in
different stages:

Fig 2. Energy conversion mechanism

Stage 1:- Before the radioactive source is introduced, a difference in potential
between to electrodes is provided by a conventional means. An electric load RL is
connected across the electrodes A and B. Although a potential difference exists, no
current flows through the load RL because the electrical forces are in equilibrium and
no energy comes out of the system. We shall call this ground state E0.
Stage 2:- Next, we introduce the radioactive source, say a beta emitter, to the system.
Now, the energy of the beta particle Eb generates electron- hole pair in the junction by
imparting kinetic energy which knocks electrons out of the neutral atoms. This
amount of energy E1, is known as the ionization potential of the junction.

Stage 3:- Further the beta particle imparts an amount of energy in excess of ionization
potential. This additional energy raises the electron energy to an elevated level E2. Of
course the beta particle dose not impart its energy to a single ion pair, but a single beta
particle will generate as many as thousands of electron- hole pairs. The total number
of ions per unit volume of the junction is dependent upon the junction material.
Stage 4:- next, the electric field present in the junction acts on the ions and drives the
electrons into electrode A. the electrons collected in electrode A together with the
electron deficiency of electrode B establishes Fermi voltage between the electrodes.
Naturally, the electrons in electrode A seek to give up their energy and go back to
their ground state (law of entropy).
Stage 5:- the Fermi voltage derives electrons from the electrode A through the load
where they give up their energy in accordance with conventional electrical theory. A
voltage drop occurs across the load as the electrons give an amount of energy E3. Then
the amount of energy available to be removed from the system is
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E3= Eb - E1 L1-L2

Where L1 is the converter loss and L2 is the loss in the electrical circuit.

Stage 6:- the electrons, after passing to the load have an amount of energy E4.from
the load, the electrons are then driven into the electrode B where it is allowed to
recombine with a junction ion, releasing the recombination energy E4 in the form of
heat this completes the circuit and the electron has returned to its original ground
state.

The end result is that the radioactive source acts as a constant current generator. Then
the energy balance equation can be written as
E0=Eb E1 E3-L1-L2

Until now betavoltaics has been unable to match solar-cell efficiency. The
reason is simple: when the gas decays, its electrons shoot out in all directions. Many
of them are lost. A new Betavoltaic device using porous silicone diodes was proposed
to increase their efficiency. The flat silicon surface, where the electrons are captured
and converted to a current, and turned into a 3- dimensional surface by adding deep
pits. Each pit is about 1 micron wide. That is four hundred-thousandths of an inch.
They are more than 40 microns deep. When the radioactive gas occupies these pits, it
creates the maximum opportunity for harnessing the reaction.

2.2 DIRECT CHARGING GENERATORS

In this type, the primary generator consists of a high Q LC tank circuit. The energy
imparted to radioactive decay products during the spontaneous disintegrations of radioactive
material is utilized to sustain and amplify the oscillations in the high-Q LC tank circuit the
circuit inductance comprises a coil wound on a core composed of radioactive nuclides
connected in series with the primary winding of a power transformer. The core is fabricated
from a mixture of three radioactive materials which decay primarily by alpha emission and
provides a greater flux of radioactive decay products than the equivalent amount of single
radioactive nuclei.

Fig 3. a schematic diagram of an LC equivalent resonant circuit

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Equitant circuit of the direct charging generator as shown in the figure 3.An LCR
circuit 1 is comprised of a capacitor 3, inductor file, transformer T primary winding 9
and resistance 11 connected in series. It is assumed that the electrical conductors
connecting the various circuit elements and forming the inductor file and primary
winding 9 are perfect conductors i.e., no DC resistance. Resistor 11 is a lump
resistance equivalent to total DC resistance of the actual circuit components and
conductors. The inductor 5 is wound on a core 7 which is composed of a mixture of
radioactive elements decaying primarily by alpha particle emission.

When the current flows in electrical circuit, energy is dissipated or lost in the form
of heat. Thus, when oscillations are induced in an LCR circuit, the oscillations will
gradually damp out due to the loss of energy in the circuit unless energy is
continuously added to the circuit to sustain the oscillations. In the LCR circuit shown
in figure 3, a portion of the energy imparted to the decay products such as alpha
particles. During the radioactive decay of the materials inductor core 7 is introduced
into the circuit 1, when the decay products are absorbed by the conductor which forms
inductor 5. Once oscillations have been induced in the LCR circuit 1, the energy
absorbed by the inductor 5 form the radioactive decay of the core7 material will
sustain the oscillations as long as the amount of energy absorbed is equal to the
amount of energy dissipated in the ohmic resistance of the circuit 1.If the absorbed
energy is greater than the amount of energy lost through ohmic heating, the
oscillations will be amplified. This excess energy can be delivered to a load 17
connected across the transformer T secondary winding 13.

The process involved in the conversion of the energy released by the

spontaneous disintegration of a radioactive material into electrical energy are
numerous and complex. Materials that are naturally radioactive, decay by the emission
of either an alpha particle or a beta particle and gamma rays may accompany either
process. Radioactive materials that decay primarily by alpha particle emission are
preferred as inductor core 7 materials. Alpha particles are emitted a very high speeds,
in the order of 1.6*107 meters per second (m/s) and consequently have very high
kinetic energy. Alpha particles emitted in radium, for example, decays are found to
consist of two groups, those with a kinetic energy of 48.79*10 5 electron volts (eV) and
those having energy of 46.95*105 electron volts. This kinetic energy must be
dissipated when the alpha particles are absorbed by the conductor forming inductor 5.
During the absorption process, each alpha particle will collide with one or more atoms
in the conductor knocking electron from their orbits and imparting some kinetic
energy to the electrons. This results in increase number of conduction electrons in the
conductor there by increasing its conductivity.
Since the alpha particle is a positively charged ion, while the alpha particle is
moving it will have an associated magnetic field. When the alpha particle is stopped
by the conductor, the magnetic field will collapse thereby inducing a pulse of current
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in the conductor producing a net increase in the current flowing in the circuit 1. Also,
there will be additional electrons stripped from orbit due to ionization reduced by the
positively charged alpha particles.

Fig 4. The wiring diagram of a constructed nuclear battery

Referring to figure 4, the nuclear battery is constructed in a cylindrical configuration.

Inductor 5 is constructed of copper wire wound in a single layer around the
radioactive core 7. Decay products, such as alpha particles, are emitted radially
outward from the core 7 as indicated by arrows 2 to be absorbed by the copper
conductor forming inductor 5. Eight transformers are arranged in a circular pattern to
form a cylinder concentric with and surrounding inductor 5. The transformers have
primary windings 9a-9h connected in series which are then connected in series with
inductor 5 and capacitor 3 to form an LCR circuit. The central core 7, inductor5 and
the eight transformers 15 are positioned within a cylindrical shaped container 19.
Copper wire is wound in a single layer on the outside wall and the inside wall of
cylinder 19 to form windings 23 and21 respectively. The transformers 15, secondary
windings 13a-13h and windings 21 and 23 are connected in series to output terminals
25 and 27. The configuration of inductor 5 is designed to ensure maximum eradication
of the copper conductor by the radioactive core source 7. The cylindrical
configuration of the power transformer ensures maximum transformer efficiency with
minimum magnetic flux leakages.

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2.3 OPTOELECTRICS
An optoelectric nuclear battery has been proposed by researchers of the kurchatov institute in
Moscow. A beta emitter such as technetium-99 are strontium-90 is suspended in a gas or

liquid containing luminescent gas molecules of the exciter type, constituting dust plasma.

This permits a nearly lossless emission of beta electrons from the emitting dust particles for
excitation of the gases whose exciter line is selected for the conversion of the radioactivity
into a surrounding photovoltaic layer such that a comparably light weight low pressure, high

efficiency battery can be realized. These nuclides are low cost radioactive of nuclear power

reactors. The diameter of the dust particles is so small (few micrometers) that the electrons
from the beta decay leave the dust particles nearly without loss. The surrounding weakly

ionized plasma consists of gases or gas mixtures (e.g. krypton, argon, xenon) with exciter

lines, such that a considerable amount of the energy of the beta electrons is converted into
this light the surrounding walls contain photovoltaic layers with wide forbidden zones as egg.
Diamond which converts the optical energy generated from the radiation into electric energy.

The battery would consist of an exciter of argon, xenon, or krypton (or a mixture of

two or three of them) in a pressure vessel with an internal mirrored surface, finely-ground

radioisotope and an intermittent ultrasonic stirrer, illuminating photocell with a band gap
tuned for the exciter. When the electrons of the beta active nuclides (e.g. krypton-85 or
argon-39) are excited, in the narrow exciter band at a minimum thermal losses, the radiations
so obtained is converted into electricity in a high band gap photovoltaic layer (e.g. in a p-n

diode) very efficiently the electric power per weight compared with existing radionuclide

batteries can then be increased by a factor 10 to 50 and more. If the pressure-vessel is carbon

fiber / epoxy the weight to power ratio is said to be comparable to an air breathing engine
with fuel tanks. The advantage of this design is that precision electrode assemblies are not
needed and most beta particles escape the finely-divided bulk material to contribute to the
batteries net power. The disadvantage consists in the high price of the radionuclide and in the

high pressure of up to 10MPa (100bar) and more for the gas that requires an expensive and
heavy container.

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CHAPTER 3

FUEL CONSIDERATIONS
The major criterions considered in the selection of fuels are:

Avoidance of gamma in the decay chain

Particle range

Half life

Watch out for (alpha, n)reactions

Any radioisotope in the form of a solid that gives off alpha or beta particles can be
utilized in the nuclear battery. The first cell constructed (that melted the wire
components) employed the most powerful source known, radium-226, as the energy
source. However, radium-226 gives rise through decay to the daughter product
bismuth-214, which gives off strong gamma radiation that requires shielding for
safety. This adds a weight penalty in mobile applications.
Radium-226 is a naturally occurring isotope which is formed very slowly by the
decay of uranium-238. Radium-226 in equilibrium is present at about 1 gram per 3
million grams of uranium in the earths crust. Uranium mill wastes are readily
available source of radium-226 in very abundant quantities. Uranium mill wastes
contain far more energy in the radium-226 than is represented by the fission energy
derived from the produced uranium.
Strontium-90 gives off no gamma radiation so it does not necessitate the use of
thick lead shielding for safety.strrrontium-90 does not exist in nature, but it is one of
the several radioactive waste products resulting from nuclear fission. The utilizable
energy from strontium-90 substantially exceeds the energy derived from the nuclear
fission which gave rise to this isotope.
Once the present stores of nuclear wastes have been mined, the future supplies of
strontium-90 will depend on the amount of nuclear electricity generated hence
strontium-90 decay may ultimately become a premium fuel for such special uses as
for perpetually powered wheel chairs and portable computers. Plutonium-238 dioxide
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is used for space application. Half-life of tantalum-180m is about 1015 years. In its
ground state, tantalum-180 (180Ta) is very unstable and decays to other nuclei in
about 8 hours but its isomeric state, 180m Ta, is found in natural samples. Tantalum
180m hence can be used for switchable nuclear batteries.

Fig 5. Average life span of different batteries

As shown in the above graph the life span of different energy storage device is shown,
where the capacitor is having the least range of 36ms to 0.36s. Similarly the chemical
and the fuel cell have a life span of 1 hour to 10 hour and 10 hour to 100 hour
respectively. When compared between different nuclear batteries their life span is
ranging from 420 days to 115 years. The range of life span varies for different type of
isotope used as fuel.

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CHAPTER 4

NUCLEAR BATTERY IN OUR LIFE

4.1 ADVANTAGES

The most important feat of nuclear cells is the life span they offer, a minimum of
10years! This is whopping when considered that it provides nonstop electric energy
for the seconds spanning these 10long years, which may simply mean that we keep
our laptop or any hand held devices switched-on for 10 years nonstop. Contrary to
fears associated with conventional batteries nuclear cells offers reliable electricity,
without any drop in the yield or potential during its entire operational period. Thus the
longevity and reliability coupled together would suffice the small factored energy
needs for at least a couple of decades.
The largest concern of nuclear batteries comes from the fact that it involves the
use of radioactive materials. This means throughout the process of making a nuclear
battery to final disposal, all radiation protection standards must be met. Balancing the
safety measures such as shielding and regulation while still keeping the size and
power advantages will determine the economic feasibility of nuclear batteries. Safeties
with respect to the containers are also adequately taken care as the battery cases are
hermetically sealed. Thus the risk of safety hazards involving radioactive material
stands reduced
As the energy associated with fissile material is several times higher than
conventional sources, the cells are comparatively much lighter and thus facilitates
high energy densities to be achieved. Similarly, the efficiency of such cells is much
higher simply because radioactive materials in little waste generation. Thus
substituting the future energy needs with nuclear cells and replacing the already
existing ones with these, the world can be seen transformed by reducing the green
house effects and associated risks. This should come as a handy saviour for almost all
developed and developing nations. Moreover the nuclear produced therein are
substances that dont occur naturally. For example strontium does not exist in nature
but it is one of the several radioactive waste products resulting from nuclear fission.
One of the most advantage thing about nuclear batteries are they are Reliable
electricity with the amount of waste being really less. It doesnt releases any harmful
greenhouse gases so in a way reduces green house and associated effects which is a
big threat for the coming future.

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4.2 DISADVANTAGES
First and foremost, as is the case with most breath-taking technologies, the high
initial cost of production involved is a drawback but as the product goes operational
and gets into bulk production, the price is sure to drop. The size of nuclear batteries
for certain specific applications may cause problems, but can be done away with as
time goes by. For example, size of Xcell used for laptop battery is much more than the
conventional battery used in the laptops.
Though radioactive materials sport high efficiency, the conversion
methodologies used presently are not much of any wonder and at the best matches
conventional energy sources. However, laboratory results have yielded much higher
efficiencies, but are yet to be released into the alpha stage.

A minor blow may come in the way of existing regional and country specific
laws regarding the use and disposal of radioactive materials. As these are not unique
worldwide and are subject to political horrors and ideology prevalent in the country.
The introduction legally requires these to be scrapped or amended. It can be however
be hoped that, given the revolutionary importance of this substance, things would
come in favour gradually.
Above all, to gain social acceptance, a new technology must be beneficial and
demonstrate enough trouble free operation that people begin to see it as a normal
phenomenon. Nuclear energy began to lose this status following a series of major
accidents in its formative years. Acceptance accorded to nuclear power should be
trust-based rather than technology based. In other words acceptance might be related
to public trust of the organizations and individuals utilizing the technology as opposed
to based on understanding of the available evidence regarding the technology.

4.3 APPLICATIONS
Nuclear batteries find many fold applications due to its long life time and
improved reliability. In the ensuing era, the replacing of conventional chemical
batteries will be of enormous advantages. This innovative technology will surely bring
break-through in the current technology which was muddled up in the power
limitations.

Space applications

In space applications, nuclear power units offer advantages over solar cells,
fuel cells and ordinary batteries because of the following circumstances: When the
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satellite orbits pass through radiation belts such as the van-Allen belts around the
Earth that could destroy the solar cells Operations on the Moon or Mars where long
periods of darkness require heavy batteries to supply power when solar cells would
not have access to sunlight Space missions in the opaque atmospheres such as Jupiter,
where solar cells would be useless because of lack of light. At a distance far from the
sun for long duration missions where fuel cells, batteries and solar arrays would be too
large and heavy. Heating the electronics and storage batteries in the deep cold of space
at minus 245 F is a necessity. So in the future it is ensured that these nuclear batteries
will replace all the existing power supplies due to its incredible advantages over the
other. The applications which require a high power, a high life time, a compact design
over the density, an atmospheric conditions-independent it is quite a sure shot that
future will be of Nuclear Batteries. NASA is on the hot pursuit of harnessing this
technology in space applications.

Medical Applications

The medical field finds a lot of applications with the nuclear battery due to their
increased longevity and better reliability. It would be suited for medical devices like
pacemakers, implanted deep fibrillates or other implanted devices that would
otherwise require surgery to replace or repair the best out of the box is use in cardiac
pacemakers. Batteries used in implantable cardiac pace makers-present unique
challenges to their developers and manufacturers in terms of high levels of safety and
reliability and it often poses threat to the end-customer. In addition, the batteries must
have longevity to avoid frequent replacement. The technological advances in
leads/electrodes have reduced energy requirements by two orders of magnitude.
Microelectronics advances sharply reduce internal current drain, concurrently
decreasing size and increasing functionality, reliability and longevity. It is reported
that about 600,000 pacemakers are implanted each year worldwide and the total
number of people with various types of implanted pacemaker has already crossed
3,000,000. A cardiac pacemaker uses half of its battery power for cardiac stimulation
and the other half for housekeeping tasks such as monitoring and data logging. The
first implanted cardiac pacemaker used nickel-cadmium rechargeable battery, later on
zinc-mercury battery was developed and used which lasted for over two years.
Lithium iodide battery, developed in 1972 made the real impact to implantable cardiac
pacemakers and is on the way. But it draws the serious threat lasts for about ten years
and this is a serious problem. The life time solution is nuclear battery.
Nuclear batteries are the best reliable and it lasts lifetime. The definitions for
some of the important parts of the battery and its performances are parameters like
voltage, duty cycle, temperature, shelf life, service life, safety and reliability, internal
resistance, specific energy (watt-hour/ kg), specific power (watts/kg), and in all that
means nuclear batteries stands out. The technical advantages of nuclear batteries are in
terms of its longevity, adaptable shapes and sizes, corrosion resistance, minimum
weight, excellent current drain that suits to cardiac pacemakers.
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Mobile devices

Xcell-N is a nuclear powered laptop battery that can provide between seven
and eight thousand times the life of a normal laptop battery-that is more than five
years worth of continuous power.
Nuclear batteries are about forgetting things around the usual charging,
battery replacing and such bottlenecks. Since chemical batteries are just near the end
of their life, we cant expect much more from them, in its lowest accounts, a nuclear
battery can endure at least up to five years. The Xcell-N is in continuous working for
the last eight months and has not been turned off and has never been plugged into
electrical power since. Nuclear batteries are going to replace the conventional batteries
and adaptors, so the future will be of exciting innovative new approach to powering
portable devices.

Automobiles

Although it is on the initial stages of development, it is highly promised that

the nuclear batteries will find a sure niche in the automobiles replacing the weary
conventional iconic fuels there will be no case such as running out of fuel and running
short of time. Fox valley auto association, USA already conducted many seminars
on the scopes and they are on the way of implementing this. Although the risks
associated the usage of nuclear battery, even concerned with legal restrictions are of
many, but its advantages over the usual gasoline fuels are overcoming all the
obstacles.

Military applications

The army is undertaking a transformation into a more responsive, deployable,

and sustainable force, while maintaining high levels of lethality, survivability and
versatility.
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In unveiling this strategy, the final resource that fit quite beneficial is nuclear
battery.

TRACE photonics, U.S. Army Armaments Research, Development and Engineering

Centre has harnessed radioisotope power sources to provide very high energy density
battery power to the men in action. Nuclear batteries are much lighter than chemical
batteries and will last years, even decades. No power cords or transformers will be
needed for the next generation of microelectronics in which voltage-matched supplies
are built into components. Safe, long-life, reliable and stable temperature is available
from the direct conversion of radioactive decay energy to electricity. This distributed
energy source is well suited to active radio frequency equipment tags, sensors and
ultra wide-band communication chips used on the modern battlefield.

Underwater sea probes and sea sensors

The recent flare up of Tsunami, Earthquakes and other underwater destructive

phenomenon has increased the demand for sensors that keeps working for a long time
and able to withstand any crude situations. Since these batteries are geared towards
applications where power is needed in inaccessible places or under extreme
conditions, the researchers envision its use as deep-sea probes and sensors, subsurface, coal mines and polar sensor application s, with a focus on the oil industry.

And the next step is to adapt the technology for use in very tiny batteries that
could power micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS) devices, such as those used
in the optical switches or the free floating smart-dust sensors being developed by
the military.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION
The world of tomorrow that science fiction dreams of and technology manifests
might be a very small one. It would reason that small devices would need small
batteries to power them. The use of power as heat and electricity from radioisotope
will continue to be indispensible. As the technology grows, the need for more power
and more heat will undoubtedly grow along with it.
Clearly the current research of nuclear batteries shows promise in future
applications for sure. With implementation of this new technology credibility and
feasibility of the device will be heightened. The principal concern of nuclear batteries
comes from the fact that it involves the use of radioactive materials. This means
throughout the process of making a nuclear battery to final disposal, all radiation
protection standards must be met. The economic feasibility of the nuclear batteries
will be determined by its applications and advantages. With several features being
added to this little wonder and other parallel laboratory works going on, nuclear cells
are going to be the next best thing ever invented in the human history.

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REFERENCES
1. http://spectrum.ieee.org/energy/renewables/the-daintiestdynamos
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_battery

3. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2050039,
00.html

4. http://www.seminarsonly.com/electrical%20&%20electronic
s/Nuclear%20Batteries.php

5. Brown, Paul: Resonant Nuclear Battery Supply, Raum &

Zeit, 1(3) (August-September,1989) .

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