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Randomness
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Randomnessisthelackofpatternorpredictabilityinevents.[1]A
randomsequenceofevents,symbolsorstepshasnoorderanddoes
notfollowanintelligiblepatternorcombination.Individualrandom
eventsarebydefinitionunpredictable,butinmanycasesthe
frequencyofdifferentoutcomesoveralargenumberofevents(or
"trials")ispredictable.Forexample,whenthrowingtwodice,the
outcomeofanyparticularrollisunpredictable,butasumof7will
occurtwiceasoftenas4.Inthisview,randomnessisameasureof
uncertaintyofanoutcome,ratherthanhaphazardness,andappliesto
conceptsofchance,probability,andinformationentropy.
Thefieldsofmathematics,probability,andstatisticsuseformal
definitionsofrandomness.Instatistics,arandomvariableisan
Apseudorandomlygeneratedbitmap.
assignmentofanumericalvaluetoeachpossibleoutcomeofan
eventspace.Thisassociationfacilitatestheidentificationandthe
calculationofprobabilitiesoftheevents.Randomvariablescanappearinrandomsequences.Arandom
processisasequenceofrandomvariableswhoseoutcomesdonotfollowadeterministicpattern,butfollow
anevolutiondescribedbyprobabilitydistributions.Theseandotherconstructsareextremelyusefulin
probabilitytheoryandthevariousapplicationsofrandomness.
Randomnessismostoftenusedinstatisticstosignifywelldefinedstatisticalproperties.MonteCarlo
methods,whichrelyonrandominput(suchasfromrandomnumbergeneratorsorpseudorandomnumber
generators),areimportanttechniquesinscience,as,forinstance,incomputationalscience.[2]Byanalogy,
quasiMonteCarlomethodsusequasirandomnumbergenerators.
Randomselectionisamethodofselectingitems(oftencalledunits)fromapopulationwherethe
probabilityofchoosingaspecificitemistheproportionofthoseitemsinthepopulation.Forexample,with
abowlcontainingjust10redmarblesand90bluemarbles,arandomselectionmechanismwouldchoosea
redmarblewithprobability1/10.Notethatarandomselectionmechanismthatselected10marblesfrom
thisbowlwouldnotnecessarilyresultin1redand9blue.Insituationswhereapopulationconsistsofitems
thataredistinguishable,arandomselectionmechanismrequiresequalprobabilitiesforanyitemtobe
chosen.Thatis,iftheselectionprocessissuchthateachmemberofapopulation,ofsayresearchsubjects,
hasthesameprobabilityofbeingchosenthenwecansaytheselectionprocessisrandom.

Contents
1 History
2 Inscience
2.1 Inthephysicalsciences
2.2 Inbiology
2.3 Inmathematics
2.4 Instatistics

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2.4 Instatistics
2.5 Ininformationscience
2.6 Infinance
3 Inpolitics
4 Randomnessandreligion
5 Applications
6 Generation
7 Measuresandtests
8 Misconceptionsandlogicalfallacies
8.1 Anumberis"due"
8.2 Anumberis"cursed"or"blessed"
8.3 Oddsareneverdynamic
9 Seealso
10 References
11 Furtherreading
12 Externallinks

History
Inancienthistory,theconceptsofchanceandrandomnesswere
intertwinedwiththatoffate.Manyancientpeoplesthrewdiceto
determinefate,andthislaterevolvedintogamesofchance.Most
ancientculturesusedvariousmethodsofdivinationtoattemptto
circumventrandomnessandfate.[3][4]
TheChinesewereperhapstheearliestpeopletoformalizeoddsand
chance3,000yearsago.TheGreekphilosophersdiscussed
randomnessatlength,butonlyinnonquantitativeforms.Itwas
onlyinthe16thcenturythatItalianmathematiciansbeganto
formalizetheoddsassociatedwithvariousgamesofchance.The
Ancientfrescoofdiceplayersin
inventionofthecalculushadapositiveimpactontheformalstudy
Pompei.
ofrandomness.Inthe1888editionofhisbookTheLogicofChance
JohnVennwroteachapteronTheconceptionofrandomnessthat
includedhisviewoftherandomnessofthedigitsofthenumberPibyusingthemtoconstructarandom
walkintwodimensions.[5]
Theearlypartofthe20thcenturysawarapidgrowthintheformalanalysisofrandomness,asvarious
approachestothemathematicalfoundationsofprobabilitywereintroduced.Inthemidtolate20thcentury,
ideasofalgorithmicinformationtheoryintroducednewdimensionstothefieldviatheconceptof
algorithmicrandomness.
Althoughrandomnesshadoftenbeenviewedasanobstacleandanuisanceformanycenturies,inthe20th
centurycomputerscientistsbegantorealizethatthedeliberateintroductionofrandomnessinto
computationscanbeaneffectivetoolfordesigningbetteralgorithms.Insomecasessuchrandomized
algorithmsoutperformthebestdeterministicmethods.

Inscience
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Manyscientificfieldsareconcernedwithrandomness:
Algorithmicprobability
Chaostheory
Cryptography
Gametheory
Informationtheory
Patternrecognition

Probabilitytheory
Quantummechanics
Statisticalmechanics
Statistics

Inthephysicalsciences
Inthe19thcentury,scientistsusedtheideaofrandommotionsofmoleculesinthedevelopmentof
statisticalmechanicstoexplainphenomenainthermodynamicsandthepropertiesofgases.
Accordingtoseveralstandardinterpretationsofquantummechanics,microscopicphenomenaare
objectivelyrandom.[6]Thatis,inanexperimentthatcontrolsallcausallyrelevantparameters,someaspects
oftheoutcomestillvaryrandomly.Forexample,ifyouplaceasingleunstableatominacontrolled
environment,youcannotpredicthowlongitwilltakefortheatomtodecayonlytheprobabilityofdecay
inagiventime.[7]Thus,quantummechanicsdoesnotspecifytheoutcomeofindividualexperimentsbut
onlytheprobabilities.Hiddenvariabletheoriesrejecttheviewthatnaturecontainsirreduciblerandomness:
suchtheoriespositthatintheprocessesthatappearrandom,propertieswithacertainstatisticaldistribution
areatworkbehindthescenes,determiningtheoutcomeineachcase.

Inbiology
Themodernevolutionarysynthesisascribestheobserveddiversityoflifetonaturalselection,inwhich
somerandomgeneticmutationsareretainedinthegenepoolduetothesystematicallyimprovedchancefor
survivalandreproductionthatthosemutatedgenesconferonindividualswhopossessthem.
Thecharacteristicsofanorganismarisetosomeextentdeterministically(e.g.,undertheinfluenceofgenes
andtheenvironment)andtosomeextentrandomly.Forexample,thedensityoffrecklesthatappearona
person'sskiniscontrolledbygenesandexposuretolightwhereastheexactlocationofindividualfreckles
seemsrandom.[8]
Randomnessisimportantifananimalistobehaveinawaythatisunpredictabletoothers.Forinstance,
insectsinflighttendtomoveaboutwithrandomchangesindirection,makingitdifficultforpursuing
predatorstopredicttheirtrajectories.

Inmathematics
Themathematicaltheoryofprobabilityarosefromattemptstoformulatemathematicaldescriptionsof
chanceevents,originallyinthecontextofgambling,butlaterinconnectionwithphysics.Statisticsisused
toinfertheunderlyingprobabilitydistributionofacollectionofempiricalobservations.Forthepurposesof
simulation,itisnecessarytohavealargesupplyofrandomnumbersormeanstogeneratethemondemand.
Algorithmicinformationtheorystudies,amongothertopics,whatconstitutesarandomsequence.The
centralideaisthatastringofbitsisrandomifandonlyifitisshorterthananycomputerprogramthatcan
producethatstring(Kolmogorovrandomness)thismeansthatrandomstringsarethosethatcannotbe
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compressed.PioneersofthisfieldincludeAndreyKolmogorovandhisstudentPerMartinLf,Ray
Solomonoff,andGregoryChaitin.Forthenotionofinfinitesequence,onenormallyusesPerMartinLf's
definition.Thatis,aninfinitesequenceisrandomifandonlyitwithstandsallrecursivelyenumerablenull
sets.Theothernotionsofrandomsequencesinclude(butnotlimitedto):recursiverandomnessandSchnorr
randomnesswhicharebasedonrecursivelycomputablemartingales.ItisshowninYonggeWang[9]that
theserandomnessnotionsaregenerallydifferent
Randomnessoccursinnumberssuchaslog(2)andpi.Thedecimaldigitsofpiconstituteaninfinite
sequenceand"neverrepeatinacyclicalfashion."Numberslikepiarealsoconsideredlikelytobenormal,
whichmeanstheirdigitsarerandominacertainstatisticalsense.
Picertainlyseemstobehavethisway.Inthefirstsixbilliondecimalplacesofpi,eachofthe
digitsfrom0through9showsupaboutsixhundredmilliontimes.Yetsuchresults,
conceivablyaccidental,donotprovenormalityeveninbase10,muchlessnormalityinother
numberbases.[10]

Instatistics
Instatistics,randomnessiscommonlyusedtocreatesimplerandomsamples.Thisletssurveysof
completelyrandomgroupsofpeopleproviderealisticdata.Commonmethodsofdoingthisincludedrawing
namesoutofahatorusingarandomdigitchart.Arandomdigitchartissimplyalargetableofrandom
digits.

Ininformationscience
Ininformationscience,irrelevantormeaninglessdataisconsiderednoise.Noiseconsistsofalargenumber
oftransientdisturbanceswithastatisticallyrandomizedtimedistribution.
Incommunicationtheory,randomnessinasignaliscalled"noise"andisopposedtothatcomponentofits
variationthatiscausallyattributabletothesource,thesignal.
Intermsofthedevelopmentofrandomnetworks,forcommunicationrandomnessrestsonthetwosimple
assumptionsofPaulErdsandAlfrdRnyiwhosaidthattherewereafixednumberofnodesandthis
numberremainedfixedforthelifeofthenetwork,andthatallnodeswereequalandlinkedrandomlyto
eachother.[11]

Infinance
Therandomwalkhypothesisconsidersthatassetpricesinanorganizedmarketevolveatrandom,inthe
sensethattheexpectedvalueoftheirchangeiszerobuttheactualvaluemayturnouttobepositiveor
negative.Moregenerally,assetpricesareinfluencedbyavarietyofunpredictableeventsinthegeneral
economicenvironment.

Inpolitics
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Randomselectioncanbeanofficialmethodtoresolvetiedelectionsinsomejurisdictions.[12]Itsusein
politicsisveryold,asofficeholdersinAncientAthenswerechosenbylot,therebeingnovoting.

Randomnessandreligion
Randomnesscanbeseenasconflictingwiththedeterministicideasofsomereligions,suchasthosewhere
theuniverseiscreatedbyanomniscientdeitywhoisawareofallpastandfutureevents.Iftheuniverseis
regardedtohaveapurpose,thenrandomnesscanbeseenasimpossible.Thisisoneoftherationalesfor
religiousoppositiontoevolution,whichstatesthatnonrandomselectionisappliedtotheresultsofrandom
geneticvariation.
HinduandBuddhistphilosophiesstatethatanyeventistheresultofpreviousevents,asreflectedinthe
conceptofkarma,andassuchthereisnosuchthingasarandomeventorafirstevent.
Insomereligiouscontexts,proceduresthatarecommonlyperceivedasrandomizersareusedfordivination.
Cleromancyusesthecastingofbonesordicetorevealwhatisseenasthewillofthegods.
FollowersofDiscordianism,whovenerateEristheGrecoRomangoddessofchaos,haveastrongbeliefin
randomnessandunpredictability.

Applications
Inmostofitsmathematical,political,socialandreligioususes,randomnessisusedforitsinnate"fairness"
andlackofbias.
Politics:Atheniandemocracywasbasedontheconceptofisonomia(equalityofpoliticalrights)andused
complexallotmentmachinestoensurethatthepositionsontherulingcommitteesthatranAthenswere
fairlyallocated.AllotmentisnowrestrictedtoselectingjurorsinAngloSaxonlegalsystemsandin
situationswhere"fairness"isapproximatedbyrandomization,suchasselectingjurorsandmilitarydraft
lotteries.
Games:Randomnumberswerefirstinvestigatedinthecontextofgambling,andmanyrandomizing
devices,suchasdice,shufflingplayingcards,androulettewheels,werefirstdevelopedforuseingambling.
Theabilitytoproducerandomnumbersfairlyisvitaltoelectronicgambling,and,assuch,themethodsused
tocreatethemareusuallyregulatedbygovernmentGamingControlBoards.Randomdrawingsarealso
usedtodeterminelotterywinners.Throughouthistory,randomnesshasbeenusedforgamesofchanceand
toselectoutindividualsforanunwantedtaskinafairway(seedrawingstraws).
Sports:Somesports,includingAmericanFootball,usecointossestorandomlyselectstartingconditions
forgamesorseedtiedteamsforpostseasonplay.TheNationalBasketballAssociationusesaweighted
lotterytoorderteamsinitsdraft.
Mathematics:Randomnumbersarealsousedwheretheiruseismathematicallyimportant,suchas
samplingforopinionpollsandforstatisticalsamplinginqualitycontrolsystems.Computationalsolutions
forsometypesofproblemsuserandomnumbersextensively,suchasintheMonteCarlomethodandin
geneticalgorithms.

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Medicine:Randomallocationofaclinicalinterventionisusedtoreducebiasincontrolledtrials(e.g.,
randomizedcontrolledtrials).
Religion:Althoughnotintendedtoberandom,variousformsofdivinationsuchascleromancyseewhat
appearstobearandomeventasameansforadivinebeingtocommunicatetheirwill.(SeealsoFreewill
andDeterminism).

Generation
Itisgenerallyacceptedthatthereexistthreemechanismsresponsible
for(apparently)randombehaviorinsystems:
1.Randomnesscomingfromtheenvironment(forexample,
Brownianmotion,butalsohardwarerandomnumbergenerators)
2.Randomnesscomingfromtheinitialconditions.Thisaspectis
studiedbychaostheoryandisobservedinsystemswhose
behaviorisverysensitivetosmallvariationsininitialconditions
(suchaspachinkomachinesanddice).
3.Randomnessintrinsicallygeneratedbythesystem.Thisisalso
calledpseudorandomnessandisthekindusedinpseudorandom
numbergenerators.Therearemanyalgorithms(basedon
arithmeticsorcellularautomaton)togeneratepseudorandom
numbers.Thebehaviorofthesystemcanbedeterminedby
knowingtheseedstateandthealgorithmused.Thesemethods
areoftenquickerthangetting"true"randomnessfromthe
environment.

Theballinaroulettecanbeused
asasourceofapparent
randomness,becauseitsbehavior
isverysensitivetotheinitial
conditions.

Themanyapplicationsofrandomnesshaveledtomanydifferentmethodsforgeneratingrandomdata.
Thesemethodsmayvaryastohowunpredictableorstatisticallyrandomtheyare,andhowquicklytheycan
generaterandomnumbers.
Beforetheadventofcomputationalrandomnumbergenerators,generatinglargeamountsofsufficiently
randomnumbers(importantinstatistics)requiredalotofwork.Resultswouldsometimesbecollectedand
distributedasrandomnumbertables.

Measuresandtests
Therearemanypracticalmeasuresofrandomnessforabinarysequence.Theseincludemeasuresbasedon
frequency,discretetransforms,andcomplexity,oramixtureofthese.TheseincludetestsbyKak,Phillips,
Yuen,Hopkins,BethandDai,Mund,andMarsagliaandZaman.[13]
QuantumNonLocalityhasbeenusedtocertifythepresenceofgenuinerandomnessinagivenstringof
numbers.[14]

Misconceptionsandlogicalfallacies
Popularperceptionsofrandomnessarefrequentlymistaken,basedonfallaciousreasoningorintuitions.
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Anumberis"due"
Thisargumentis,"Inarandomselectionofnumbers,sinceallnumberseventuallyappear,thosethathave
notcomeupyetare'due',andthusmorelikelytocomeupsoon."Thislogicisonlycorrectifappliedtoa
systemwherenumbersthatcomeupareremovedfromthesystem,suchaswhenplayingcardsaredrawn
andnotreturnedtothedeck.Inthiscase,onceajackisremovedfromthedeck,thenextdrawislesslikely
tobeajackandmorelikelytobesomeothercard.However,ifthejackisreturnedtothedeck,andthedeck
isthoroughlyreshuffled,ajackisaslikelytobedrawnasanyothercard.Thesameappliesinanyother
processwhereobjectsareselectedindependently,andnoneareremovedaftereachevent,suchastherollof
adie,acointoss,ormostlotterynumberselectionschemes.Trulyrandomprocessessuchasthesedonot
havememory,makingitimpossibleforpastoutcomestoaffectfutureoutcomes.

Anumberis"cursed"or"blessed"
Inarandomsequenceofnumbers,anumbermaybesaidtobecursedbecauseithascomeuplessoftenin
thepast,andsoitisthoughtthatitwilloccurlessofteninthefuture.Anumbermaybeassumedtobe
blessedbecauseithasoccurredmoreoftenthanothersinthepast,andsoitisthoughtlikelytocomeup
moreofteninthefuture.Thislogicisvalidonlyiftherandomisationisbiased,forexamplewithaloaded
die.Ifthedieisfair,thenpreviousrollsgivenoindicationoffutureevents.
Innature,eventsrarelyoccurwithperfectlyequalfrequency,soobservingoutcomestodeterminewhich
eventsaremoreprobablemakessense.Itisfallacioustoapplythislogictosystemsdesignedtomakeall
outcomesequallylikely,suchasshuffledcards,dice,androulettewheels.

Oddsareneverdynamic
Inthebeginningofascenario,onemightcalculatetheprobabilityofacertainevent.Thefactis,assoonas
onegainsmoreinformationaboutthatsituation,theymayneedtorecalculatetheprobability.
Saywearetoldthatawomanhastwochildren.Ifweaskwhethereitherofthemisa
girl,andaretoldyes,whatistheprobabilitythattheotherchildisalsoagirl?
Consideringthisnewchildindependently,onemightexpecttheprobabilitythatthe
otherchildisfemaleis(50%).Butbybuildingaprobabilityspace(illustratingall
Whenthehost
possibleoutcomes),weseethattheprobabilityisactuallyonly(33%).Thisis
revealsonedoor
becausethepossibilityspaceillustrates4waysofhavingthesetwochildren:boyboy,
thatcontainsa
girlboy,boygirl,andgirlgirl.Butweweregivenmoreinformation.Oncewearetold
goat,thisisnew
thatoneofthechildrenisafemale,weusethisnewinformationtoeliminatetheboy
information.
boyscenario.Thustheprobabilityspacerevealsthattherearestill3waystohavetwo
childrenwhereoneisafemale:boygirl,girlboy,girlgirl.Onlyofthesescenarios
wouldhavetheotherchildalsobeagirl.[15]Usingaprobabilityspace,wearelesslikelytomissoneofthe
possiblescenarios,ortoneglecttheimportanceofnewinformation.Forfurtherinformation,seeBoyorgirl
paradox.
ThistechniqueprovidesinsightsinothersituationssuchastheMontyHallproblem,agameshowscenario
inwhichacarishiddenbehindoneofthreedoors,andtwogoatsarehiddenasboobyprizesbehindthe
others.Oncethecontestanthaschosenadoor,thehostopensoneoftheremainingdoorstorevealagoat,
eliminatingthatdoorasanoption.Withonlytwodoorsleft(onewiththecar,theotherwithanothergoat),
theplayermustdecidetoeitherkeeptheirdecision,orswitchandselecttheotherdoor.Intuitively,one
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mightthinktheplayerischoosingbetweentwodoorswithequalprobability,andthattheopportunityto
chooseanotherdoormakesnodifference.Butprobabilityspacesrevealthatthecontestanthasreceivednew
information,andcanincreasetheirchancesofwinningbychangingtotheotherdoor.[15]

Seealso
Algorithmicprobability
Aleatory
Chaitin'sconstant
Chance(disambiguation)
Chaostheory
Cryptography
Frequencyprobability
Gametheory
Informationtheory
Indeterminism
Nonlinearsystem
Patternrecognition

Patternrecognition
Predictability
Probabilityinterpretations
Probabilitytheory
Pseudorandomness
Quantummechanics
Statisticalmechanics
Statistics
Ulamspiral

References
1.TheOxfordEnglishDictionarydefines"random"as"Havingnodefiniteaimorpurposenotsentorguidedina
particulardirectionmade,done,occurring,etc.,withoutmethodorconsciouschoicehaphazard."
2.ThirdWorkshoponMonteCarloMethods
(http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~junliu/Workshops/workshop2007/),JunLiu,ProfessorofStatistics,Harvard
University
3.HandbooktolifeinancientRomebyLesleyAdkins1998ISBN0195123328page279
4.ReligionsoftheancientworldbySarahIlesJohnston2004ISBN0674015177page370
5.AnnotatedreadingsinthehistoryofstatisticsbyHerbertAronDavid,2001ISBN0387988440page115.Note
thatthe1866editionofVenn'sbook(onGooglebooks)doesnotincludethischapter.
6.Nature.com(http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v446/n7138/abs/nature05677.html)inBell'saspect
experiment:Nature
7."Eachnucleusdecaysspontaneously,atrandom,inaccordancewiththeblindworkingsofchance."Qfor
Quantum,JohnGribbin
8.Breathnach,A.S.(1982)."AlongtermhypopigmentaryeffectofthoriumXonfreckledskin".BritishJournalof
Dermatology106(1):1925.doi:10.1111/j.13652133.1982.tb00897.x.PMID7059501."Thedistributionof
frecklesseemsentirelyrandom,andnotassociatedwithanyotherobviouslypunctuateanatomicalor
physiologicalfeatureofskin."
9.YonggeWang:RandomnessandComplexity.PhDThesis,1996.
http://webpages.uncc.edu/yonwang/papers/thesis.pdf
10."Arethedigitsofpirandom?researchermayholdthekey".Lbl.gov.20010723.Retrieved20120727.
11.LaszsoBarabasi,(2003),Linked,RichGetsRicher,P81
12.MunicipalElectionsAct(Ontario,Canada)1996,c.32,Sched.,s.62(3):"Iftherecountindicatesthattwoor
morecandidateswhocannotbothorallbedeclaredelectedtoanofficehavereceivedthesamenumberofvotes,
theclerkshallchoosethesuccessfulcandidateorcandidatesbylot."
13.TerryRitter,Randomnesstests:aliteraturesurvey.ciphersbyritter.com
(http://www.ciphersbyritter.com/RES/RANDTEST.HTM)
14.Pironioet.al,S."RandomNumbersCertifiedbyBell'sTheorem".Nature.
15.Johnson,George(8June2008)."PlayingtheOdds".TheNewYorkTimes.

Furtherreading
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RandomnessbyDeborahJ.Bennett.HarvardUniversityPress,1998.ISBN0674107454.
RandomMeasures,4thed.byOlavKallenberg.AcademicPress,NewYork,LondonAkademie
Verlag,Berlin,1986.MR0854102.
TheArtofComputerProgramming.Vol.2:SeminumericalAlgorithms,3rded.byDonaldE.Knuth.
Reading,MA:AddisonWesley,1997.ISBN0201896842.
FooledbyRandomness,2nded.byNassimNicholasTaleb.ThomsonTexere,2004.ISBN158799
190X.
ExploringRandomnessbyGregoryChaitin.SpringerVerlagLondon,2001.ISBN1852334177.
RandombyKennethChanincludesa"RandomScale"forgradingthelevelofrandomness.
TheDrunkardsWalk:HowRandomnessRulesourLivesbyLeonardMlodinow.PantheonBooks,
NewYork,2008.ISBN9780375424045.

Externallinks
An8foottall(2.4m)ProbabilityMachine(namedSir
Wikiversityhaslearning
Francis)comparingstockmarketreturnstotherandomnessof
materialsaboutRandom
thebeansdroppingthroughthequincunxpattern.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AUSKTk9ENzg)on
Lookuprandomnessin
YouTubefromIndexFundsAdvisorsIFA.com
Wiktionary,thefree
(http://www.ifa.com)
dictionary.
QuantumLab(http://www.quantumlab.de)Quantumrandom
numbergeneratorwithsinglephotonsasinteractive
Wikiquotehasquotations
experiment.
relatedto:Randomness
Random.org(http://www.random.org)generatesrandom
numbersusingatmosphericnoises(seealsoRandom.org).
WikimediaCommonshas
HotBits(http://www.fourmilab.ch/hotbits/)generatesrandom
mediarelatedto
numbersfromradioactivedecay.
Randomness.
QRBG(http://random.irb.hr)QuantumRandomBitGenerator
QRNG(http://qrng.physik.huberlin.de/)FastQuantum
RandomBitGenerator
Chaitin:RandomnessandMathematicalProof
(http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/CDMTCS/chaitin/sciamer.html)
APseudorandomNumberSequenceTestProgram(PublicDomain)
(http://www.fourmilab.ch/random/)
DictionaryoftheHistoryofIdeas:(http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgilocal/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv146)
Chance
Philosophy:FreeWillvs.Determinism(http://www.spaceandmotion.com/PhilosophyFreeWill
Determinism.htm)
RAHMNationInstitute(http://www.rahmnation.org)
Historyofrandomnessdefinitions(http://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline/page1067btext),in
StephenWolfram'sANewKindofScience
ComputingaGlimpseofRandomness(http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~cristian/Calude361_370.pdf)
ChanceversusRandomness(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chancerandomness/),fromtheStanford
EncyclopediaofPhilosophy
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Randomness&oldid=709295429"
Categories: Cryptography Statisticalrandomness Randomness
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