Design Report Print

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS ................................................................... 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 2
1.1.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................... 2
1.1.2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION.......................................................................... 3
1.2. DESIGN CONTROL & CRITERIA .................................................................. 5
1.2.1. TOPOGRAPHY........................................................................................... 5
1.2.2. TRAFFIC ..................................................................................................... 6
1.2.2.1. ROAD USER ........................................................................................ 6
1.2.2.2. TRAFFIC DATA .................................................................................. 6
1.2.2.3. THE VEHICLE ..................................................................................... 7
1.2.3. SPEED ......................................................................................................... 8
1.2.4. SAFETY ...................................................................................................... 9
1.2.5. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS .......................................................... 10
1.3. WIDTH OF TRAFFIC LANES & SHOULDERS ........................................... 11
1.3.1. GENERAL ................................................................................................. 11
1.3.2. FACTORS AFFECTING THE LANE WIDTH ........................................ 11
1.3.2.1. VEHICULAR TRAFFIC .................................................................... 12
1.3.2.2. GENERAL LANE WIDTHS .............................................................. 12
1.3.2.3. DERIVATIONS OF NUMBER OF LANES ..................................... 12
1.3.3. SHOULDER WIDTHS .............................................................................. 18
1.3.3.1. FACTORS AFFECTING SHOULDER WIDTH ............................... 18
1.3.3.2. GENERAL SHOULDER WIDTH ..................................................... 18
1.4. CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS ...................................................................... 19
1.4.1. GENERAL ................................................................................................. 19
1.4.2. CARRIGEWAY ........................................................................................ 21
1.4.3. SHOULDER .............................................................................................. 21
1.4.4. MEDIAN.................................................................................................... 21
1.4.5. PLATFORM .............................................................................................. 22
1.4.6. CROSSFALL ............................................................................................. 22
1.4.6.1. GENERAL .......................................................................................... 22
1.4.6.2. PAVEMENT CROSSFALL ............................................................... 22
1.4.6.3. SHOULDER CROSSFALL................................................................ 23
1.4.7. DRAINS ..................................................................................................... 23
1.4.7.1. SIDE DRAINS .................................................................................... 24
1.4.7.2. INTERCEPTER DRAINS .................................................................. 24
1.4.7.3. SUB-SOIL DRAINS ........................................................................... 24
1.4.7.4. CROSS SHOULDER DRAINS .......................................................... 25
1.4.8. BATTERS .................................................................................................. 25
1.4.8.1. CUT BATTER .................................................................................... 25
1.4.8.2. FILL BATTER.................................................................................... 25
1.4.8.3. SLOPE BENCHES ............................................................................. 26
1.4.8.4. SIGHT BENCHES.............................................................................. 26
1.4.8.5. FILL SLOPE TREATMENT.............................................................. 26
1.4.9. PARKING STRIPS.................................................................................... 27
1.4.9.1. GENERAL .......................................................................................... 27
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1.4.9.2. WIDTH OF PARKING STRIPS ........................................................ 27

1.4.9.3. PARKING BAYS ............................................................................... 27
1.4.9.4. CROSS FALL OF PARKING STRIPS AND BAYS......................... 28
1.4.10. RIGHT OF WAY ..................................................................................... 28
1.5. SIGHT DISTANCE .......................................................................................... 28
1.5.1. GENERAL ................................................................................................. 28
1.5.2. CONSTANTS USED IN DESIGN FOR SIGHT DISTANCE ................. 28
1.5.3. STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD) .................................................... 29
1.5.4. EFFECT OF GRADE IN BREAKING ..................................................... 30
1.5.5. OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE (OSD) ............................................ 31
1.5.6. CONTINUATION SIGHT DISTANCE (CSD) ........................................ 32
1.5.7. SIGHT DISTANCE AT GRADE CRESTS .............................................. 33
1.5.8. HEAD LIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE .......................................................... 33
1.6. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT ........................................................................ 33
1.6.1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 33
1.6.2. MOVEMENT ON A CIRCULAR PATH ................................................. 33
1.6.3. SIDE FRICTION FACTOR ...................................................................... 35
1.6.4. HORIZONTAL CURVATURE ................................................................ 36
1.6.4.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................... 36
1.6.4.2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT .................................................................................................. 36
1.6.4.3. SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE........................................................... 37
1.6.4.4. TRANSITION CURVE ...................................................................... 39
1.6.4.5. COMPOUND CURVE ....................................................................... 39
1.6.4.6. REVERSE CURVE ............................................................................ 40
1.6.4.7. SIMILAR CURVES ........................................................................... 40
1.6.4.8. WIDENING OF CARRIGEWAY ON CURVES .............................. 40
1.7. SUPERELEVATION ....................................................................................... 42
1.7.1. GENERAL ................................................................................................. 42
1.7.2. STANDARDS FOR SUPERELEVATION............................................... 42
1.7.3. CURVES WITH ADVERSE CROSSFALL ............................................. 42
1.7.4. DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERELEVATION ............................................ 43
1.7.4.1. AXIS OF ROTATION ........................................................................ 43
1.7.4.2. SUPERELEVATION DEVELOPMENT LENGTH .......................... 44
1.7.4.2.1. RELATIVE GRADIENT METHOD .......................................... 44
1.7.4.2.2. RATE OF PAVEMENT ROTATION METHOD....................... 45
1.7.4.3. POSITIONING OF SUPERELEVATION ......................................... 48
1.7.4.4. SUPERELEVATION DEVELOPMENT ON SHOULDERS............ 51
1.8. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT .............................................................................. 53
1.8.1. GENERAL ................................................................................................. 53
1.8.2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF IN DESIGNING THE VERTICAL
ALIGNMENT ...................................................................................................... 53
1.8.3. VERTICAL CURVES ............................................................................... 54
1.8.3.1. CREST VERTICAL CURVES........................................................... 55
1.8.3.1.1. GENERAL ................................................................................... 55
1.8.3.1.2. LENGTH OF CREST CURVES ................................................. 55
1.8.3.2. SAG VERTICAL CURVES ............................................................... 61
1.8.3.2.1. GENERAL ................................................................................... 61
1.8.3.2.2. LENGTH OF SAG CURVES...................................................... 61
1.8.4. GRADES.................................................................................................... 64
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1.8.4.1. GENERAL .......................................................................................... 64

1.8.4.2. STANDARDS FOR GRADES ........................................................... 65
1.8.4.3. GRADES STEEPER THAN GENERAL MAXIMUM ..................... 67
1.8.4.4. CRITICAL LENGTH OF GRADES .................................................. 67
1.9. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS.......................................................................... 68
1.9.1. GENERAL ................................................................................................. 68
1.9.2. CO-ORDINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
FOR SAFETY ...................................................................................................... 68
FOR AESTHETIC REASONS ............................................................................ 69
1.10. REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 70
2.0 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF INTERSECTION .................................................. 72
2.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 73
2.1.1. GENERAL ................................................................................................. 73
2.1.2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION........................................................................ 74
2.2. BASIC DATA FOR DESIGN .......................................................................... 75
2.2.1. TRAFFIC DATA ....................................................................................... 75
2.2.1.1. PEAK HOUR TRAFFIC VOLUMES INCLUDING TURNING
MOVEMENTS ................................................................................................ 75
2.2.1.2. VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS ...................................................... 80
2.2.1.3. PEDESTRIAN TRAFFIC ................................................................... 81
2.2.1.4. ACCIDENT DATA ............................................................................ 81
2.2.1.5. PARKING DATA............................................................................... 81
2.2.1.6. PUBLIC TRANSPORT REQUIREMENTS ...................................... 81
2.2.2. SITE TOPOGRAPHY ............................................................................... 82
2.2.3. PHYSICAL FEATURES AND ITEMS OF CULTURAL, HISTORICAL
AND RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE .................................................................. 82
2.2.4. OVERHEAD AND UNDERGROUND UTILITY SERVICES ............... 82
2.2.5. RIGHT OF WAY PROBLEMS AND LIMITATIONS ............................ 83
2.3. ANALYSIS OF DATA..................................................................................... 83
2.3.1. ANALYSIS OF DATA FOR THE SELECTION OF DESIGN VEHICLE
.............................................................................................................................. 83
2.3.2. ANALYSIS OF DATA FOR SELECTION OF TYPE OF
INTERSECTION ................................................................................................. 84
2.3.2.1. TYPE OF INTERSECTION BASED ON TREATMENT................. 84
2.3.2.2. FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF TYPE OF
INTERSECTION ............................................................................................. 86
2.3.3. BEST INTERSECTION TREATMENT FOR THE PROBLEM IN HAND
.............................................................................................................................. 86
2.4. ROUNDABOUTS ............................................................................................ 87
2.4.1. TYPES OF ROUNDABOUTS AND SELECTION OF THE TYPE FOR
THE DESIGN ...................................................................................................... 87
2.4.1.1. MINI ROUNDABOUTS .................................................................... 87
2.4.1.2. SMALL ROUNDABOUTS ................................................................ 87
2.4.1.3. LARGE ROUNDABOUTS ................................................................ 87
2.4.1.4. DOUBLE ROUNDABOUTS ............................................................. 88
2.4.1.5. CONVENTIONAL ROUNDABOUTS .............................................. 88
2.4.2. ELEMENTS OF A ROUNDABOUT ........................................................ 88
2.4.2.1. CENTRAL ISLAND .......................................................................... 88
2.4.2.2. CENTRE ISLAND DIAMETER ........................................................ 89
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2.4.2.3. INSCRIBED CIRCLE DIAMETER................................................... 90

2.4.2.4. CIRCULATING CARRIAGEWAY .................................................. 90
2.4.2.5. CRCULATING CARRIAGEWAY WIDTH ..................................... 90
2.4.2.6 GIVE WAY LINE ............................................................................... 90
2.4.2.7. ENTRY CURVE................................................................................. 91
2.4.2.8. EXIT CURVE ..................................................................................... 91
2.4.2.9. APPROACH WIDTH ......................................................................... 91
2.4.2.10. ENTRY / EXIT WIDTH ................................................................... 91
2.4.2.11. DEPARTURE WIDTH ..................................................................... 92
2.4.2.12. CORNER KERB RADIUS (KERB RETURN) ............................... 92
2.4.2.13. SPLITTER ISLAND......................................................................... 92
2.4.3. GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS ................................................... 93
2.5. CAPACITY ANALYSIS AND DELAY CALCULATIONS .......................... 93
2.5.1. METHODS OF CAPACITY ANALYSIS ................................................ 93
2.5.1.1. GAP ACCEPTANCE THEORY ........................................................ 93
2.5.1.2. ANALYSIS PACKAGE ..................................................................... 94
2.5.2. THE METHOD SELECTED FOR THE CAPACITY ANALYSIS ......... 94
2.6. PRELIMINARY DESIGN AND SELECTION OF A LAYOUT .................. 123
2.7. GEOMETRIC DESIGN CALCULATIONS .................................................. 130
2.7.1. CIRCULATING TRAFFIC SPEED ........................................................ 130
2.7.2. THROUGH TRAFFIC SPEED ............................................................... 130
2.7.3. CIRCULATING CARRIGEWAY WIDTH ............................................ 132
2.7.4. ENTRY AND EXIT CURVES................................................................ 134
2.7.5. SIGHT DISTANCE ................................................................................. 135
2.7.6. VERTICAL CURVES ............................................................................. 135
2.7.7. SPLITTER ISLAND................................................................................ 135
2.8. REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 137
3.0 - DESIGN OF SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE SYSTEM FOR
INTERSECTION ....................................................................................................... 139
3.1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 140
3.1.1. GENERAL ............................................................................................... 140
3.1.2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION...................................................................... 140
3.2. STORM WATER RUNOFF ESTIMATION ................................................. 141
3.2.1. INTENSITY OF RAINFALL .................................................................. 141
3.2.2. SELECTION OF DESIGN STORM RECURRENCE INTERVAL ....... 143
3.2.3. TIME OF CONCENTRATION ............................................................... 143
3.2.4. PEAK RUN-OFF ..................................................................................... 144
3.2.4.1. DIFFERENT METHODS FOR ESTIMATING OF PEAK RUN-OFF
........................................................................................................................ 145
3.2.4.2. RATIONAL METHOD .................................................................... 146
3.2.4.2.1. RATIONAL FORMULA........................................................... 146
3.2.4.2.2. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE
RATIONAL FORMULA........................................................................... 147
3.2.4.2.3. COEFFICIENT OF RUN-OFF .................................................. 147
3.2.4.3. APPLICATION IN THE PROJECT ................................................ 148
3.2.5. DEPTH OF FLOW AND LENGTH OF FLOW PATH .......................... 150
3.2.5.1. DEPTH OF FLOW ........................................................................... 150
3.2.5.2. LENGTH OF FLOW PATH............................................................. 150
3.3. FLOW IN HIGHWAY GUTTERS ................................................................ 150
3.3.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 150
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3.3.2. FORMULA FOR FLOW IN TRIANGULAR GUTTER ........................ 151

3.3.3. PONDED WIDTH ................................................................................... 153
3.3.4. CALCULATIONS FOR FLOW IN GUTTERS...................................... 153
3.4. INLETS ........................................................................................................... 154
3.4.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 154
3.4.2. TYPES OF INLETS ................................................................................ 154
3.4.2.1. GRATED INLETS............................................................................ 154
3.4.2.2. KERB OPENING INLETS............................................................... 155
3.4.2.3. COMBINATION OF GRATED AND KERB OPENING INLETS 156
3.4.3. SELECTION OF TYPE OF INLET FOR THE DESIGN ....................... 156
3.4.4. CAPACITY OF INLETS ......................................................................... 156
3.4.4.1. GENERAL ........................................................................................ 156
3.4.4.1.1. CAPACITY OF KERB OPENING INLET ON A
CONTINUOUS GRADE ........................................................................... 156
3.4.4.1.2. CAPACITY OF KERB OPENING INLET ON SAG ............... 157
3.4.4.2. SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS ....................................................... 157
3.4.5. GENERAL RULES FOR SPACING OF INLETS ................................. 157
3.4.6. INLET COMPUTATIONS ...................................................................... 158
3.4.6.1. DESCRIPTION OF TABLE FOR INLET COMPUTATIONS AND
SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS .................................................................... 158
3.5. FLOW IN RECTANGULAR DRAINS ......................................................... 163
3.5.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 163
3.5.2. DESIGN CRITERIA ............................................................................... 163
3.5.3. CAPACITY OF RECTANGULAR DRAINS ......................................... 164
3.5.3.1. GENERAL ........................................................................................ 164
3.5.3.2. CALCULATIONS AND PREPARATION OF GRAPHS FOR
DESIGN ......................................................................................................... 164
3.5.4. STORM DRAIN COMPUTATIONS ...................................................... 165
3.6. REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 170
4.0 BILL OF QUANTITIES ................................................................................... 172
4.1. SUMMARY OF THE BILL OF QUANTITIES ............................................ 173
4.2. BILL OF QUANTITIES ................................................................................. 175
4.3. TAKING OFF SHEETS ................................................................................. 180
4.4. RATE ANALYSIS FOR B.O.Q. ITEMS ....................................................... 208
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.2.1 Classification of Terrain .......................................................................... 5
Table 1.2.2 Traffic data for Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road............................... 7
Table 1.2.3 Relationship of the Design Speed related with the Road Classification,
Terrain and the Design Volume. .................................................................................... 9
Table 1.3.1 Minimum width of sealed pavements of undivided roads ..................... 13
Table 1.3.2 Design Level of Service ......................................................................... 14
Table 1.3.3 Adjustment factors for directional distribution (f d) .............................. 16
Table 1.3.4 - Adjustment factors for the combined effect of narrow lanes and
restricted shoulder width (f w) ...................................................................................... 16
Table 1.3.5 - Average Passenger Car Equivalent for Trucks and Buses on Two Lane
Highways over Different Terrain Segments ................................................................ 16
Table 1.4.1 - Recommended Cross-falls on Straight for Different Surface Types ...... 23
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Table 1.4.2 - Recommended Shoulder Cross-falls on Straight .................................... 23

Table 1.5.1 Longitudinal Friction Factors ................................................................ 30
Table 1.5.2 - Design Values for Stopping, Overtaking & Intermediate Sight Distances
on Bituminous and Concrete Pavements ..................................................................... 32
Table 1.6.1 Maximum Superelevaion Values ........................................................... 35
Table 1.6.2 - Maximum Design Values of Co-efficient of Side Friction .................... 36
Table 1.6.3 Minimum Radii for Different Superelevation ....................................... 38
Table 1.6.4 Radii selected, with corresponding Superelevation ............................... 38
Table 1.6.5 Design values for pavement widening on open highway curves ........... 41
Table 1.7.1 - Minimum Radii with Adverse Cross Fall ............................................... 43
Table 1.7.2 Maximum Relative Gradients ................................................................ 45
Table 1.7.3 - superelevation values and corresponding length of superelevation
development for various radii and design speed .......................................................... 47
Table 1.8.1 - Minimum Crest Vertical Curve Length Based on Sight Distance Criteria
...................................................................................................................................... 56
Table 1.8.2 Minimum Vertical Curve Length Based on Appearance Criterion ....... 58
Table 1.8.3 Minimum Vertical Curve Length Based on Comfort Criterion ............. 60
Table 1.8.4 - Minimum Sag Vertical Curve Length Based on Head Light Sight
Distance Criterion ........................................................................................................ 62
Table 1.8.5 Maximum Gradients .............................................................................. 66
Table 1.8.6 Critical length of Grades ........................................................................ 68
Table 2.2.1 (a) - Summary of Peak Hour Turning Moments in Morning Peak (0915
1015 Hrs) at Gabada Junction (in Veh / h) .................................................................. 77
Table 2.2.1 (b) - Summary of Peak Hour Turning Moments in Mid day Peak (1100
Table 2.2.1 (c) - Summary of Peak Hour Turning Moments in Evening Peak (1700
Table 2.2.2 - Equivalent Passenger Car Units ............................................................. 80
Table 2.3.1 - Composition of Vehicles at Hambantota Intersection during Peak Hours
of the Day..................................................................................................................... 84
Table 2.5.1(a) - Summary of Peak Hour Turning Moments in Morning Peak (0915
1015 Hrs) at Gabada Junction (in PCU / h) ................................................................. 96
Table 2.5.1(b) - Summary of Peak Hour Turning Moments in Mid day Peak (1100
Table 2.5.1(c) - Summary of Peak Hour Turning Moments in Evening Peak (1700
Table 2.5.3 No. of entry lanes and approach lanes in Hambantota intersection ..... 103
Table 2.5.4 Widths of entry lanes and approach lanes in Hambantota intersection103
Table 2.5.5 - Dominant- Stream Follow-up Headways (tfd) (Initials Values) in seconds
.................................................................................................................................... 105
Table 2.5.6 - Adjustment Times for the Dominant Stream Follow-up Headway ...... 106
Table 2.5.7 - Sub-dominant Steam Follow-up headway tfs ....................................... 106
Table 2.5.8 - Ratio of the Critical Acceptance Gap to the Follow-up Headway(tad / tfd )
.................................................................................................................................... 107
Table 2.5.9 - Average headway between bunched vehicles in the circulating traffic ()
and the number of effective lanes in the circulating carriageway. ............................ 108
Table 2.5.10 - Proportions of Bunched Vehicles, ................................................... 109
Table 2.5.11 (a) - Geometric Delay for Stopped Vehicles (Seconds per Vehicles) .. 116
Table 2.5.11 (b) - Geometric Delay for Vehicles, Which Do Not Stop (Seconds per
Vehicles) .................................................................................................................... 117
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Table 2.5.12 - Geometric Delay Values for Gonnoruwa Leg of Hambantota

Roundabout ................................................................................................................ 118
Table 2.5.13 - Geometric Delay and Total Average Delay Values for Movements of
Gonnoruwa Leg of Hambantota Roundabout. ........................................................... 119
Table 2.5.14 - Data Required for Capacity Calculations ........................................... 120
Table 2.5.15 - Capacity Calculations & Queuing Delay Calculations ...................... 121
Table 2.5.16 (a) - Geometric Delay Calculations & Total Delay Calculations
Morning Peak ............................................................................................................. 122
Table 2.5.16 (b) - Geometric Delay Calculations & Total Delay Calculations MidDay Peak .................................................................................................................... 122
Table 2.5.16 (c) - Geometric Delay Calculations & Total Delay Calculations
Evening Peak ............................................................................................................. 123
Table 2.7.1 - Entry and Exit Curve Radius of Hambantota Roundabout .................. 134
Table 2.7.2 - The splitter island areas for Habmantota Roundabout ......................... 136
Table 3.4.1 Inlet Computations ............................................................................... 160
Table 3.5.1 - Q/S values for varying depth ............................................................. 165
Table 3.5.2 Storm Drain Computations .................................................................. 169
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1.1 Location Map of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road. .......................... 4
Figure 1.4.1 Typical cross section of a road ............................................................. 20
Figure 1.7.2 - Edge profile for a Circular curve .......................................................... 49
Figure 1.7.3 - Edge profile for Reverse curve ............................................................. 50
Figure 1.7.4 - Edge profile for Compound curve......................................................... 51
Figure 1.7.5 Development of superelevation in sealed shoulder .............................. 52
Figure 1.7.6 Development of superelevation in unsealed shoulder .......................... 52
Figure 1.8.1 Basic Elements of a typical vertical curve ........................................... 54
Figure 1.8.2 Crest vertical curves ............................................................................. 55
Figure 1.8.3 Sag vertical curves ................................................................................ 61
Figure 2.2.1 Traffic Data at the intersection from 7.00 to 19.00 hrs ........................ 76
Figure 2.4.1 Geometric Elements of a Roundabout .................................................. 89
Figure 2.5.1(a) Traffic turning volumes in Morning Peak hour (9.15-10.15) .......... 99
Figure 2.5.1(b) Traffic turning volumes in Mid day Peak hour (11.00-12.00)....... 100
Figure 2.5.1(c) Traffic turning volumes in Evening Peak hour (17.00-18.00) ....... 101
Figure 2.5.2 Required No. of Circulating and Entry lanes ................................... 102
Figure 2.5.3 Proportion of vehicles stopped on a multi lane entry roundabout ....... 115
Figure 2.5.4 Definitions of the terms used in Table 2.5.11(a) and 2.5.11(b).......... 118
Figure 2.5.5 Alternative 1 ....................................................................................... 125
Figure 2.7.1 Derivation of turning roadway width on curves at intersection ......... 132
Figure 3.2.1 Rainfall Intensity Duration Curves.................................................. 142
Figure 3.2.2 Coefficient of Run-off ........................................................................ 149
Figure 3.3.1 Flow in Triangular Gutter ................................................................... 151
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1.0 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS
REPORT
ON
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
OF
PALUGAMA-BORALANDA-HAPUTALE ROAD
(B 353) FROM 0+000 TO 27+200
(SECTION FROM 2+800 TO 5+450)
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 GENERAL
Geometric design is an important aspect of Highway Design dealing with the visible
dimensions of a roadway. To produce a well balanced design, all geometric elements
such as
Horizontal alignment
Vertical alignment
Sight distances
Cross-section components
Lateral and vertical clearance
Intersection treatment
Control of access
should economically feasible as far as possible, while providing safe continuous

operation at a speed likely under the general conditions for the highway. Mainly this
is achieved through the use of design speed as the overall control. In the design of
highway curves, it is necessary to establish the proper relation between design speed
and curvature and their joint relations with super elevation and side friction.
A well designed highway has to be consistent with the economy. There are some
other factors influence the geometric design are the availability of funds and the
adjacent land use. If design is carried out improperly it may result in early
obsolescence of the new highway with considerable economic losses.
1.1.2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road, which is approximately 27 km in length B
353 route, connects the two major suburb towns, Keppetipola and Haputale in Uva
Province. The road stretch bears an Annual Daily Traffic of 1399 vehicles. Currently
it functions as two lane two way road with an average carriageway width of 5.0 m
and it runs on a rolling terrain of average gradient being 8%.
Carriageway is not divided into lanes and no built up drains are provided. Bends are
not met with geometric standards. The travelers those who are going visit the
Adisham Bungalow which is a historic place popular among the locals and foreigners
have to go along the this particular road. If the mobility had been improved in this
road it will be helpful for the tourism industry. These factors had been inspired to
improve this road.
The other factors lead to improve the above road is the poor vertical alignment,
narrow carriageway width, poor sight distance and humpy road surface.
This report describes the general principles of the geometric design and its
application to the detailed design of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road from
chainage 2+800 to 5+450.
Figure 1.1.1 Location Map of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road.

4
1.2. DESIGN CONTROL & CRITERIA

The design criteria determines roadway geometric. The principal factors influencing
the choice of design standard for a particular road section are as follows.
I. Topography.
II. Traffic.
III. Speed.
IV. Safety.
V. Economic consideration
VI. Financial level.
1.2.1. TOPOGRAPHY
Terrain type is one of the main factors which govern the vehicular speed. Terrain also
has a significant effect on the costs of achieving high geometric standards. Therefore
terrain can be considered as one of the main element used in selecting the design
criteria. In geometric design, roads are divided into sections with uniform terrain
characteristics, i.e. Flat, Rolling, Mountainous. Table 1.2.1 gives the classification of
terrain based on its representative slope.
Table 1.2.1 Classification of Terrain

Terrain Type
Code
Corridor Slope %
Flat
10
Rolling
10-25
Mountainous
>25
The topography of the section from 2+800 to 3+500 and from 4+750 to 5+450 of
Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road can be considered as flat. The remaining section
is a Rolling terrain.
1.2.2. TRAFFIC
Traffic composes of the following groups.

1. The road user
2. Traffic data
3. The vehicle
1.2.2.1. ROAD USER

As the road user (Drivers and Pedestrians) is the main part of the road system. Human
behavior and limitations should be considered in all road designs.
1.2.2.2. TRAFFIC DATA
The geometric design of roads is mainly based on the traffic data. Traffic data is
classified as follows.
I. Volume of Traffic.
A road should be designed so that it will accommodate, or can be readily
changed to accommodate, the number of vehicles which is estimated will be
using at the end of its service life with a desired level of service. The traffic
volume is usually the Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) and number of
traffic lanes required is a function of traffic volume. The number of vehicles
using a road in a given time determines the number of traffic lanes required.
II. Composition of Traffic.

Road traffic is a mixture of passenger cars and commercial vehicles. Compared
to passenger cars, commercial vehicles are slow in speed occupy a greater length
and width of road, and on ascending grades, their speeds fall to lower figures
quicker. Therefore such vehicles on a road reduce its capacity and a road
capable of carrying a set number of passenger cars will carry fewer mixed
vehicles. The composition of traffic is a factor in the determination of width of
traffic lanes and to some extent, the maximum grade on a road.
6
Traffic data given by the Traffic & Planning Division of Road Development Authority
in Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road is tabulated in Table 1.2.2.
Table 1.2.2 Traffic data for Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road

ADT = 1399
Vehicle Composition
Percentage %
Motor Cycle
28.99
Three wheel
31.39
Car
8.15
Van
5.66
Medium Bus
0.69
Large Bus
7.89
Light Goods Vehicles
5.49
Medium Goods Vehicles
6.17
Large Lorries
2.49
Farm Vehicles
3.09
1.2.2.3. THE VEHICLE

The vehicle data which affect the design are axle load, axle spacing, wheel base,
overall length, width, height and minimum turning radius.
The design vehicle is a motor vehicle whose weight dimensions and operating
characteristics are used to establish design controls. For this purpose vehicles are
classified into following groups.
I.
II.
P design vehicle
- Passenger Car class
SU design vehicle
- Single unit trucks and buses
III.
WB-40 design vehicle - Semi-trailor intermediate
IV.
WB-50 design vehicle - Semi-trailor combination

7
1.2.3. SPEED
Speed maintained by a driver for a given road section depends upon following
conditions.
I. Type of terrain.
II. Weather.
III. Volume of traffic.
IV. Speed limitations.
In a road section having uniform topographical character all curves should be of a

uniform speed value. At the places where there is a change of topography and if it is
necessary to change the speed from one section to another it is desirable to change the
speed in steps of 10km/h contributing to safe driving condition.
Design speed applies to individual geometric elements and is the speed that is used to
co-ordinate sight distance, curve radius, super elevation and friction demand for
elements of the road so that the driver negotiating each element at its design speeds.
The design speed for this particular road is 40km/h. But the topographic constrains
limit the design speed to 30km/h in some sections.
Table 1.2.3 gives the design speed values corresponding to the road class, terrain type
and design volume.
Table 1.2.3 Relationship of the Design Speed related with the Road Classification,
Terrain and the Design Volume.
Type of
Road
Road Class
R0
R1
Design
Design Speed
Volume
Km/h
PCU/day
Rural
Urban
80
70
80
70
70
60
80
70
70
70
60
60
70
60
60
60
50
50
60
50
50
50
40
40
50
40
40
40
30
30
Terrain
F
F
R
72,000108,000
40,000-72,000
F
R2
R3
R4
R5
A,B
A,B
C,D
D,E
25,000-40,000
18,000-25,000
300-18,000
<300
1.2.4. SAFETY
Whatever design standard is adopted, safety is the major element to be improved for
both vehicle users and pedestrians.
With the increase of number of decisions required to take the driver, number of
crashes increases. Therefore a Highway should be designed to minimize making
decisions while driving and to reduce unexpected situations. To reduce the number of
decision making, highways shall be design in uniform manner & accommodate proper
9
traffic control devices. To provide safety of pedestrians, sufficient width of sidewalks,

proper signing and pedestrian crossing to be accommodated.
The existing trace is having poor geometric features such as inadequate sight
distances at the bends and inadequate carriageway and shoulder width. As these sub
standard will tend to promotes accidents, in designing new trace adequate amounts
were provided for above.
1.2.5. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

Before taking the final decision on the horizontal alignment on a particular road, it is
necessary to compare the economic aspect of various alternative of horizontal design.
Above mentioned economic aspect should be made on,
The cost required for,
I. Construction.
II. Acquisition.
III. Vehicle operation.
A properly designed highway afford benefit to the community as it improve

transportation facilities, reduction of travel time, reducing accidents, dropping of
vehicle maintenance cost and enhancing vehicle lifetime.
In the design of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale Road, attempts were made to

establish more favorable geometric features by following the existing centre line of
the road. Cost components of the project, when providing the improved facilities will
be the cost of land acquisition, cost of construction and cost of maintenance. Due
consideration was paid in establishing limitations for geometric elements such as
maximum grade, minimum curve radius, sight distance requirement etc. to keep the
total cost to minimum. Efforts were taken to reduce the number of buildings affected
due to the improvements.
10
1.3. WIDTH OF TRAFFIC LANES & SHOULDERS
1.3.1. GENERAL
Width of traffic lane influence the safety, comfort of driving and Level Of Service of
that particular road. With the increase of lane width vehicles could be driven freely in
a broaden width. Hence it provides safety and comfort of driving. The width of
carriageway is determined in terms of the number of traffic lanes and width of a
traffic lane. Number of lanes to be provided depends on the present and future
anticipated traffic volume. Shoulder is the portion traveled adjoining to the outer edge
of the traffic lane. Wider shoulder will be provided emergency stops for the vehicles.
1.3.2. FACTORS AFFECTING THE LANE WIDTH

When calculating the lane widths following factors are take into account.
I. Traffic
The volume and composition of traffic are the major factors which
determine the width of traffic lanes. Average Annual Daily Traffic
(AADT) of the particular road and peak hour traffic volume are required.
II. Vehicle Dimension

Commercial vehicles in traffic stream also influence the lane width.
Normal steering deviations as well as the tracking errors and pavement
imperfections reduce the clearance between passing vehicles.
III. Speed environment

Drivers have less control over the lateral position of a vehicle at high
speed. Therefore at higher Design Speeds, high width of traffic lane is
required.
11
IV. Combination of speed and traffic volume

When both the speed and traffic volume are high, narrow lane width
should be avoided.
1.3.2.1. VEHICULAR TRAFFIC

The importance of vehicular traffic in the event of determination of traffic lane width
was explained under Section 3.2.
1.3.2.2. GENERAL LANE WIDTHS

The width of carriageway is determined in terms of the number of traffic lanes and
width of a traffic lane. A traffic lane is defined as the width used for single line of
traffic operation. The desirable lane width is taken as 3.7m. The absolute minimum
lane width shall be 3.1m.
1.3.2.3. DERIVATIONS OF NUMBER OF LANES

a) By tables in NASSRA
Table 1.3.1 gives the recommended minimum width of sealed carriageway of

undivided roads.
12
Table 1.3.1 Minimum width of sealed pavements of undivided roads

Design
Minimum carriageway width(m) for design traffic
Speed
volumes(AADT)
Km/h
1-140
141-300
301-1100
1101-2200
Over 2200
40
3.7
5.6
6.2
50
3.7
5.6
6.2
6.8
7.4
60
3.7
6.2
6.8
6.8
7.4
70
3.7
6.2
6.8
6.8
7.4
80
3.7
6.2
6.8
7.4
7.4
90
3.7
6.2
6.8
7.4
7.4
100
3.7
6.8
6.8
7.4
7.4
110
3.7
6.8
7.4
7.4
7.4
120
3.7
6.8
7.4
7.4
7.4
As per Table 1.3.1 minimum carriageway width required, corresponding to design

speed of 30-50km/h and traffic volume (AADT) of 1399 is 6.8m. However taking in to
account the acquisition problems and construction cost a 6.4m wide carriageway is
provided.
b) Capacity analysis level of service concept
The concept of Level Of Service (LOS) is the different operational qualities of the
traffic flow. Level Of Service is a qualitative measure of speed and travel time,
freedom to maneuvers, traffic interruption, driving comfort, convenience, safety and
operating cost.
Six Level Of Service are categorized from A to F and it cover entire range of traffic
condition which may occur.
Level Of Service A Free flow with high speed and low volumes. Drivers can hold
their desired speeds without delays.
13
Level Of Service B Reasonably free flow. Stable flow and drivers have reasonable
freedom to select their speed.
Level Of Service C Stable flow. Most drivers are restricted in their freedom to select
their own speed, change lanes, overtake etc... But operating speeds are still
reasonable.
Level Of Service D Approaches unstable flow with nearly all drivers restricted.
Comfort and convenience are low but may be tolerated for short periods. Fluctuations
in conditions cause substantial drops in speed. As this service volume corresponds to
what is referred as tolerable capacity, this level of service should be used to determine
the upper limit of traffic demand which should be tolerated.
Level Of Service E Unstable flow and there may be momentary stoppages. This
LOS is obtained with traffic volumes with near or at capacity.
Level Of Service F Forced or breakdown flow operating at low speed caused by the
demand exceeding capacity. There is stop-start operation with large queues and
delays. In the extreme both speed and volume can drop to zero.
New roads are normally designed for LOS C or even D. The design level of service
may be as in the Table 1.3.2.
Table 1.3.2 Design Level of Service
Design
Design Level Of
Volume/Capacity
speed(km/h)
Service
ratio
70 or more
0.6-0.8
60 or more
0.8-0.9
C,D,E
50 or more
>0.9
Road Class
14
The capacity is the maximum hourly rate at which vehicles can reasonably be
expected to traverse a point or uniform section of a lane at LOS E.
The service flow rate is the maximum hourly rate of a lane or roadway under
prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions while maintaining a designated
level of service. To calculate the service flow rate, equation 1.3.1 and 1.3.2 is applied.
( c) * f
SF i = 2800 * v
* f w * f HV
. (1.3.1)
f HV = 1 [1 + PT (ET 1) + PB (EB 1)]
. (1.3.2)
Where:
SFi
= Total service flow rate in both directions for prevailing roadway and
Traffic conditions, for level of service i, in vph
(v/c)i = Ratio of flow rate to ideal capacity for level of service i, obtained from
Table 1.3.2
fd
= Adjustment factor for directional distribution of traffic, obtained from

Table 1.3.3. In the absence of directional distribution factor, it is better to use
60/40 as the directional distribution factor
fw
= Adjustment factor for narrow lanes and restricted shoulder width, obtained
from Table 1.3.4
fHV
= Adjustment factor for the presence of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream
PT
= Proportion of trucks in the traffic stream, expressed as a decimal
PB
= Proportion of buses in the traffic stream, expressed as a decimal
ET, EB = Passenger car equivalent for trucks and buses obtained from Table 1.3.5
15
Table 1.3.3 Adjustment factors for directional distribution (f d)

Directional Distribution
100/0
90/10
80/20
70/30
60/40
50/50
0.71
0.75
0.83
0.89
0.94
1.00
Adjustment Factor, fd
Table 1.3.4 - Adjustment factors for the combined effect of narrow lanes and
restricted shoulder width (f w)
Usable
Shoulder
Width
(m)
>=1.8
1.2
0.6
0
3.7 m Lanes
3.4 m Lanes
3.0 m Lanes
2.7 m Lanes
LOS
A-D
LOS
E
LOS
A-D
LOS
E
LOS
A-D
LOS
E
LOS
A-D
LOS
E
1.00
0.92
0.81
0.70
1.00
0.97
0.93
0.88
0.93
0.85
0.75
0.65
0.94
0.92
0.88
0.82
0.84
0.77
0.68
0.58
0.87
0.85
0.81
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.57
0.49
0.76
0.74
0.70
0.66
Table 1.3.5 - Average Passenger Car Equivalent for Trucks and Buses on Two Lane
Highways over Different Terrain Segments
Vehicle Type
Trucks, ET
Buses, EB
Level Of Service
Type of Terrain
Level
Rolling
Mountainous
2.0
4.0
7.0
B and C
2.2
5.0
10.0
D and E
2.0
5.0
12.0
1.8
3.0
5.7
B and C
2.0
3.4
6.0
D and E
1.6
2.9
6.5
16
Specimen Calculation for Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road;
Average Daily Traffic
= 1399(In 2009)
Present peak Hour Traffic
= 10% of ADT
= 140
fd
=0.94(From Table 1.3.3- assuming 60/40

distribution)
fw
= 0.77 (from Table 1.3.4)
(v/c)I
=0.8 (from Table 1.3.2)
PT
=17.24% (5.49%+6.17%+2.49%+3.09%)
PB
=8.58% (0.69%+7.89%)
ET
=5.0
EB
=2.9
From Equation 1.3.2,

FHV
= 1 /{ 1+[17.24 x (5.0 1)/100 + 8.58 x (2.9 1)/100]}
= 0.54
From Equation 1.3.1

SFi
= 2800 x 0.8 x 0.94 x 0.77 x 0.54
= 875
Traffic growth rate is 5% and assuming the road will reach to its capacity after n
years.
875
= 140 x (1.05)n
=37.5
The road will maintain the LOS D for 37 years from 2009.
17
1.3.3. SHOULDER WIDTHS
1.3.3.1. FACTORS AFFECTING SHOULDER WIDTH
The width of shoulder should be chosen in relationship to the traffic and topography
after due consideration of the following
a) Provision of space for
Maneuvering to escape potential accidents.
Emergency and rest stops.
Emergency operations
Guide posts or guard fence
b) Reduction of driving strain by the provision of extra width.

c) Separation of drains from pavement with resultant decrease in seepage effects.
d) Structural support for the pavements.
e) Appearance and traffic capacity of the road.
1.3.3.2. GENERAL SHOULDER WIDTH

The minimum shoulder width for two-way rural roads unless the volumes are below
150 vpd should be 1.0 m. Shoulders less than 1.0 m width result in vehicles on the
adjacent lane travelling closer to the road centre line. A width of 1.5 m to 2.0 m
ensures capacity of the adjacent lane is unaffected by obstructions outside the
shoulder. These widths allow a vehicle to stop, or a maintenance vehicle to operate
with only partial obstruction of traffic lanes.
A lane width of 2.5 m is needed to allow a passenger vehicle to stop clear of the
traffic lane. A width of 3.0 m allows a passenger vehicle to stop clear of the traffic
lanes and provides an additional clearance to passing traffic. It also allows a
commercial vehicle to stop clear of the traffic lanes.
18
1.4. CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
1.4.1. GENERAL
The cross section of a road consists of the following items. (Refer Figure 1.4.1)
I. Carriageway.
II. Shoulder.
III. Median.
IV. Platforms.
V. Cross fall.
VI. Drains.
VII. Batters.
VIII. Parking Strips.
IX. Right Of Way.
19
Figure 1.4.1 Typical cross section of a road
20
1.4.2. CARRIGEWAY
The carriageway is the surface on which the vehicles are expected to run.
Carriageways are classified as single-lane, two-lane or multi-lane. A traffic lane is
defined as the width used for single line of traffic operation. The desirable lane width
is taken as 3.7m. The absolute minimum lane width shall be 3.1m. For multi-lane
roads carriageway is divided into two parts by introducing a median. Then vehicles
are moving in opposite direction at each part. Such carriageway is called a duelcarrigeway.
The width of the carriageway selected for Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale Road is 6.4

m (3.2m x 2).
1.4.3. SHOULDER
Shoulder is the portion traveled adjoining to the outer edge of the carriageway that
accommodates stopped vehicles, emergency use and lateral support of sub base, base
and surface course. In the absence of foot walk, shoulders could be used for
pedestrians also. It may be of compacted earth or gravel. In some cases shoulders may
be totally or partly sealed. The desirable width of shoulder is 3.0m and minimum
shoulder width may be 2.4m and absolute minimum width may be 1.8m.
The shoulder width selected for this particular road is 1.2 m.
1.4.4. MEDIAN
Median is the land of dividing the carriageway in order to avoid the collision of
opposing vehicles. Normally center median accommodate for 4-lane or multi-lane
roads. To clearly identify the centre median from the carriageway, median may be
raised, flush or provide small humps at regular intervals. The main advantages of
providing the centre median are to separate opposing traffics, provide refugee area for
21
crossing pedestrians, provide a stopping area in case of emergency situation, allow

space for U-turning vehicles, provide open green space and minimize opposing head
light glare at night.
No centre median is provided for Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road since it was

designed as two way two lane road.
1.4.5. PLATFORM
Carriageway and shoulder on either side when taking together is called as the
platform.
A platform width of 10.6 m is selected for Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road.
1.4.6. CROSSFALL
1.4.6.1. GENERAL
The carriageway crossfall is the slope of the carriageway measured at right angles to
the horizontal alignment and shoulder crossfall could be similarly defined. The main
purpose of introducing crossfall is to ensure sufficient drain the road surface.
Generally shoulder crossfall is steeper than the carriageway crossfall and should be
varied with the surface material.
1.4.6.2. PAVEMENT CROSSFALL

The carriageway is cambered to form an inverted U which is rounded at its highest
point known as crown. The recommended crossfall values for various surface
materials are tabulated in Table 1.4.1.
22
Table 1.4.1 - Recommended Cross-falls on Straight for Different Surface Types
Type of surface on carriageway
Recommended Crossfall
Portland Cement Concrete
2.0%
Asphalt Concrete
2.5%
Surface Seals
3.0%
Unsealed Gravel
4.0%
Since Asphalt Pavement surface is applied for Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road,

2.5 % slope is selected as normal cross-fall.
1.4.6.3. SHOULDER CROSSFALL

The shoulder cross-fall is generally steeper than the carriageway cross-fall and the
cross-falls should be varied with the surface material.
The recommended crossfall values for the shoulder are tabulated Table 1.4.2.
Table 1.4.2 - Recommended Shoulder Cross-falls on Straight

Type of Shoulder
Recommended Crossfall
Bitumen or other all weather surface
3-4%
Gravel
4-5%
For Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road, 4.0 % slope is selected as the soft shoulder

cross-fall.
1.4.7. DRAINS
Drains are provided for collecting and conveying of water from the road surface. The
selected cross section of drain should have the sufficient capacity to dispose the rain
water collected from the road platform.
23
1.4.7.1. SIDE DRAINS

These are located on outside of shoulder in either side. The surface water should be
drained away as quickly as possible before seepaging water from top of pavement
layers to subgrade. To overcome this issue side drain of adequate section shall be
provided. The cross section may be either trapezoidal if that is earth drain or
rectangular if that is concrete drain.
For Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road 0.9m wide side drains are provided on

either side of the road where necessary.
1.4.7.2. INTERCEPTER DRAINS

Intercepter drains are also known as catch or cut-off drains. These are located at the
top of cut slopes behind the rounded batter. Their purpose is to interrupt the seepage
water within the upper soil layer and flow of surface water and prevent the scour of
the cut slope face. Intercepter drains are occupied as open channels.
No intercepter drains are provided for this particular section on PalugamaBoralanda-Haputale road since embankment cut height is always less than 6m.
1.4.7.3. SUB-SOIL DRAINS

Sub-soil drains deals with drainage of underground water. The main purpose of
providing sub-soil drains are:
Intercept groundwater.
To drain the subgrade and pavement during and after construction.
Drain wet areas below the surface or outside the carriageway.
Stabilize or lower the water table.
As the finished level of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road lies considerably above
the water table, the necessity of providing of sub-soil drains is not arisen.
24
1.4.7.4. CROSS SHOULDER DRAINS

Cross shoulder drains (mitre or boxing drains) are designed to drain the pavement
through the shoulder, usually via a coarse permeable filter media. This type of drains
is generally occupied to places where water is collected during the construction stage.
Therefore it is not included in the design.
Cross Shoulder Drains were not provided in the design of Palugama-BoralandaHaputale road.
1.4.8. BATTERS
1.4.8.1. CUT BATTER

Cut batter slope will depend on the depth of cut and soil properties. For general
conditions a cut slope of 4:1 could be adopted. It is preferable to limit the depth of cut
to 6m when adopting 4:1 cut slope. For special condition of soil properties and site
conditions it is better to investigate the batter stability.
A cut slope of 4:1 is adopted, in the design of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road

where necessary.
1.4.8.2. FILL BATTER

Fill batter slope will depend on the soil properties. For general conditions a fill slope
of 1:1.5 could usually be adopted.
A fill slope of 1:1.5 is adopted for the design of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road

where required.
25
1.4.8.3. SLOPE BENCHES

When material in a cut slope is sufficiently unstable to warrant flatter than average
slopes, then providing of benches may be more suitable in the case of deep cuts. The
necessity of benches in unstable material, their width and vertical spacing should be
determined only after an adequate materials investigation. When cuts exceed 12m
consideration shall be given to benching of batters to facilitate maintenance and
possibly improve aesthetics. Benches should be sloped to form a valley along the
centre so that rain water can be drained off toward the ends of bench and discharged
onto natural ground where possible. Minimum width of bench should be 3m with a
maximum crossfall of 0.10m/m. The slope should be suitably protected by grassing.
In the design of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road, slope benches were not

provided as no deep cuttings were involved.
1.4.8.4. SIGHT BENCHES

When benches are provided mainly for purpose of improving the sight distances, they
are called as sight benches.
In the design of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road, the minimum sight distance

was provided without adopting sight benches.
1.4.8.5. FILL SLOPE TREATMENT

The run-off from the pavement surface and the shoulders ultimately flows over the
slopes of the embankment. The extent of erosion of fill slope from surface run-off
depends on various factors such as soil type, slope of the embankment, and rainfall
intensity. The measure adopted overcome the erosion is called fill slope treatment.
Various types of treatments are available such as
a. Turfing
b. Pitching with rip-rap
26
c. Raised curbs, gutters and flumes

d. Geotextiles
e. Bituminious treatment
Turfing is used as fill slope treatment in designing of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale

road.
1.4.9. PARKING STRIPS
1.4.9.1. GENERAL
Every vehicle owner wishes to park the vehicle as close as possible to his destination
so as to minimize his walking. Also spaces are required to vehicles to load or unload
goods. This results a great demand for parking spaces in the urban area where bare
land around the road is limited.
1.4.9.2. WIDTH OF PARKING STRIPS

The most commonly used angle parking arrangement provides for 450 parking on a
strip 4.9 m wide, measured at right angle to the kerb. For parallel parking
arrangement, a 2.4 m strip is the minimum acceptable width and this is the usual
width marked on the pavement.
1.4.9.3. PARKING BAYS
In urban areas, parking bays should be provided for commercial vehicles to load and
unload merchandise and customers vehicles. Location of parking bay is important as
it influence the success in attracting motorists.
In the design of this particular section of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road,

parking bays were not provided, as the trace was located in un-urbanized area.
27
1.4.9.4. CROSS FALL OF PARKING STRIPS AND BAYS
Generally 3% -4% cross fall is adopted for parking strips in both angle and parallel
parking.
1.4.10. RIGHT OF WAY

Right of Way is the clear width required to accommodate all the facilities of the road.
In the design of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road, 12 m wide right of way is

provided.
1.5. SIGHT DISTANCE
1.5.1. GENERAL
Sight distance in road design is the distance at which a driver of a vehicle can see an
object of specified height on the road ahead of him assuming satisfactory conditions
prevail to ensure visibility. A driver ability to see ahead is of the most importance in
the safe and efficient operation of a vehicle on a road. For safety on road the designer
should provide sight distance of sufficient length that drivers can control the vehicles
to avoid striking an unexpected object on traveled way.
1.5.2. CONSTANTS USED IN DESIGN FOR SIGHT DISTANCE

In calculating various sight distances, following values of reaction time and heights of
objects have been adopted.
a) Total reaction time
This is the time between the instant the hazard comes into view and the
instant the vehicle begins to slow after breaks have been applied. (Taken
as 2.5sec.)
28
b) Driver eye height

Passenger car
1.05m
Commercial Vehicle
1.80m
c) Object cut off height above road surface

Approaching vehicle
1.15m
Stationary Object
0.20m
Vehicle tail height/Stop light =
0.60m
Height of head light
0.75m
Upward divergence angle
1.00deg
Vertical clearance
5.20m
1.5.3. STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD)

Stopping sight distance is the minimum distance required by an average driver of a
vehicle traveling at a given speed to react and stop before reaching an object in its
path. Stopping sight distance is measured from the drivers eyes, which are assumed
to be 1.05m above the pavement, to an object 0.20m high on the road.
Stopping sight distance has two compartments; the distance traveled during total
reaction time and the distance traveled during breaking time.
t RV
V2
SSD =
+
3.6 254
.. (1.5.1)
SSD
=Stopping Sight Distance (m)
tR
=Total Reaction Time (sec)
=Speed of vehicle (km/h)
=Coefficient of Longitudinal Friction between vehicle tyres and road

pavement assumed constant throughout the breaking period.
29
The value of Coefficient of Longitudinal Friction () varies with speed, tyre pressure,
tyre condition, type of pavement and whether the surface is dry or wet. The
Coefficient of Longitudinal Friction () values assumed are tabulated in Table 1.5.1.
Table 1.5.1 Longitudinal Friction Factors
Design Speed (kmph)
Friction Factor ()
30
0.40
40
0.38
50
0.35
60
0.33
70
0.31
80
0.30
90
0.30
100
0.29
Specimen Calculation for Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road,

V = 40 km/h
f
= 0.38 (Refer Table 1.5.1)
tR = 2.5s
From Equation 1.5.1,
SSD = 2.5 x 40/3.6 + 402/ (254 x 0.38)
= 44.35 m
By rounding, SSD = 45 m
1.5.4. EFFECT OF GRADE IN BREAKING

The distance a vehicle travels while being breaked to a halt is longer on downhill
grades and shorter uphill. Therefore above breaking distance formula adjusted to take
into account the effect of grade is;
30
t RV
V2
SSD =
+
3.6 254( 0.01G )
G
.. (1.5.1)
Longitudinal grade as a percentage (+ uphill, - downhill)
The calculated stopping sight distances for each speed are given in Table 1.5.2.
1.5.5. OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE (OSD)

The distance needs to see ahead to safely overtake the front vehicle moving at
constant speed is called the Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD). Vehicles in two-lane,
two-way highways need to overtake slower moving vehicles. If passing is to be
accomplished safely, the passing driver should be able to see a sufficient distance
ahead, clear of traffic, to complete the passing manoeuvre without cutting off the
passed vehicle before meeting an opposing vehicle that appears during the
manoeuvre. The actual safe overtaking sight distance depends on many variables, but
the following simplifying assumptions could be made.
The overtaken vehicle travels uniformly at one step lower than the
design speed.
The overtaking vehicle trails the overtaken vehicle as it enters the

overtaking section.
Overtaking manoeuvre is accomplished by accelerating in the early part

of the manoeuvre up to reaching design speed and completing the
manoeuvre at the same speed.
Only one vehicle at a time is overtaken.
With these assumptions, calculated sight distances required for overtaking at various
speeds are also tabulated in Table 1.5.2.
31
As the road is located in mountainous terrain and due to land acquisition problems
overtaking sight distance was not strictly followed.
1.5.6. CONTINUATION SIGHT DISTANCE (CSD)

Continuation sight distance is equal to twice the stopping sight distance needed for
two drivers traveling at design speed approaching each other head on to stop before
colliding. It provides reasonable opportunity to overtake assuming that a driver has a
choice to either proceed or withdraw when he is nearly opposite the overtaken
vehicle.
If continuation sight distance could be provided, it will automatically fulfill the

stopping sight distance values for speeds greater than the specified design speed.
The design Continuation sight distance values are tabulated in Table 1.5.2
Table 1.5.2 - Design Values for Stopping, Overtaking & Intermediate Sight Distances
on Bituminous and Concrete Pavements
Design speed(kmph)
Stopping Sight
Continuation Sight
Distance(SSD) - m Distance(CSD) - m
Overtaking Sight
Distance(OSD) m
30
30.0
60.0
160
40
45.0
90.0
220
50
65.0
130.0
280
60
85.0
170.0
350
70
115.0
230.0
430
80
140.0
280.0
520
100
205.0
410.0
690
Height of Eye (m)
1.05
1.05
1.05
Height of Object (m)
0.20
1.15
1.15
32
1.5.7. SIGHT DISTANCE AT GRADE CRESTS
Stopping, Overtaking and Intermediate Sight Distances required can be achieved by

designing appropriate vertical curve radius and curve lengths for different speeds.
This will be discussed in the Section 1.8.
1.5.8. HEAD LIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE

This illuminated distance is important traveling at night, because the sight distance at
night is governed by the distance illuminated by the head light beam. This effect is
discussed in Section 1.8.
1.6. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
1.6.1. INTRODUCTION
The important consideration in determining the horizontal alignment of a road is the
provision of safe and continuation operation for substantial lengths of roadway. The
horizontal alignment of a road is usually a series of straights and circular curves
connected by transition curves.
When introducing horizontal curves, following aspects such as the minimum radii,
transition lengths, pavement widening and superelevation required has to pay special
attention.
1.6.2. MOVEMENT ON A CIRCULAR PATH

When a vehicle moves in a circular path it undergoes a centripetal force that act
toward the centre of curvature. In road design it is assumed that the above force is
balanced by the side friction developed between tyre & pavement and by the
superelevation.
33
From the first principals the following equation could be derived for normal values of
superelevation;
V2
e+ f =
127 R
.. (1.6.1)
Where;
e
= Superelevation.
= Coefficient of side friction between vehicle tyres & road pavement.
V = Design speed (kmph).

R = Curve radius (m).
Superelevation is a percentage that the pavement to be superelevated. The

superelevation to be adopted is chosen primarily for safety, other factors being
comfort and appearance.
By rearranging the above formula, a minimum curve radius can be determined using
the maximum values for superelevation (emax) and maximum side friction factors
(fmax) for a given design speed(V).
Rmin
V2
=
127(emax + f max )
(1.6.2)
Therefore maximum values for superelevation and side friction factors have to be
determined. The maximum superelevation used on highways is controlled by many
factors. Those are climate condition, terrain type, type of area and frequency of slow
moving vehicles whose operation might be affected by high superelevation rates.
Consideration of these factors jointly leads to the conclusion that no single maximum
superelevation rate is universally applicable that a range of value should be used.
Therefore the range of values suit Sri Lanka for Maximum superelevation (emax) was
tabulated in Table 1.6.1.
34
Table 1.6.1 Maximum Superelevaion Values

Terrain type
emax
Open
Build-up
Flat
6%
6%
Rolling
8%
6%
Mountainous
10%
6%
Also it is necessary to specify a minimum value for superelevation due to a minimum

crossfall is defined for drainage considerations. Therefore it is recommended to take
minimum superelevation equal to normal crossfall although for larger radii, a small
superelevation is sufficient for stability.
1.6.3. SIDE FRICTION FACTOR

The side friction factor represents the vehicles need of side friction. The upper limit
of the side friction factor is the point at which the tyre would begin to skid. This is
known as the point of impending skid. Because the highway curves are designed to
avoid skidding condition with a margin of safety, side friction factor value used in
design should be substantially less than the coefficient of friction at impending skid.
By considering safety and comfort the maximum values of side friction factor adopted
for the design of horizontal curves for paved and unpaved roads are tabulated in Table
1.6.2.
35
Table 1.6.2 - Maximum Design Values of Co-efficient of Side Friction
Design speed(kmph)
Maximum design values of coefficient of side friction

Bituminous Roads
Gravel Roads
30
0.210
0.140
40
0.190
0.130
50
0.170
0.120
60
0.160
0.110
70
0.150
0.100
80
0.140
0.090
90
0.130
100
0.128
1.6.4. HORIZONTAL CURVATURE
1.6.4.1 GENERAL
Horizontal curvature is a shape to provide for places where change in direction occurs
of the designed centre line. Depending on the changes of the direction, one of the
following curve types could be introduced at the design stage.
I. Simple circular curve.
II. Transition curve.
III. Compound curve (Unidirectional curve).
IV. Reverse curve.
1.6.4.2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING HORIZONTAL

ALIGNMENT
The following general controls for horizontal alignment should be kept in view in a
sound design practice.
36
I. Alignment should be as directional as possible but should be consistent with the

topography and with preserving developed properties.
II. The number of short curves should be kept to a minimum.
III. For a given design speed, use of minimum radius for that speed should be
avoided wherever possible.
IV. Sharp curves should not be introduced at the ends of long tangents.
V. Sudden changes from areas of flat curvature to areas of sharp curvature should
be avoided.
VI. At places where sharp curvature must be introduced it should be approached by
successively sharper curves from the generally flat curvature.
VII. The minimum length of horizontal curve on main highways should be about
three times the design speed.
VIII. On high long fills, tangents or flat curves should be used as far as possible.
IX. Compound curves with large difference in curvature should be avoided. The
radius of the flatter circular curve should not be more than 50% greater than the
radius of the sharper circular curve.
X. Introducing short tangents between two curves in the same direction should be
avoided except where topography or right-of-way restrictions make their use
necessary.
1.6.4.3. SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE

These are plain circular curves and simplest to use. In designing the curves followings
will be governed.
I. Minimum radius of curve.
II. Minimum length of curve.
By substituting values of maximum superelevation (emax) and maximum side friction

factors (fmax) minimum curve radius could be calculated for a given design speed.
These values are shown in the Table 1.6.3.
37
Table 1.6.3 Minimum Radii for Different Superelevation

Superelevation
Design
Speed(kmph)
2.5%
3.0%
4.0%
5.0%
6.0%
7.0%
8.0%
9.0%
10.0%
30
35
30
30
30
30
30
25
25
25
40
60
60
55
55
55
50
50
45
45
50
105
100
95
90
90
85
80
80
75
60
155
150
145
135
130
125
120
115
110
70
225
215
205
195
185
180
170
165
155
80
310
300
280
270
255
240
230
220
210
90
415
400
380
355
340
320
305
290
280
100
515
500
470
445
420
400
380
365
350
In this design the radius selected for two curves and their corresponding
superelevation values are as in the Table 1.6.4
Table 1.6.4 Radii selected, with corresponding Superelevation
Chainage
Radius of the
Superelevation
Curve (m)
3+272.04 3+327.28
70
2.5%
3+737.00 3+791.99
160
2.5%
To accommodate the super-elevation development length (Ls) at two edges of the

curve, curve length should be sufficient enough. The length of
Ls is required to
accommodate superelevation development at two edges and full superelevation is

accommodated over length equal to Ls.
Thus minimum total length of the curve should be equal to
Ls.
Curve lengths are provided to fulfill above requirement in Palugama-BoralandaHaputale road.

38
1.6.4.4. TRANSITION CURVE

Transition curves are introduced between tangents and circular curves, between two
tangents, between two similar curves or between two reverse curves. Clothoid(spiral
curve) is used as the transition curve.
The advantages of adopting the transition curve in horizontal alignment are the
following.
I. To provide a natural, easy-to-follow path for drivers, such that the lateral
force increases and decreases gradually as a vehicle enters and leaves a
circular curve.
II. To provide a length over which the super elevation development can be
applied.
III. To provide flexibility in accomplishing the widening of sharp curves.
IV. To improve the appearance of the road by avoiding sharp discontinuities in
alignment at the circular curves.
Transition curves are used when the design speed is higher than 70km/h. Since
maximum design speed used in Sri Lanka is less or equal to 70 km/h use of transition
curve has been limited.
In designing Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road, transition curve is not been used.

1.6.4.5. COMPOUND CURVE
This type comprises of successive curves of different radii in the same direction, with
common or closely spaced tangent points. The radius of the larger curve should not be
higher than 50% of the radius of the smaller curve. Generally compound curve should
be avoided and a single curve shall be adopted if topography and ground control is not
making an obstacle.
In designing of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road, compound curves are used.
39
1.6.4.6. REVERSE CURVE

These curves consists with successive curve having common or closely spaced
tangent points but in opposite direction. Reverse curve having common tangent point
make difficulty in achieving change of superelevation rates. Therefore short tangent
could be introduced between two curves to overcome the above problem.
In designing of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road, reverse curves are used.
1.6.4.7. SIMILAR CURVES
This consists of two curves in the same direction formed by a short tangent. Attempt
should be made to avoid this type of alignment by adopting a Simple Curve or a
Compound Curve. When Similar Curves are unavoidable, tangent lengths in the range
of 0.6 V to 3 V should be avoided. (Where V is the Design Speed in km/h for the
particular trace)
In designing of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road, similar curves were not used.
1.6.4.8. WIDENING OF CARRIGEWAY ON CURVES

Carriageways are widened on some curves because a vehicle passing through on a
curve occupies a greater width than it goes on a straight and to avoid difficulty in
steering their vehicles in the centre of the lane. The amount of widening required
depends on;
I. Radius of the curve.

II. Vehicle length and width.
III. Width of lane on straight.
IV. Lateral clearance between two vehicles.
40
In general practice minimum amount of widening is limited to 0.6m. The amount of

widening for a SU vehicle and for two lane highway is given in the table 1.6.5.
Table 1.6.5 Design values for pavement widening on open highway curves
6.2 meters
Radius of
Design speed (km/h)
curve (m)
30
40
50
60
70
300
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
250
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.8
200
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.9
150
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.1
140
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
130
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.1
120
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
110
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
100
1.0
1.1
1.2
90
1.1
1.2
1.3
80
1.1
1.2
1.3
70
1.2
1.3
60
1.3
1.5
50
1.6
1.7
40
1.8
30
2.0
41
1.7. SUPERELEVATION
1.7.1. GENERAL
When vehicle travels along a curve it experiences a force called centrifugal force.
Centrifugal force increases when the velocity of the vehicle increases and the radius
of the curvature decreases. To balance the effects of the centrifugal force curves
should be superelevated. The amount of superelevation will depend on the radius of
the curve, design speed and pavement surface characteristics.
1.7.2. STANDARDS FOR SUPERELEVATION

The superelevation to be adopted is selected for safety, comfort and appearance. Use
of maximum superelevation should be confined to mountainous terrain or places
where there are physical obstructions which confine the radius of the particular curve
with respect to the adjacent curves.
The maximum superelevation varies from 10% in mountainous terrain and 8% in

rolling terrain to 6% in flat terrain.
In the design of, Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road a maximum super-elevation of

4% is adopted, where it was necessary and for other places, it is maintained at 2.5%.
1.7.3. CURVES WITH ADVERSE CROSSFALL

For a given speed, when traveling large radius curves the centripetal force on the
vehicle is so small that even with the adverse crossfall no stability problems occurs.
By substituting value of 0.06 in open areas and 0.07 in build-up areas for side friction
factor without considering the design speed for equation 3, minimum radius of curves
with adverse crossfall of 2.5% are given in the Table 1.7.1
42
Table 1.7.1 - Minimum Radii with Adverse Cross Fall
Design speed (kmph)
Minimum radius for adverse crossfall

Open
Built-up
30
205
160
40
360
280
50
565
440
60
810
630
70
1105
860
80
1440
1120
90
1825
1420
100
2250
1750
Specimen Calculation for Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road,

Equation 1.6.2 can be modified as follows.
R = V2 / 127 (e+ f)
Where,
V = 40 km/h (Design Speed for the trace)

f = 0.06
e = 0.025 m/m (Adverse Cross Fall Value)
R = 402/ 127 (-0.025 + 0.06)
= 360 m
In designing of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road, adverse cross fall is provided

for curves having curve radius greater than 360m.
1.7.4. DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERELEVATION
1.7.4.1. AXIS OF ROTATION

To adopt superelevation development at the curves the crossfall is rotated about a line.
43
That rotate line is defined as the axis of rotation. Position of the axis of rotation is
depend upon the type of terrain and type of the road. For two lane undivided road
usually the centre line of the road is taken as the axis of rotation. In the case of wide
medians it is general practice to assume the median edge of pavement or shoulder as
the axis of rotation.
Centre line was taken as the axis of rotation for the design of Palugama-BoralandaHaputale road.
1.7.4.2. SUPERELEVATION DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
A change from normal cross fall to super-elevation occurs as the road changes from a
straight to curved alignment. The length required to develop super-elevation should be
adequate to ensure a good appearance and give satisfactory riding qualities.
There are number of methods to calculate the superelevation development length.

I. Relative Gradient Method.
II. Rate of Pavement Rotation Method.
1.7.4.2.1. RELATIVE GRADIENT METHOD
The minimum length of superelevation development from this method can be

calculated from the following equation.
Le =
W (e + n )
Gr
Where;
Le
= Length of superelevation development (m)
= Lane Width (m)
= Superelevation
= Normal crossfall
Gr
= Relative gradient (Refer table 1.7.2)

44
.. (1.7.1)
Table 1.7.2 Maximum Relative Gradients

Maximum Relative Gradient
Design
Speed(kmph)
1 Lane
2 Lane
>2 Lane
30
1.00
1.50
2.00
40
0.83
1.25
1.66
50
0.71
1.07
1.42
60
0.63
0.95
1.26
70
0.56
0.84
1.12
80
0.50
0.75
1.00
90
0.45
0.68
0.90
100
0.42
0.63
0.84
1.7.4.2.2. RATE OF PAVEMENT ROTATION METHOD
The rate of rotation is defined as a change in the crossfall from normal crossfall to full
superelevation over the time, required by a vehicle traveling as the design speed along
the length where the change occurs.
The length of superelevation development is given by following expression.
Le =
( e + n )V
3 .6
.. (1.7.2)
Where;
Le
= Length of superelevation development (m)
= Design speed (kmph)
= Superelevation
= Normal crossfall
= Rate of pavement rotation (rad/s)
45
The rate of pavement rotation is recommended to be 0.035rad/s for design speeds less
than 80kmph and to be 0.025rad/s for design speed greater or equal to 80kmph.
The maximum value given from above two equations is taken as the superelevation
development length by rounding to next highest multiple of three.
Specimen calculation of superelevation development length (Le)

Consider curve no. 69, (from 3+536.896 to 3+627.661) in Palugama-BoralandaHaputale road.
Design speed
=40km/h
Lane width
=3.2m
Superelevation
=2.5%
Normal crossfall
=2.5%
Relative gradient
=0.83
Rate of rotation
=0.035
From equation (1.7.1),

Superelevation development length =3.2(2.5+2.5)/0.83
=19.28m
From equation (1.7.2),

Superelevation development length = (2.5+2.5)*40/(3.6*0.035*100)
=15.87m
Maximum value gives from Relative gradient method
=19.87m
By rounding to next highest multiple of three,

Superelevation development length
=21.00m
Table 1.7.3 gives superelevation values and corresponding length of superelevation

development for various radii and design speed.
46
Table 1.7.3 - superelevation values and corresponding length of superelevation

development for various radii and design speed
V=30kmph
e
(%)
2-lane roads
V=40kmph
4-lane roads
3.1(m) 3.7(m) 3.5(m) 3.7(m)
2-lane roads
4-lane roads
3.1(m) 3.7(m) 3.5(m) 3.7(m)
AC 205
20
20
20
20
360
30
30
30
30
2.5
35
20
20
30
30
60
30
30
30
30
30
20
30
30
30
**
**
55
30
30
40
40
**
**
**
**
**
50
40
50
60
60
25
40
40
40
40
**
**
45
50
60
70
70
10
**
**
V=50kmph
e
(%)
2-lane roads
V=60kmph
4-lane roads
3.1(m) 3.7(m) 3.5(m) 3.7(m)
2-lane roads
4-lane roads
3.1(m) 3.7(m) 3.5(m) 3.7(m)
AC 565
30
30
30
30
810
40
40
40
40
2.5
105
30
30
40
40
155
40
40
40
40
100
30
30
40
40
150
40
40
50
50
95
30
40
50
50
145
40
40
50
60
90
40
40
50
60
135
40
50
60
60
**
130
50
60
70
70
85
50
50
70
70
125
50
60
80
80
80
50
60
70
80
120
60.
70
80
90
**
115
60
70
90
100
10
75
60
70
90
90
110
70
80
100
100
47
V=70kmph
e
(%)
2-lane roads
V=80kmph
4-lane roads
3.1(m) 3.7(m) 3.5(m) 3.7(m)
2-lane roads
4-lane roads
3.1(m) 3.7(m) 3.5(m) 3.7(m)
AC 1105
40
40
40
40
1440
50
50
50
50
2.5
225
40
40
50
50
310
50
50
50
50
215
40
40
50
50
300
50
50
60
60
205
40
50
60
60
280
60
60
70
70
195
50
50
70
70
270
70
70
80
80
185
50
60
80
80
255
80
80
80
90
180
60
70
80
90
240
90
90
90
100
170
60
70
90
100
230
100.
100
100
110
165
70
80
100
110
220
110
110
110
120
10
155
70
90
110
120
210
120
120
120
130
1.7.4.3. POSITIONING OF SUPERELEVATION
a) Tangent to circular.
The superelevation development length shall be placed such that

is prior to the tangent point and
of the total length
of the length is within the curve. Figure 1.7.1
shows the position of superelevation development length from tangent to circular and
Figure 1.7.2 shows edge profile for a circular curve.
Superelevation development lengths for tangent to circular curves have been designed
according to above method in Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road.
48
3L
3L
C urve
3L
TC
3L
CT
T a n g e n t p o in t s
Figure 1.7.1 - Position of superelevation development length from tangent to circular
Figure 1.7.2 - Edge profile for a Circular curve
b) Reverse curve
For common or closely spaced tangent points, all or most of the development must be
within the circular arc. Typical edge profiles for reverse curves having common and
closely spaced tangent points are shown in figure 1.7.3
49
Figure 1.7.3 - Edge profile for Reverse curve
Superelevation development lengths for reverse curves have been designed according
to above method in Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road.
c) Compound Curves
For common or closely spaced tangent points (i.e. the tangent points separated by less
than 70% of the total length required to develop super-elevation) position the change
in super-elevation development evenly about common tangent point or tangent points.
(Refer Figure 1.7.4)
Superelevation development lengths for compound curves have been designed

according to above method in Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road.
50
Figure 1.7.4 - Edge profile for Compound curve

1.7.4.4. SUPERELEVATION DEVELOPMENT ON SHOULDERS
1. Sealed Shoulder
To achieve pleasing visual appearance, the shoulder is treated as part of the

pavement during rotation from normal cross fall position as shown in Figure 1.7.5.
On the high side of the super-elevation, the shoulder is rotated to match the cross
fall of the adjacent lane and then the whole carriageway is rotated as a plane
surface until the required super-elevation is achieved.
2. Unsealed Shoulders
To prevent length of unsealed shoulders being at level cross fall when the
pavement is level during superelevation development, these shoulders are
superelevated as shown in Figure 1.7.6
51
Figure 1.7.5 Development of superelevation in sealed shoulder
Figure 1.7.6 Development of superelevation in unsealed shoulder
52
1.8. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
1.8.1. GENERAL
Vertical alignment of a road comprises of straight gradients and vertical curves.

Vertical curves are introduced between two straight gradients to smooth the passage
of vehicle from one gradient to another. Also vertical curves increases the sight
distances if two gradients meet as crest. There are two types of vertical curves.
I. Crest curves. (Convex vertical curves, summit curves)
II. Sag curves.
In designing vertical alignment of a road following factors have to be taken into

account.
I. Good co-relation with the horizontal alignment.
II. Provision of sufficient sight distances.
1.8.2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF IN DESIGNING THE VERTICAL

ALIGNMENT
The following general controls for vertical alignment should be kept in view in
designing the vertical profile of a road.
I. The selected grade line shall be smooth with gradual changes, consistent to
class of the road and terrain type.
II. Two vertical curves in the same direction separated by short section of
tangent grade should be generally avoided.
III. On long grades it may be preferable to place the steepest grade at the
bottom and flattern the grade at shorter intervals of lighter grade instead of
uniformly sustained grade.
IV. Hidden type of profile should be avoided as it is hazardous and
aesthetically unpleasant.
53
1.8.3. VERTICAL CURVES
Various types of curves can be used as the vertical curves of a road. But the
considering of ease of manual computation and a constant rate of change of curvature
along the length, the type of curve used as vertical curve is the simple parabola.
Figure 1.8.1 Basic Elements of a typical vertical curve
The basic parabolic equation derived to calculate the elements of a vertical curve is
expressed as follows.
Y=
A
X2
200 Lv
.. (1.8.1)
Where;
Y =
vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (m).
X =
horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (m).
A =
algebraic difference in gradients (%).
Lv =
length of vertical curve (m).

54
1.8.3.1. CREST VERTICAL CURVES
1.8.3.1.1. GENERAL
The vertical curve having convexity upward is called a crest vertical curve. This curve
develops when an ascending road intersects a descending road or when an ascending
gradient meet descending gradients in convex manner. (Figure 1.8.2)
Figure 1.8.2 Crest vertical curves
1.8.3.1.2. LENGTH OF CREST CURVES
Minimum length of crest vertical curves based on sight distance criteria, riding
comfort or by appearance requirements.
1. Sight distance Criteria
When sight distance< length of vertical curve; (S<Lv)

Working on the parabolic equation of vertical curve, it can be shown that for crest
curves,
LV =
Where Lv
AS 2
200( h1 + h2 ) 2
Length of vertical curve (m).

55
.. (1.8.2)
sight distance (m).
h1
drivers eye height (m).
h2
object height (m).
Since S, h1 and h2 are fixed values and only A is the variable. Therefore above
equation can be expressed as a linear function of Lv = KA, where K (in m per %) is a
constant for each design speed.
The calculated length of vertical curve is rounded up to the next highest multiply of
10m. Table 1.8.1 gives the minimum lengths of crest vertical curves for Sight distance
criteria.
Table 1.8.1 - Minimum Crest Vertical Curve Length Based on Sight Distance Criteria
K= Length of vertical curve for 1% change in grade

Stopping Sight
Continuation Sight
Overtaking Sight
Distance
Distance
Distance
h1=1.05
h1=1.05
h1=1.05
h2=0.2
h2=1.15
h2=1.15
30
2.1
4.1
29.1
40
4.7
9.2
55
50
9.8
19.2
89.1
60
17
33
139.3
70
31
60
210.2
80
45
89
307.4
100
97
191
541.3
Design Speed
(kmph)
When sight distance> length of vertical curve; (S>Lv)
Lv = 2 S
200 h1 + h2
A
56
.. (1.8.3)
Where
Lv
sight distance (m).
h1
h2
object height (m).
The lengths of vertical curve resulting from Equation 1.8.3 are insignificantly less
than those resulting from Equation 1.8.2 for S < L, except for the curves with very
small A values and high Design Speeds.
Therefore it may be argued that if the standard values should be calculated only with
reference to equation 1.8.2, taking also the fact that in normal design practice the
length of vertical curve is rounded up to the next highest multiple of 10m.
Hence, the K values of vertical crest curve given in Table 1.8.1 can be applied to both
cases, whether the sight distance is shorter than the length of vertical curve or not.
Specimen calculations
For Stopping Sight Distance

h1 = 1.05m
h2 = 0.2m
S = 45 m for Design Speed of 40 km/h (Refer Table
1.5.2)
Therefore
K = 4.7
For Continuation Sight Distance

h1 = 1.05m
h2 = 1.15m
1.5.2)
Therefore
K = 9.2
For Overtaking Sight Distance
57
h1 = 1.05m
h2 = 1.15m
1.5.2)
Therefore
K =55
In Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road Stopping Sight Distance is provided in all

crest curves. In some crest curves Continuation Sight Distance is provided. But
Overtaking Sight Distance is not provided in all cases.
2. Appearance Criterion
At very small changes of grade, a vertical curve has little influence other than
appearance of the profile and may be omitted. At any significant change of grade,
short vertical curve detract from the appearance. This is particularly evident on high
standard roads.
Table 1.8.2 gives vertical curve lengths on the basis of appearance. Longer curves
may be preferred, where they can be used without conflict with other design
requirements and where they give a better fit to the topography.
Table 1.8.2 Minimum Vertical Curve Length Based on Appearance Criterion
Design Speed
Maximum grade change
Minimum length of
(km/h)
without vertical curve (%)
vertical curve (m)
30
1.3
30
40
1.3
40
50
1.0
50
60
0.8
50
70
0.7
60
80
0.6
70
100
0.3
90
58
Minimum curve length for Appearance Criteria was provided on all crest curves in
Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road.
3. Allowable Grade Change without Crest Vertical Curve
Curves should be provided at all grade changes exceeding the values shown in Table
1.8.2.
This criterion is not fulfilled in designing of crest vertical curves in PalugamaBoralanda-Haputale road.
4. Comfort Criterion
Discomfort is felt by a human being subject to rapid change in vertical acceleration.

To minimize such discomfort when passing from one grade to another, it is usual to
limit the vertical acceleration generated on the vertical curve to a value less than 0.05
g, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. On low standards roads and
intersections, a limit of 0.10 g may be used.
The resolved component in the vertical direction, of the acceleration normal to the
curve, due to traversing the path of parabolic vertical curve at uniform speed is given
by;
v2 A
v2
a=
=
100 L v 100 K
.. (1.8.4)
The adopted design value for a is 0.03g. Values of K for specific design speed and
vertical acceleration of 0.03g are shown in Table 1.8.3
59
Minimum curve length for Comfort Criterion is provided on all crest curves in
Table 1.8.3 Minimum Vertical Curve Length Based on Comfort Criterion
Design Speed (km/h)
K = Length of vertical curve in metres for

1 % change in grade
0.03g
30
2.4
40
4.2
50
6.5
60
9.4
70
13
80
17
100
26
5. Drainage Considerations
Minimum longitudinal grade on kerbed pavement should be 0.30 % for satisfactory

drainage. There is a level point on a crest vertical curve, but no difficulty with
drainage on kerbed pavement experienced if the curve is sharp enough so that the
minimum grade of 0.30 % is reached at a point about 15 m from the crest. This
corresponds to a K value of 45 m per percent change in A.
60
1.8.3.2. SAG VERTICAL CURVES
1.8.3.2.1. GENERAL
The vertical curve having convexity downward is called a sag vertical curve. This
curve develops when an ascending road intersects a descending road or when
ascending gradients meet or descending gradients meet in concave manner(Refer
Figure 1.8.3). There is no restriction to sight distance during day time on sag vertical
curve. But during night time visibility is limited by the distance illuminated by the
head light beam. Therefore in designing sag vertical curve, a head light criterion is the
main criterion. Other criteria are the Appearance criterion, Comfort criterion, Over
Head Obstruction and Drainage Considerations.
Figure 1.8.3 Sag vertical curves
1.8.3.2.2. LENGTH OF SAG CURVES
1. Length of Sag Vertical Curve for Sight Distance Requirements
Based on the Head Light Criterion, length of sag vertical curve is given by;
AS 2
Lv =
120 + 3.5S
61
.. (1.8.5)
Where
Lv
sight distance (m).
From the above equation minimum length of sag vertical curve for various design
speed is tabulated in Table 1.8.4.
Table 1.8.4 - Minimum Sag Vertical Curve Length Based on Head Light Sight
Distance Criterion
Design Speed(kmph)
Minimum length of sag vertical curve(m)
30
4.0
40
7.3
50
12
60
17
70
25
80
32
100
50
Specimen Calculations
S = 45 m for Design Speed of 40 km / h (Refer Table 1.5.2)
K = 452/ (120 + 3.5 x 45)
= 7.3
Minimum curve length for Head Light Criterion is provided on all sag curves in
2. Over Head Obstructions.
Based on the Over Head Obstruction, length of sag vertical curve is given by;
62
Lv =
Where Lv
200
AS 2
(H h1 + (H h2 ) )2
sight distance (m).
h1
h2
object height (m).
Height of Obstruction (m).
.. (1.8.6)
Since there are no over head obstructions in Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road, no

need to consider this criterion.
3. Appearance Criterion
The requirements are same as the crest vertical curves.
Minimum curve length for Appearance Criteria is provided on all sag curves in
4. Allowable Grade Change without Sag Vertical Curve.
The requirements are same as the sag vertical curves.
5. Comfort Criterion
The requirements are same as the crest vertical curves.
Minimum curve length for Comfort Criterion is provided on all sag curves in
63
6. Drainage Considerations
Minimum longitudinal grade on kerbed pavement should be 0.30 % for satisfactory
drainage. There is a level point on a sag vertical curve, but no difficulty with drainage
on kerbed pavement experienced if the curve is sharp enough so that the minimum
grade of 0.30 % is reached at a point about 15 m from the crest. This corresponds to a
K value of 45 m per percent change in A.
1.8.4. GRADES
1.8.4.1. GENERAL
The gradient of a line is its longitudinal slope and is expressed as the ratio of the
difference in height, of its two ends, to the length between them. The gradient in the
vertical alignment could be taken different values based on the topography of
particular area. To characterize variations in topography, it is generally separate it into
three classifications according to terrain.
In level terrain, highway sight distances, as governed by both horizontal and vertical
restrictions, are generally long or can be made to be so without construction difficulty
or major expense.
In rolling terrain, natural slopes consistently rise above and fall below the road or
street grade, and occasional steep slopes offer some restriction to normal horizontal
and vertical roadway alignment.
In mountainous terrain, longitudinal and transverse changes in the elevation of the

ground with respect to the road or street are abrupt, and benching and side hill
excavation are frequently needed to obtain acceptable horizontal and vertical
alignment.
64
1.8.4.2. STANDARDS FOR GRADES
(a) GENERAL
The grade adopted should allow the average vehicle to climb mountain in top gear at
the design speed or move down without excessive breaking. Therefore to satisfy
above criteria maximum grade should be defined. Also runoff water should drain
along the road. Therefore in the places where almost flat terrain, minimum grades are
involved.
(b) GENERAL MAXIMUM GRADIENTS
Maximum gradient mainly depend on the type of terrain, speed and class of road.
With the gradient up to 10% satisfactory level of service can be provided. But
gradient over 10% can cause problems of very slow climbing speeds and high
downhill speed for heavy vehicles. In such situations climbing lanes may be provided
to increase capacity and decrease delay & accidents.
Table 1.8.5 illustrate the relevant maximum gradients corresponding to the class of
the roads and terrain type.
65
Table 1.8.5 Maximum Gradients

Class of road
Terrain type
Maximum gradient
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
Flat
Rolling
Mountainous
10
Flat
Rolling
10
Mountainous
10
Flat
Rolling
10
Mountainous
10
Gradients steeper than general maximum have to use because of the existing
topography of the section.
(c) MINIMUM GRADIENTS
Drainage is the main consideration where minimum grades are involved. On flat
terrain the gradient can be flat provided that normal cross fall is available and length
of level gradient to be as small as possible. In rural areas a minimum gradient of 0.5%
should be maintained and in urban areas where pavements are kerbed, minimum
gradient should not be flatter than 0.3%.
The minimum gradient adopted in the design of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road

is 0.52 %.
66
1.8.4.3. GRADES STEEPER THAN GENERAL MAXIMUM
Accommodation of gradients more than the recommended general maximum

gradients may be justified in the following situations.
1. Numbers of heavy vehicles are low.
2. Comparatively short sections of steep gradients which lead to significant
cost savings.
3. Difficult terrain in which general maximum gradients are not practical.
4. Less important local roads where cost of achieving high standard are
difficult to be justified.
A less important road on a mountainous terrain where maximum gradients are not
practical gradients of 12-15% may be satisfactory.
Maximum gradient of 16.94% (length 53m) is used in Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale

road by taking in to account above four factors.
1.8.4.4. CRITICAL LENGTH OF GRADES
To maintain the quality of service of road in mountainous terrain, maximum length

for different grade has to be provided. That critical length of grade tabulated in Table
1.8.6.
67
Table 1.8.6 Critical length of Grades
Grade %
Critical Length (m)
480
330
250
200
170
150
140
10
135
12
120
1.9. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
1.9.1. GENERAL
The three dimensional co-ordination of the horizontal and vertical alignments of a

road is the combination of the alignment in such a way that it will provide improved
traffic safety and aesthetics.
Economics factors often apply the predominant influence and the final result is
usually a compromise between aesthetic considerations and economics.

FOR SAFETY
I. The design speed of the road in both the horizontal and vertical directions
should be of the same order.
68
II. Sharp horizontal curves should not be introduced at or near the top of a vertical
curve as a driver may not identify the change in the alignment, especially at
night. This situation is avoided if the horizontal curve leads the vertical curve.
III. Reverse horizontal curve with crest vertical curves are undesirable if horizontal
curves are short, since the reverse curvature of the alignment is difficult to
understand to the driver by the crest.
IV. It is undesirable to provide a crest of a vertical curve near or at a road
intersection or rail crossing.
V. Short humps in the grade should be avoided.
VI. Adequate visibility should be provided when transitioning from undivided to
divided roads.

FOR AESTHETIC REASONS
I. It is desirable that the horizontal curve is longer than the vertical curve and that
the start of the horizontal curve should ideally lead the start of the vertical curve.
II. A sag vertical curve should be located on the horizontal curve rather than on the
tangent close to the start of the horizontal curve.
III. A short vertical curve on a long horizontal curve looks unpleasantly.
IV. Rolling grades on isolated straights between curves looks unpleasantly.
V. A short tangent in the grade line between sag curves has a poor appearance.
VI. A broken back crest or sag curves has a poor appearance.
VII. A short sag curve on a straight is unsightly, although functionally adequate,
whereas a long sag curve provides continuity and is aesthetically pleasing.
69
1.10. REFERENCES
1. Road Development Authority Geometric Design Standards of Roads 1998
2. National Association of Australian State Road Authorities (NAASRA) Sydney

Policy for Geometric Design of Rural Roads - 1976
3. National
Association
of
Road
and
Traffic
Authorities
in
Australia
(AUSTROADS) Sydney Rural Road Design Guide to the Geometric Design

of Rural Roads
4. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

- A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets - 2001
70
.
CANDIDATE
(Eng. P.C.I. Kumaratunga)
..
SENIOR DESIGNS ENGINEER
.
DEPUTY DIRECTOR / HIGHWAY DESIGNS
.
DIRECTOR / HIGHWAY DESIGNS
71
2.0 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF

INTERSECTION
REPORT
ON
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
OF
INTERSECTION
OF
COLOMBO-GALLE-HAMBANTOTA-WELLAWAYA
ROAD AND HAMBANTOTA BY PASS ROAD
AT
HAMBANTOTA (GABADA JUNCTION)

72
2.1. INTRODUCTION
2.1.1. GENERAL
An intersection is defined as a location at which two or more streets intersect at grade.

Intersections are an important part of the road system, because it provides a solution
for the traffic having conflicting movements. But it reduces the capacity due to the
sharing of common right-of-way.
The following are the four basic forms of intersections at grade.
1.
Un-channelised and unflared
2.
Unchannelised and flared
3.
Channelised
4.
Signalised
The aims of the intersection design are to improve traffic flow and reduce likelihood
of accidents. This is achieved controlling vehicle manoeuvres and reducing the
number of points of conflict. At the same time optimum balance between following
factors has to be achieved.
1. Capacity
2. Delay
3. Safety
4. Cost
5. Environmental Quality
6. Pedestrian Delay and Safety
7. Cyclist Safety
8. Drivers Comfort
73

The aim of this project is to introduce a roundabout at Gabada junction in
Hambantota. Gabada junction is located in Colombo-Galle-Hambantota-Wellawaya
road (AA-002). The necessity of having a roundabout was arises with the constructing
of new highway from Ambalantota to Gabada junction through Adiseeya road
because the closure of Colombo-Galle-Hambantota-Wellawaya road at Hambantota
with the starting of construction work in Hambantota port.
Although the present traffic movements across the junction is less, it is expected that it
will be increased considerably with the start of functioning of Hambantota Harbour
and Airport.
The above factors lead to design a roundabout at Gabada junction.
Initially there were four legs at the junction.

1. Hambantota-Tangalle road (Class A)
2. Hambantota Bypass road. (Class A)
3. Hambantota-Wellawaya road (Class A)
4. Gonnoruwa road from Adiseeya road.
Traffic movement through Hambantota- Tangalle road was became almost zero with
the construction of Hambantota bypass road through Hambantota saltern. Therefore
in designing the roundabout, Hambantota-Tangalle road was connected to the
Gonnoruwa road before the junction. With this alteration four leg intersection was
become an intersection having only three legs.
74
2.2. BASIC DATA FOR DESIGN
2.2.1. TRAFFIC DATA
Traffic indicates the service for which the improvement is being made and directly
affects the geometric features such as widths, alignments and grades.
The traffic data required for the design include the traffic volumes for days of the year
and times of the day, as well as the distribution of vehicles by type. The data also
include information on trends of traffic growths in the future.
The traffic data required for design of this intersection was collected by the Traffic &
Planning Division of the Road Development Authority. (Refer Figure 2.2.1)
2.2.1.1. PEAK HOUR TRAFFIC VOLUMES INCLUDING TURNING

MOVEMENTS
The traffic pattern on any highway shows considerable variation in traffic volumes
during the different hours of the day and in hourly volumes throughout the year. It
must be determined which of these hourly traffic volumes should be used in the
design.
It would be wasteful to predicate deign on the peak hour traffic of the year, yet the use
of the average hourly traffic would result in an adequate design. The hourly traffic
volume used in design should not be exceeded very often or by very much. On the
other hand, it should not be so high that traffic would rarely be great enough to make
full use of the resultant facility.
On guide in determining the hourly traffic best fitted for use in design is a curve
showing variation in hourly traffic volume during the year. These curves lead to the
75
conclusion that the hourly traffic used in design should be the 30th highest hourly
volume of the year. It is abbreviated as 30 HV.
However traffic studies in our country has shown that there is not much significant
variation in hourly volumes and hence the peak hour traffic volume is used for the
design purposes. In addition to peak hour traffic volume, their turning movements
were also collected and analysed for the designs.
The peak hour traffic volumes and turning movements relevant to Gabada junction
collected by the Traffic & Planning Division of the Road Development Authority on
08.01.2009 are shown in Table 2.2.1(a) Table 2.2.1(b), Table 2.2.1(c).
Figure 2.2.1 Traffic Data at the intersection from 7.00 to 19.00 hrs
Notations for each leg are as follows:

From Gonnoruwa (from adisiyya) LEG 1
From Weerawila (Tissamaharamaya) LEG 2
From Hambantota (Hambantota by pass) LEG 3
76
Table 2.2.1 (a) - Summary of Peak Hour Turning Moments in Morning Peak (0915 1015 Hrs) at Gabada Junction (in Veh / h)
LEG
LEG1
LEG2
LEG3
TOTAL
MOVE
MCL
TW
CAR
VAN
MBU
LEG2
30
10
11
LEG3
11
LEG1
22
LEG3
44
13
14
LEG1
15
LEG2
37
159
MENT
LBU LGV
MG1
MG2
HG3
AG3
AG4
AG5
AG6
FVH
TOTAL
21
92
16
56
10
10
108
26
13
86
39
41
34
24
25
25
33
384
77
Table 2.2.1 (b) - Summary of Peak Hour Turning Moments in Mid day Peak (1100 1200 Hrs) at Gabada Junction (in Veh / h)
LEG
LEG1
LEG2
LEG3
TOTAL
MOVE
MCL
TW
CAR
VAN
MBU
LEG2
31
11
LEG3
LEG1
15
10
LEG3
39
10
13
LEG1
13
LEG2
33
140
MENT
LBU LGV
MG1
MG2
HG3
AG3
AG4
AG5
AG6
FVH
TOTAL
10
15
12
97
23
60
13
84
22
17
12
11
91
53
45
34
25
20
32
22
377
78
Table 2.2.1 (c) - Summary of Peak Hour Turning Moments in Evening Peak (1700 1800 Hrs) at Gabada Junction (in Veh / h)
LEG
LEG1
LEG2
LEG3
TOTAL
MOVE
MCL
TW
CAR
VAN
MBU
LEG2
29
15
LEG3
LEG1
30
14
15
LEG3
37
11
LEG1
10
LEG2
46
160
MENT
LBU LGV
MG1
MG2
HG3
AG3
AG4
AG5
AG6
FVH
TOTAL
11
86
20
12
97
11
84
20
12
83
41
40
45
29
22
29
16
390
79
2.2.1.2. VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
The characteristics of a vehicle profoundly influence the geometric design aspects

such as radii, width of pavement, clearance, parking geometry etc. So traffic mix
surveys are carried out to get an idea about how many of each class of vehicles use
the intersection and their behaviour.
Table 2.2.2 - Equivalent Passenger Car Units

Vehicle Type
Equivalent Factor
Motor cycle
0.4
Three wheeler
0.8
Passenger car
1.0
Van
1.1
Mini Bus
1.8
Large Bus
2.4
Large good vehicle
1.5
MG1
2.0
MG2
2.5
HG3
3.0
AG3
3.5
AG4
4.0
AG5
5.0
AG6
6.0
FVH
6.0
It is normal practice to convert the traffic flow, vehicles/hour or vehicles/day into

equivalent Passenger Car Units (PCU) by multiplying with equivalent factors. The
factors presently used by Traffic & Planning Division of the Road Development
Authority are given in Table 2.2.2.
80
2.2.1.3. PEDESTRIAN TRAFFIC
The involvement of pedestrian in traffic is a major consideration in highway planning

and design. Pedestrians are a part of every roadway environment, and attention must
be paid to their presence in rural as well as urban areas. In Sri Lanka, facilities
provided for pedestrian are mostly sidewalks and traffic control measures.
To cater the pedestrian traffic, 2.4 m wide foot-walks are provided within the
intersection limits.
2.2.1.4. ACCIDENT DATA
Accident data is important in an intersection design as it gives some important

measures about an intersection, such as the effect of the intersection geometry,
pavement width and performance of vehicles at intersection etc.
2.2.1.5. PARKING DATA
Parking of vehicles near an intersection obstructs the free flow of traffic. Kerb side
parking also affects the capacities of an intersection by narrowing the carriageway
available for moving traffic. However, assessment of the present and future demands
should be made in order to make adequate provision in the intersection design.
2.2.1.6. PUBLIC TRANSPORT REQUIREMENTS
Bus halts should be located at places, where its interference on circulating and
through traffic is absolutely in minimum.
At present, there is one bus halt on Weerawila leg of the intersection and, two bus
bays are introduced in places, where their effect on smooth functioning of the
intersection is minimum.
81
2.2.2. SITE TOPOGRAPHY
The location and design of an intersection will be affected by many factors including
the introduction of new highway, the alignment and the grade of the approach roads,
the neediness of providing drainage, the extent of interference with public utilities,
property access and the local features, both manmade and natural. Some sort of
compromises in design is generally necessary as it is seldom possible to satisfy each
and every requirement.
All legs of the Gabada junction are in fairly flat terrain.
2.2.3. PHYSICAL FEATURES AND ITEMS OF CULTURAL, HISTORICAL

AND RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE
In designing alignments all attempt should be made to not to disturb features such as
culturally, historically, religiously important.
At Gabada junction, there are no such significant features.
2.2.4. OVERHEAD AND UNDERGROUND UTILITY SERVICES
Overhead and underground utility services which are close enough to the intersection
to be affected, together with any future planned amplification of these services should
be determined in the preliminary stage of the design.
At Gabada junction, there are electrical posts to be shifted and relocated out of the
Right Of Way limits. Water Supply manholes also have to be shifted, wherever it will
be needed.
82
2.2.5. RIGHT OF WAY PROBLEMS AND LIMITATIONS
Acquisition problems may be arise with the location of intersection, access to the
property and presence of local features both manmade and natural.
At Gabada Junction, there are no such right of way problem since already acquired
up to sufficient extent.
2.3. ANALYSIS OF DATA
2.3.1. ANALYSIS OF DATA FOR THE SELECTION OF DESIGN VEHICLE

A design vehicle is a hypothetical road vehicle, whose mass, dimensions and
operating characteristics are used to establish design requirements.
The design of an intersection should make provision for vehicle of legal dimensions
to carry out turning movement under acceptable operating conditions with adequate
clearance to features such as kerbs and road furniture.
Selection of design vehicle is necessary for the design of minimum turning radius,
pavement widths, turning lane widths etc. The turning path of the design vehicle
selected is used to determine the maximum width to be maintained. Selection of
design vehicle depends upon the location of the intersection, traffic volume and the
percentage of vehicles of each classification likely to use the intersection.
Table 2.3.1 shows the percentage of each classification of vehicles in Hambantota
Intersection.
83
Table 2.3.1 - Composition of Vehicles at Hambantota Intersection during Peak Hours

of the Day
Morning Peak
Type of Vehicle
Mid Day Peak
Evening Peak
No of
% of
No of
% of
No of
% of
Vehicles
Vehicles
Vehicles
Vehicles
Vehicles
Vehicles
Motor cycle
159
41.41
140
37.14
160
41.03
Three wheeler
39
10.16
53
14.06
41
10.51
Passenger car
41
10.68
45
11.94
40
10.26
Van
34
8.85
34
9.02
45
11.54
Mini Bus
0.26
0.00
1.03
Large Bus
24
6.25
25
6.63
29
7.44
Large good vehicle
25
6.51
20
5.31
22
5.64
MG1
25
6.51
32
8.49
29
7.44
MG2
33
8.59
22
5.84
16
4.10
FVH
0.52
0.53
0.51
Heavy Vehicles
0.26
1.10
0.51
2.3.2.
ANALYSIS
OF
DATA
FOR
SELECTION
OF
TYPE
OF
INTERSECTION
2.3.2.1. TYPE OF INTERSECTION BASED ON TREATMENT

1. Unchannelised and Unflared Intersections.
This type of intersection is normally adequate, where minor roads meet each
other or where major road is joined by a minor road. In urban areas, many
intersections remain unchannelised due to economic reasons, even though the
volume of turning traffic may otherwise need special treatment. In such cases,
traffic can be controlled by signals or regulated signs, such as STOP or
84
GIVE WAY signs on the minor roads. However, regulatory signs are not a
substitute for channelisation.
2. Unchannelised and flared Intersections.

Simple unchannelised intersections may be flared to provide additional
through lanes or auxiliary lanes, such as speed changing or passing (by
passing) lanes.
Speed changing lanes allow left or right turning vehicles to reduce or increase
speed when leaving or entering the through road without affecting the speed of
through traffic adversely.
Passing lanes permit through vehicles to pass on the left of another vehicle
waiting to complete waiting to complete a right turn at an intersection.
3. Channelised Intersections
A channelised intersection is one where paths of travel for various movements

are separated and delineated. Raised traffic islands, raised markers, painted
markings and safety bars can be used for channelisation. A roundabout is a
channelised intersection where traffic moves clockwise around a central
island.
Roundabouts would be inappropriate, if located on a road, where the volume

of traffic on each approach was substantially different or where there is
insufficient right of way available for a roundabout.
Roundabouts generally provide for safer and more efficient operation than
traffic signals owing to the restricted crossing speed and the reduced lost time.
4. Signalised Intersection
85
Traffic signals at intersections are provided to control traffic movements and

reduce the potential for accidents by time separation of potentially conflicting
movements. Periods of time (Phases) are provided in turn to the various
conflicting movements. At minor signalised cross intersections, only two
phases may be required to separate movements on one road from the
movements on the other. At complex intersections, many phases may be
required to adequately handle the many conflicting movements.
2.3.2.2. FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF TYPE OF INTERSECTION

Many factors influence the selection of type of intersection. But the principal
controlling criteria are the design hour traffic volume, the composition of traffic and
the design speed. Of particular significance are the actual and relative volumes of
traffic involved in various turning and through movements.
Local conditions and the cost of right of way often influence the type of intersection
selected as well as many of the design details. The alignment and grade of the
intersecting roads and the angle of intersection may make it advisable to channelise or
use auxiliary pavement areas, regardless of the traffic densities.
2.3.3. BEST INTERSECTION TREATMENT FOR THE PROBLEM IN HAND

Considering above factors and based on the capacity analysis given in Section 2.5
designing with traffic signals were not considered. Therefore Roundabout which is
also a channelised intersection was found to be a suitable treatment compared with the
other treatments. As such a roundabout was considered as the most suitable type for
this intersection.
86
2.4. ROUNDABOUTS
2.4.1. TYPES OF ROUNDABOUTS AND SELECTION OF THE TYPE FOR

THE DESIGN
Depending on the size of the central island and the arrangement of vehicle
movements, roundabouts are categorised as follows.
2.4.1.1. MINI ROUNDABOUTS
Mini roundabouts have central island diameter less than 4.0 m and single lane
circulating carriageway. Adequate deflection is not achieved and drivers face
difficulty in deciding appropriate gaps in the traffic flow. These types of roundabouts
are constructed at low traffic intersections. Also a provision has been made to pass
over the central island for heavy vehicles by keeping the central island 50 mm above
the road surface.
2.4.1.2. SMALL ROUNDABOUTS
When central island diameter is less than 10.0 m, the roundabout is considered as
small. These may have a circulating carriageway of single or two lanes. Small
roundabouts are appropriate for three or four legs intersections with moderate traffic
movements. Most of the roundabouts in Sri Lanka fall into this category.
2.4.1.3. LARGE ROUNDABOUTS
Large roundabouts are those with central island diameter more than 10.0 m. Drivers
have to cover more distance in executing a manoeuvre. These are recommended for
large new junctions or major improvements to existing intersections. For construction
of this type of roundabout requires large area and high installation cost.
87
2.4.1.4. DOUBLE ROUNDABOUTS
A double roundabout is a combination of two small roundabouts link together. These

lead to be the best solution for multi-leg intersections, though elliptical islands are
also made use of. In negotiating elliptical curves, drivers have to change speedcausing inconvenience. Therefore two circular islands are preferred because of drivers
can drive through at uniform speed.
2.4.1.5. CONVENTIONAL ROUNDABOUTS
This type of roundabouts having a one-way carriageway, which may be composed of

varying sections, around a circular or asymmetrical central island and normally
without flared approaches.
Depending on the site conditions and availability of right of way and the effect of
possible traffic growth, a large roundabout is selected for Hambantota Intersection.
2.4.2. ELEMENTS OF A ROUNDABOUT
The elements of a roundabout are shown in Figure 2.4.1 and brief descriptions of each
element are given below.
2.4.2.1. CENTRAL ISLAND

Central Island should preferably be circular as continually changing curvature of the
circulating carriageway increases the driving task demand. However, oblong or other
shapes may need to be adopted to suit unusual site conditions. The size of the central
island is determined principally by the space available and the need to obtain
sufficient deflection to control through vehicle speed.
For Hambantota Intersection circular type Centre- Island is selected.

88
Figure 2.4.1 Geometric Elements of a Roundabout
2.4.2.2. CENTRE ISLAND DIAMETER
In general a large central island provides greater separation between adjacent conflict
areas and makes it easier for entering drivers to determine whether vehicles, already
on the circulating carriageway, are exiting or continuing on around the circulating
carriageway. Larger diameter central islands are usually necessary for roundabouts in
high- speed areas at multi-leg intersections.
89
In the design of Hambantota Intersection, a diameter of 12.0 m is selected for the

Central Island after carrying out several trials. Final decision is mainly influenced by
the sufficient space availability at site and possible traffic growth.
2.4.2.3. INSCRIBED CIRCLE DIAMETER
The diameter of the circle that may be inscribed within the outer kerb line of the
circulating carriageway is denoted by inscribed diameter. This may not always be
truly circular.
In the design of Hambantota Intersection, 33.04 m inscribed circle diameter is

selected.
2.4.2.4. CIRCULATING CARRIAGEWAY
The carriageway around the central island on which, circulating vehicles travel in a
clockwise direction.
2.4.2.5. CRCULATING CARRIAGEWAY WIDTH
The width of the circulating carriageway described above.
In the design of Hambantota Intersection, carriageway width of 10.52 m is adopted.

(Refer Section 2.7.3)
2.4.2.6 GIVE WAY LINE
A broken line, marked across the entry carriageway, where it meets the circulating
carriageway and at which, vehicles should wait if necessary for an acceptable gap in
traffic to enter the circulating carriageway.
90
In the design of Hambantota Intersection, Give Way Lines are inserted in all three
legs of the intersection.
2.4.2.7. ENTRY CURVE
The left edge of pavement curve of the entry carriageway, which leads vehicle into
the circulating carriageway, is known as entry curve.
Radii of each entry curves of each approach of Hambantota Intersections are given in
Chapter 2.7 under Geometric Design Calculations.
2.4.2.8. EXIT CURVE
The left edge of pavement curve of the exit curve carriageway, which leads vehicle
out of the circulating carriageway, is known as exit curve.
Radii of each exit curves of each approach of Hambantota Intersections are given in
Chapter 2.7 under Geometric Design Calculations.
2.4.2.9. APPROACH WIDTH
The one-way width of the carriageway on the approach to the roundabout is known as
the approach width.
2.4.2.10. ENTRY / EXIT WIDTH
The width of the carriageway at its entry / exit point to / from the circulating
carriageway is known as entry / exit width.
91
2.4.2.11. DEPARTURE WIDTH
The one-way width of the carriageway on the departure from the roundabout is known
as departure width.
2.4.2.12. CORNER KERB RADIUS (KERB RETURN)
The radius of the corner kerb between adjacent entry and exit roadways is known as
corner kerb radius.
2.4.2.13. SPLITTER ISLAND
Splitter islands should be provided on all roundabouts in rural and urban areas. They
provided shelter for pedestrians, assist in controlling entry speed, guide traffic into the
roundabout and deter right turners from taking dangerous wrong way short cut
movements through the roundabout.
Splitter islands should be designed to direct vehicles into roundabout on a smooth

curve and at angle, which affords the drivers comfortable sighting of approaching
traffic. The curve on the entry side of the splitter island, where it turns into the
circulating carriageway, should be tangential to the centre island. However, in some
cases, the projection of the entry curve may be permitted to cut slightly into the
central island.
The splitter island should be of sufficient size to shelter a pedestrian (at least 2.4 m
wide) and be a reasonable target to be seen by approaching traffic. A minimum area
of 8 to 10 m2 should be provided on any major road approach.
The areas of splitter islands provided in the design are given in Section 2.7.
92
2.4.3. GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS
In the design of Hambantota Intersection, the standards used in Highway Designs

Division of the Road Development Authority are adopted.
2.5. CAPACITY ANALYSIS AND DELAY CALCULATIONS
2.5.1. METHODS OF CAPACITY ANALYSIS
2.5.1.1. GAP ACCEPTANCE THEORY

The usual term used to define Gap Acceptance Behaviour are the critical acceptance
gap, ta and the follow-up time, tf.
The Critical Acceptance gap is the minimum acceptable gap that will be acceptable to
a homogenous and consistent population of drivers.
The Follow-up time is the minimum headway between minor steam vehicles, which
enter in the longer gaps in the circulating traffic. In both cases, the units are in
seconds.
In the theory, it is assumed that all drivers will accept a gap greater than Critical
Acceptance Gap. It is also assumed that drivers are consistent and behave exactly the
same each time a gap is offered.
As the drivers in each entry lanes behave differently, each entry lane will be given
different Critical Gap and Follow-up Headway parameters.
The procedure for capacity analysis for each approach by this method is as follows.
1. Assemble Traffic Data.
2. Determine the number of entry and circulating lanes.
93
3. Record the geometric values for;

The inscribed diameter, Di
The number of entry lanes, ne
The number of circulating lanes, nc
The average entry lane width
4. Classify the entry lane type
5. Estimate the Critical Gap Acceptance parameter.
6. Estimate the characteristic of the circulating traffic.
7. Calculate Absorption Capacity and Degree of Saturation.
2.5.1.2. ANALYSIS PACKAGE

There are two basic types of computer design packages for roundabouts. The first are
simulation packages, which are intended to mirror the performance of particular
roundabouts. They model the behaviour of drivers approaching, negotiating and
exiting roundabouts.
The second type use analytical techniques based on Gap Acceptance Theory and
Traffic Control Theory. Both types of packages have their uses and limitations.
2.5.2. THE METHOD SELECTED FOR THE CAPACITY ANALYSIS

Capacity Analysis for Roundabout at Hambantota Intersection based on Gap
Acceptance Theory is as follows.
STEP 1:
Assembling Traffic Data
Table 2.2.1(a), 2.2.1(b) and 2.2.1(c) give the summary of Turning Movement Survey
Carried out at Hambantota intersection in different peak hours of the day. Turning
volumes are in vehicles / hour.
94
Turning Volumes given in Table 2.2.1(a), 2.2.1(b) and 2.2.1(c) were converted into
Passenger Car Units by multiplying with the Equivalent Factors given in Table 2.2.2
and tabulated in Table 2.5.1(a), 2.5.1(b) and 2.5.1(c).
Figure 2.5.1(a), 2.5.1(b) and 2.5.1(c) illustrate the turning movements diagram
corresponding to the values in Table 2.5.1(a), 2.5.1(b) and 2.5.1(c).
95
Table 2.5.1(a) - Summary of Peak Hour Turning Moments in Morning Peak (0915 1015 Hrs) at Gabada Junction (in PCU / h)
LEG
MOVE
MENT
MCL
TW
CAR
VAN
MBU
LEG1
LEG2
LEG3
12
4
8
2
11
1
9
1
2
0
0
0
LEG2
LEG1
LEG3
9
18
2
10
5
14
8
11
0
0
LEG3
LEG1
LEG2
6
15
3
6
3
7
2
7
64
31
41
38
TOTAL
LBU LGV
MG1
MG2
HG3
AG3
AG4
AG5
AG6
FVH
TOTAL
5
0
14
0
52
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
119
11
2
24
7
13
12
14
18
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
63
107
0
0
0
31
2
10
0
10
0
7
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
19
99
57
37
50
83
12
418
96
Table 2.5.1(b) - Summary of Peak Hour Turning Moments in Mid day Peak (1100 1200 Hrs) at Gabada Junction (in PCU / h)
LEG
MOVE
MENT
MCL
TW
CAR
VAN
MBU
LEG1
LEG2
LEG3
12
4
6
4
7
2
12
4
0
0
2
0
LEG2
LEG1
LEG3
6
16
8
8
8
13
9
3
0
0
LEG3
LEG1
LEG2
5
13
3
14
3
12
0
9
56
43
45
37
TOTAL
LBU LGV
MG1
MG2
HG3
AG3
AG4
AG5
AG6
FVH
TOTAL
15
2
30
2
30
2
0
0
4
0
4
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
127
20
0
31
8
2
14
6
12
2
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
12
0
77
85
0
0
0
26
2
3
0
12
2
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
94
59
32
64
53
12
418
97
Table 2.5.1(c) - Summary of Peak Hour Turning Moments in Evening Peak (1700 1800 Hrs) at Gabada Junction (in PCU / h)
LEG
MOVE
MENT
MCL
TW
CAR
VAN
MBU
LEG1
LEG2
LEG3
12
3
6
2
7
1
16
5
5
0
10
0
LEG2
LEG1
LEG3
12
15
11
5
9
11
17
9
0
0
LEG3
LEG1
LEG2
4
18
2
6
4
8
1
2
64
32
40
50
TOTAL
LBU LGV
MG1
MG2
HG3
AG3
AG4
AG5
AG6
FVH
TOTAL
11
0
22
6
5
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
94
21
2
26
10
6
16
8
30
5
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
111
91
0
2
2
29
2
4
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
15
81
69
33
58
40
12
413
98
Figure 2.5.1(a) Traffic turning volumes in Morning Peak hour (9.15-10.15)
99
Figure 2.5.1(b) Traffic turning volumes in Mid day Peak hour (11.00-12.00)
100
Figure 2.5.1(c) Traffic turning volumes in Evening Peak hour (17.00-18.00)
101
STEP 2:
Number of Entry and Circulating Lanes
The required number of entry and circulating lanes can be obtained from Figure 2.5.2.
For the Hambantota roundabout, all the points given by plotting circulating flow
against entry flow were below the lower shaded bands. Therefore single-lane
roundabout is suitable for present traffic data. But by considering future traffic
growth due to the development of Hambantota harbour and air port two-lane
roundabout was selected.
Figure 2.5.2 Required No. of Circulating and Entry lanes
From the trial geometric layout of the intersection, number of entry lanes and
approach lanes for each leg is as in Table 2.5.3.
102
Table 2.5.3 No. of entry lanes and approach lanes in Hambantota

intersection
Leg
STEP 3:
No. of approach lanes
No. of entry lanes
Gonnoruwa leg
Weerawila leg
Hambantota leg
Geometric Values
According to the space availability, an inscribed diameter of 33.04 m and central

island diameter of 12.0 m are selected.
Average approach lane widths and entry lane widths taken from geometric layout of
the roundabout were as follows.
Table 2.5.4 Widths of entry lanes and approach lanes in Hambantota intersection
Leg
STEP 4:
Approach lane width
Entry lane width
Gonnoruwa leg
3.5m
4.0m
Weerawila leg
3.5m
3.8m
Hambantota leg
3.4m
3.8m
Classify the Entry Lane Type
Specimen Calculation for Hambantota Roundabout
All the specimen calculations were carried out considering Morning Peak Traffic
Values of Gonnoruwa Leg of Hambantota Roundabout (LEG 1). Similarly,
calculations were carried out for other legs in same manner and results are indicated
in Table 2.5.13 & Table 2.5.14.
103
The entry lane flows are a function of the turning volumes and the portion of through
traffic in each entry lane. In roundabout having four legs, it is assumed that the left
lane will carry the traffic turning left and half of the through traffic. But three leg
roundabouts traffic flows was divided according to the existing traffic movement
pattern.
Considering the traffic values of Gonnoruwa Leg;
The left lane traffic flow
= 119*0.65
= 77
Similarly the right lane traffic flow
= 11 + 119*0.35
= 53
Therefore for the particular approach, the left hand lane is the dominant lane and
right hand lane is the sub-dominant lane.
STEP 5:
Critical Gap Acceptance Parameter
Gap Acceptance parameters are affected by the geometry of the entry. Geometries,
which offer an easier entry path, give lower gap acceptance values. These parameters
are also a function of the circulating flow. At higher circulating flows, the circulating
speeds are lower and drivers are more willing to accept smaller gaps. Also the higher
circulating flows, more circulating drivers slow and allow entering drivers to move in
front of them. This leads to priority sharing or even reversal of priority.
The Critical Gap Parameters are evaluated for each entry lane. Table 2.5.5 gives the
Dominant Stream Follow-up times.
104
Table 2.5.5 - Dominant- Stream Follow-up Headways (tfd) (Initials Values) in seconds
Circulating Flow
(veh/h)
Inscribed
Diameter
(m)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
20
2.99
2.79
2.60
2.40
2.20
2.00
25
2.91
2.71
2.51
2.31
2.12
1.92
30
2.83
2.63
2.43
2.24
2.04
1.84
35
2.75
2.55
2.36
2.16
1.96
1.77
40
2.68
2.48
2.29
2.09
1.89
1.70
45
2.61
2.42
2.22
2.02
1.83
1.63
50
2.55
2.36
2.16
1.96
1.76
1.57
55
2.49
2.30
2.10
1.90
1.71
1.51
60
2.44
2.25
2.05
1.85
1.65
1.46
65
2.39
2.20
2.00
1.80
1.61
1.41
70
2.35
2.15
1.96
1.76
1.56
1.36
75
2.31
2.11
1.92
1.72
1.52
1.33
80
2.27
2.08
1.88
1.68
1.49
1.29
From Troutbeck (1989)

Note: The values of the follow-up headways are given to two decimal places to assist
in interpolation. The adopted value may be rounded to one decimal place.
Flows above about 1700 vph are not applicable to single lane-circulating
carriageways.
The ratio of the critical acceptance gap to follow-up headway (tad / tfd ), is given in
Table 2.5.8. The critical acceptance gap is the product of the appropriate values from
Table 2.5.5 and Table 2.5.8.
(Source: AUSTROADS Part 6 Roundabouts)
The values given in Table 2.5.5 are adjusted if the number of entry lanes differs from
the number of circulating lanes. The adjustment values are given in Table 2.5.6.
105
Table 2.5.6 - Adjustment Times for the Dominant Stream Follow-up Headway
Number of Circulating
Lanes
1
2
3
Number of entry lanes

1
0.00
0.39
-
-0.39
0.00
0.39
-0.39
0.00
Note: Add or subtract these factors from the initial values from Table 2.5.5.
(Source: AUSTROAD Part 6 Roundabouts)
Table 2.5.7 gives the Sub-dominant Follow-up time.
Table 2.5.7 - Sub-dominant Steam Follow-up headway tfs
Dominant steam
follow-up
headway tfd
(s)
1.0
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
2.05
2.10
2.15
2.20
2.25
2.30
2.35
2.41
2.46
2.51
2.56
2.61
2.70
2.80
2.90
3.00
Sub-dominant follow-up headway (tfs) (s)

Ratio of flows
Dominant flow / Sub-dominant flow
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
1.99
2.07
2.15
2.23
2.30
2.38
2.46
2.53
2.61
2.69
2.76
2.84
2.92
3.00
3.07
3.15
From Troutbeck (1989)

(AUSTROAD Part 6 Roundabouts)
106
1.94
2.05
2.15
2.25
2.35
2.46
2.56
2.66
2.76
2.87
2.97
3.07
3.17
3.28
3.38
3.48
1.89
2.02
2.15
2.28
2.40
2.53
2.66
2.79
2.92
3.05
3.17
3.30
3.43
3.56
3.69
3.82
1.84
1.99
2.15
2.30
2.46
2.61
2.76
2.92
3.07
3.23
3.38
3.53
3.69
3.84
4.00
4.15
For a Circulating Flow of 99 PCU/h and Inscribed Diameter of 33.0 m, the Dominant
Steam Follow-up time, tfd is 2.82 s.
According to the Table 2.5.6, Adjustments Value for the particular leg was 0.00.
Therefore Dominant Stream Follow-up Headway after adjustment was 2.82s.
For Hambantota Roundabout, the ratio of the dominant entry lane flow to the subdominant entry lane flow was equal to 77/53 = 1.45.
Using this value and the dominant Stream Follow-up time, tfd, Sub-dominant Followup time was 3.00 s. (Refer Table 2.5.7)
Table 2.5.8 indicates the ratio of the Critical Acceptance Gap to the Follow-up time.
Table 2.5.8 - Ratio of the Critical Acceptance Gap to the Follow-up Headway (tad/tfd)
Number of Circulating
Lanes
Average Entry Lane
Width
(m)
Circulating Flow
(Veh/h)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
One
More than one
2.32
2.26
2.19
2.13
2.07
2.01
1.94
1.88
1.82
1.98
1.92
1.85
1.79
1.73
1.67
1.60
1.54
1.48
1.64
1.58
1.52
1.45
1.39
1.33
1.26
1.20
1.14
2.04
1.98
1.92
1.85
1.79
1.73
1.67
1.60
1.54
1.48
1.41
1.35
1.29
1.23
1.70
1.64
1.58
1.51
1.45
1.39
1.33
1.26
1.20
1.14
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.36
1.30
1.24
1.18
1.11
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10
107
For single lane circulating carriageways, if the critical gap calculated from Table 2.5.5
and 2.5.8 is less than 2.1 s, use 2.1 s.
For multi-lane highways, the minimum value of critical gap should be 1.5 s.
Note: Values of the ratio may be interpolated for intermediate widths of entry lane.
For Gonnoruwa Leg of Hambantota Roundabout, Average entry lane width, Number
of circulating lanes and Circulating flow were 4.61 m, 2 and 99PCU/h respectively.
Therefore the ratio of the Critical Acceptance Gap to the Follow-up Headway was
1.47. (Refer Table 2.5.8)
The Critical Acceptance Gap for the dominant stream was
1.46 x 2.82 = 4.13 s.
The Critical Acceptance Gap for the sub-dominant stream was 1.46 x 3.00 = 4.38 s.
STEP 6:
Characteristics of the Circulating Traffic
The greater the number of circulating carriageway lanes, the shorter will be the
average headway between bunched vehicles of all lanes. The average headways of
bunched vehicles are given in Table 2.5.9.
Table 2.5.9 - Average headway between bunched vehicles in the circulating traffic ()
and the number of effective lanes in the circulating carriageway.
Circulating
Circulating Carriageway Width
Flow
Less than 10 m
Greater than or equal to 10 m
Number of
Headway between
Number of
Headway between
effective
bunched vehicles
effective
bunched vehicles
lanes
() (s)
lanes
() (s)
<1000 veh/h
>1000 veh/h
1 (or 2)
2 (or 1)
(Source: AUSTROADS Part 6 Roundabouts)
108
For Hambantota Intersection, the circulating carriageway width was greater than
10.0 m and it was considered to be function as a two-lane roundabout. Therefore the
Average Headway between the vehicles for circulating flow carriageway was 1 s.
(Refer Table 2.5.9)
Table 2.5.10 gives the proportions of bunched vehicles.
For Gonnoruwa Leg of Hambantota Roundabout, the proportion of bunched vehicle

was 0.271. (Refer Table 2.5.10)
Table 2.5.10 - Proportions of Bunched Vehicles,
Number of effective circulating lanes
One
More than one
Average headway between bunched
2.0
1.0
0.250
0.250
300
0.375
0.313
600
0.500
0.375
900
0.625
0.438
1200
0.750
0.500
1500
0.875
0.563
1800
1.000
0.625
vehicles, , (s)
Circulating flow (veh/h)
2000
0.667
2200
0.708
2400
0.750
2600
0.792
(Source: AUSTROAD Part6 Roundabouts)
109
STEP 7:
Entry Lane Capacity and Degree of Saturation
The absorption capacity of each entry lane is calculated from the entry lane Gap
Acceptance parameters (ta and tf) applicable to the dominant lane and sub-dominant
entry lane and the circulating flow characteristics. (Qc, and )
The entry lane capacity is given by,
C=
3600(1 )qc e (t a )
(1 e )
t f
. (2.5.1)
Where,
C = the absorption capacity of an entry lane in veh/h
= The proportion of bunched vehicles in the circulating steams
qc = The flow of vehicles in the circulating streams in veh/h
ta = The critical acceptance gap relevant to the dominant or sub-dominant lanes
tf = The follow on headway relevant to the dominant or sub-dominant lanes
= The minimum headway in the circulating steam and these are related by
(1 )q c
(1 q c )
For Gonnoruwa Leg of Hambantota Roundabout, the dominant stream gap

acceptance parameters were,
= 0.271,
=1s
tad = 4.13 s
tfd = 2.82 s
Qc = 99
qc = 99/3600 = 0.0275 PCU/s
From equation 2.5.2, = (1-0.271) x 0.0275 / (1-(1 x 0.0275))
110
=0.021
From equation 2.5.1, C= 3600 (1-0.271) x 0.0275 e 0.021 (4.131 )/ (1 e- 0.021 x 2.82)
= 1197
The entry lane capacity for the dominant stream lane was 1197.
= 0.271,
=1s
tas = 4.38 s
Qc = 99
qc = 99/3600 = 0.0275 PCU/s
tfs = 3.00 s
From equation 2.5.1, C = 3600 (1-0.271) x 0.0275 e 0.021 ( 4.381 )/ (1 e- 0.021 x3.00)
= 1123
The entry lane capacity for the sub-dominant stream lane was 1123.
The degree of saturation of an entry lane is the arrival divided by the entry
(absorption) capacity of the lane.
Qm
X =
C
..(2.5.3)
Where,
Qm
= Entry lane arrival flow (veh/h)
= Entry lane capacity (veh/h)
= Entry lane degree of saturation
Qmd = 77
Cd = 1197
The degree of saturation for the dominant stream
= 77 / 1197
= 0.064
Qms = 53
Cs = 1123
The degree of saturation for the sub-dominant stream
= 53 / 1123
= 0.047
111
Qm = 77 +53 = 130
CT = 1197+1123
= 2320
The degree of saturation for the approach
= 130 / 2320
= 0.06
Delays at Roundabout
There are two components of the delays experienced at roundabouts, namely queuing
and geometric delay.
Queuing delay is the delay to drivers waiting to accept gap in the circulating traffic.
Geometric delay is
1. The delays to drivers slowing down to the negotiation speed, proceeding
through the roundabout and then accelerating back to normal operating
speed; or
2. The delay to drivers slowing down to stop at the end of the queue and,
after accepting a gap, accelerating to the negotiation speed, proceeding
through the roundabout and then finally accelerating further to reach
normal operating speed. It excludes the time to wait for an acceptable gap.
Queuing Delay
To calculate the average queuing delay, minimum delay should be calculated using
following equation for the conditions when the entering traffic flow is very low.
2 2
e (t a )
1
Wh =
ta +
(1 )qc
2( + 1 )
112
(2.5.4)
Where the gap acceptance parameters ta, , and are as in equation 2.5.4 and the
circulating flow qc is in veh/s.
For all practical purposes, the average queuing delay per vehicle is given by;
(Z
Wm = Wh + 900T Z +
+ mx CT
)]
(2.5.5)
Where,
Wm
= Average delay per vehicle in seconds
Wh
= Minimum delay in seconds when the entering traffic is very low (from
equation 2.5.4)
= Duration of the flow period in hours, i.e. the time interval during which an
average arrival demand Qm persists (use 1 h or 0.5 h)
=x1
= Degree of saturation of the entry lane (=Qm/C as in equation 2.5.3)
= Entry lane capacity in vehicles per hour
= A delay parameter given by

m = Wh C / 450
Using the gap acceptance parameters for each entry lane and circulating flow
parameters, the average queuing delay per vehicle can be calculated using equation
2.5.4 and 2.5.5.
For Gonnoruwa Leg of Hambantota Roundabout
For dominant stream flow,
Wh
= e0.021 ( 4.38 1) / (1- 0.271) x 0.0.0275 4.38 1/ 0.021

+ (0.021 x 12-2 x 1 x 0.271 )/ 2(0.021 x 1 + 1 0.271)
= 0.22 s
= 0.22 x 1197/ 450
=0.58
113
Wm
= 0.22 +900 x 1 [(0.06-1) + [(0.06-1)2 + 0.58 x 0.06/ 1197 x 1]

= 0.23 s
For sub-dominant stream flow,
Wh
= e0.021 ( 4.38 1) / (1- 0.271) x 0.0275 4.38 1/ 0.021

+ (0.021 x 12-2 x 1 x 0.271 )/ 2(0.021 x 1 + 1 0.271)
= 0.24 s
= 0.24 x 1123/ 450
=0.61
Wm
= 0.24 +900 x 1 [(0.05-1) + [(0.05-1)2 + 0.61 x 0.05/ 1123 x 1]

= 0.26 s
Therefore the average queuing delays per vehicle were 0.23 s and 0.26 s for the
dominant and sub-dominant streams respectively.
The approach queuing delay was related to the lane flows and it was (0.23 x 77 +
0.26 x 53) / (77 + 53) = 0.24 s.
Geometric Delay and Total Delay
The geometric delay for vehicles differs depending on whether the vehicles have to
stop or not.
Average geometric delay dg,
d g = Ps d s + (1 Ps )d u
.. (2.5.6)
Where,
Ps
= The proportion of entering vehicles which must stop
ds
= The geometric delay to vehicles which must stop
(1- Ps) = The proportion of entering vehicles which need not stop
du
= The geometric delay to vehicles which need not stop

114
The proportion of entering vehicles, which must stop, Ps can be estimated using
Figure 2.5.3.
Figure 2.5.3 Proportion of vehicles stopped on a multi lane entry roundabout
ds and du can be obtained from Table 2.5.11 (a) and 2.5.11 (b).
115
Table 2.5.11 (a) - Geometric Delay for Stopped Vehicles (Seconds per Vehicles)
Approach
Distance
Speed
Around
Va
Roundabout
(km/h)
D (m)
Negotiation speed through roundabout

Vn (km/h)
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
40
40
40
40
40
20
60
100
140
180
10
19
8
15
22
7
12
17
7
9
13
18
7
7
10
14
18
60
60
60
60
60
20
60
100
140
180
13
23
11
18
26
10
15
21
10
13
18
22
10
10
15
19
23
10
10
12
15
19
10
10
10
12
15
10
10
10
10
10
80
80
80
80
80
20
60
100
140
180
17
26
15
22
29
13
19
25
13
17
21
26
13
14
19
23
27
13
13
16
19
23
13
13
13
16
19
13
13
13
13
16
100
100
100
100
100
20
60
100
140
180
20
30
18
25
33
17
22
28
17
20
25
30
17
18
22
26
30
17
17
20
23
27
17
17
17
20
24
17
17
17
17
20
Refer to Figure 2.5.4 for the definition of the dimensions.
116
Table 2.5.11 (b) - Geometric Delay for Vehicles, Which Do Not Stop (Seconds per
Vehicles)
Approach
Distance
Speed
Around
Va
Roundabout
(km/h)
D (m)
Negotiation speed through roundabout

Vn (km/h)
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
40
40
40
40
40
20
60
100
140
180
7
17
4
11
19
2
7
13
1
4
8
13
0
0
4
8
12
60
60
60
60
60
20
60
100
140
180
11
20
8
15
22
5
11
17
4
8
13
17
3
4
9
13
17
2
2
5
8
12
1
1
1
4
7
1
1
1
1
2
80
80
80
80
80
20
60
100
140
180
14
24
11
19
26
9
15
20
7
11
16
21
6
8
13
17
21
5
5
9
13
16
4
4
5
9
12
3
3
3
4
7
100
100
100
100
100
20
60
100
140
180
18
27
15
22
29
12
18
24
10
15
20
25
9
12
16
20
25
8
9
13
17
20
7
7
10
13
16
6
6
6
12
Refer to Figure 2.5.4 for the definition of the dimensions.
Geometric delay is different for each traffic movement left turn, right turn and
through, at each approach and should be calculated separately.
For Gonnoruwa Leg of Hambantota Roundabout, the proportion of stopped vehicle

was estimated from Figure 2.5.5 and it was 0.10.
117
Figure 2.5.4 Definitions of the terms used in Table 2.5.11(a) and 2.5.11(b)
From the geometry of the Hambantota Roundabout, the distance D for Gonnoruwa
Leg, for through traffic and right turning traffic were 30.0 m and 60.0m respectively.
The geometric delay values for the same leg obtained from Tables 2.5.11 (a) &
2.5.11. (b) are as in table 2.5.12.
Table 2.5.12 - Geometric Delay Values for Gonnoruwa Leg of Hambantota

Roundabout
Movement
Geometric Delay for

Stopped Vehicles
(s)
Geometric Delay for

Vehicles Not Stopped
(s)
7.50
9.00
1.75
4.00
Through
Right
Average geometric delay for
= 7.50 x 0.10 + 1.75 x 0.90
through traffic of Gonnoruwa Leg

118
= 2.33 s
The average geometric delays for all movement of particular approach are shown in
Table 2.5.13.
The total delay per vehicle for a movement is the summation of average geometric
delay per vehicle and total average queuing delay per vehicle.
The total delays for all movement of particular approach are shown in Table 2.5.13.
Table 2.5.13 - Geometric Delay and Total Average Delay Values for Movements of
Gonnoruwa Leg of Hambantota Roundabout.
Movement
Through
Right
Turning Volumes
(Veh/h)
Geometric Delay
for Movement
(s)
Total Average
Delay for
Movements
(s)
119
11
2.33
4.50
2.57
4.74
The average delay per vehicle on the approach is the weighted average of the total
movement delays.
The average delay per vehicle on
= (119 x 2.57+11 x 4.74)
Colombo Leg of Hambantota Roundabout
=2.75 s
(119 + 11)
Capacity calculations and Delay calculations for each approach for all peak hours
are given in Table 2.5.14, Table 2.5.15 and Table 2.5.16.
119
Table 2.5.14 - Data Required for Capacity Calculations
Peak
Hour
Leg
Movem
ent
Turning
Volume
Circula
ting
Flow
Entry
Flow
No of
Entry
Lanes
No of
Circul
ating
Lanes
Average
Entry
Lane
width
(m)
(Veh/h)
LEG1
Morning
LEG2
LEG3
LEG1
LEG2
MidDay
LEG3
LEG1
LEG2
Evening
LEG3
Leg 2
Leg 3
Leg 1
Leg 3
Leg 1
Leg 2
119
11
63
107
19
99
Leg 2
Leg 3
Leg 1
Leg 3
Leg 1
Leg 2
Leg 2
Leg 3
Leg 1
Leg 3
Leg 1
Leg 2
99
130
02
02
4.61
11
170
02
02
4.17
63
118
02
02
4.48
127
20
77
85
15
94
94
147
20
162
77
109
94
21
111
91
15
81
81
115
21
202
111
96
Same as Morning Peak
Same as Morning Peak
120
Table 2.5.15 - Capacity Calculations & Queuing Delay Calculations

Peak
Hour
Morn
ing
Leg
LP
LF
LT
tf
ta
Xl
Xa
Wh
Wm
LG 1
L
R
L
R
L
R
77
53
91
79
44
74
D
S
D
S
S
D
2.82
3.00
2.79
2.85
2.91
2.81
4.13
4.38
4.57
4.67
4.42
4.26
0.271
1.0
1.0
0.263
1.0
0.06
0.05
0.07
0.06
0.04
0.06
0.06
0.252
1197
1123
1281
1253
1184
1229
0.22
0.24
0.03
0.03
0.15
0.16
0.23
0.26
0.03
0.03
0.15
0.16
L
R
L
R
L
R
83
64
85
77
48
61
D
S
D
S
S
D
2.82
2.93
2.79
2.83
2.92
2.81
4.13
4.30
4.56
4.63
4.42
4.26
0.270
1.0
1.0
0.266
1.0
0.07
0.06
0.07
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.254
1202
1152
1271
1252
1169
1215
0.21
0.22
0.05
0.05
0.19
0.18
0.22
0.24
0.06
0.06
0.20
0.19
L
R
L
R
L
R
66
49
91
111
39
57
D
S
S
D
S
D
2.81
2.95
2.88
2.79
3.00
2.83
4.13
4.33
4.71
4.56
4.52
4.25
0.267
1.0
1.0
0.273
1.0
0.05
0.04
0.07
0.09
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.254
1214
1155
1230
1270
1108
1182
0.18
0.19
0.06
0.05
0.29
0.26
0.19
0.20
0.06
0.06
0.30
0.27
LG 2
LG 3
LG 1
MidDay
LG 2
LG 3
LG 1
Eveni LG 2
ng
LG 3
0.07
0.05
0.06
0.05
0.08
0.04
Notations:
LG 1 - Gonnoruwa
LT
- Lane Type
LG 2 - Weerawila
tf
- Follow-up Time (s)
LG 3 - Hambantota
- Right Lane
- Left Lane
ta
- Critical Acceptance Gap (s)
- Dominant Flow
- Proportion of Bunched Vehicles
- Sub-Dominant Flow
- Minimum Headway in Circular Lane
- Lane Capacity
Xl
- Degree of Saturation for Lane
LP
- Lane Position
Xa
- Degree of Saturation for Approach
LF
- Lane Flow (Veh/h) Wh

Wm
- Minimum Delay in Lane (s)

- Queuing Delay in Lane
121
Table 2.5.16 (a) - Geometric Delay Calculations & Total Delay Calculations
Morning Peak
Leg
Wma
(s)
Proportion
of Vehicles
Ps
(1-Ps)
LEG 1
0.24
0.10
0.90
LEG 2
0.03
0.04
0.96
LEG 3
0.16
0.08
0.92
dg
(s)
Total
Delay
(s)
Through
Geometric
Delay
ds
du
(s)
(s)
7.50
1.75
2.33
2.57
Right
9.00
4.00
4.50
4.74
Left
7.50
1.75
1.98
2.01
Through
8.50
3.25
3.46
3.49
Left
7.00
1.00
1.48
1.64
Right
9.00
4.00
4.40
4.56
Delay for
Approach
(s)
2.75
2.56
4.09
Table 2.5.16 (b) - Geometric Delay Calculations & Total Delay Calculations MidDay Peak
Leg
Wma
(s)
Proportion
of Vehicles
Ps
(1-Ps)
LEG 1
0.23
0.10
0.90
LEG 2
0.06
0.04
0.96
LEG 3
0.19
0.08
0.92
dg
(s)
Total
Delay
(s)
Through
Geometric
Delay
ds
du
(s)
(s)
7.50
1.75
2.33
2.55
Right
9.00
4.00
4.50
4.73
Left
7.50
1.75
1.98
2.04
Through
8.50
3.25
3.46
3.52
Left
7.00
1.00
1.48
1.67
Right
9.00
4.00
4.40
4.59
122
Delay for
Approach
(s)
2.85
2.74
4.19
Table 2.5.16 (c) - Geometric Delay Calculations & Total Delay Calculations
Evening Peak
Leg
Wma
(s)
Proportion
of Vehicles
Ps
(1-Ps)
LEG 1
0.19
0.10
0.90
LEG 2
0.06
0.04
0.96
LEG 3
0.28
0.10
0.90
dg
(s)
Total
Delay
(s)
Through
Geometric
Delay
du
ds
(s)
(s)
7.50
1.75
2.33
2.52
Right
9.00
4.00
4.50
4.69
Left
7.50
1.75
1.98
2.04
Through
8.50
3.25
3.46
3.52
Left
7.00
1.00
1.60
1.88
Right
9.00
4.00
4.50
4.78
Wma
-Approach Queuing Delay
Ps
- Proportion of Stopped Vehicles
Delay for
Approach
(s)
2.92
2.71
4.33
(1-Ps) - Proportion of Vehicles Not Stopped

du
- Geometric Delay for Vehicles Not Stopped
dg
- Geometric Delay for Movement
2.6. PRELIMINARY DESIGN AND SELECTION OF A LAYOUT

Based on the information gathered from the capacity analysis and making use of
geometric design standards adopted by the Highway Designs Division of the Road
Development Authority, various alternatives are tried out for a particular problem and
they were analysed under following conditions.
1.
Availability of space at site
2.
Minimising the damages on adjacent properties
3.
Provisioning of sufficient deflection to through traffic
4.
Provisioning of satisfactory curve radius at entry and exit lanes to

control the speed on the roundabout
5.
Provisioning of Splitter Islands satisfying their minimum space

requirements
123
Finalised solution was taken after trying out six alternatives for the Hambantota
roundabout. The drawings of the finalised solution (sixth alternative) were submitted
along with this report. The reasons to reject each alternative are described below.
Alternative 1 - Rejected due to land acquisition problem.

Alternative 2 - Rejected due to land acquisition problem.
Alternative 3 - Deflection to through traffic is not sufficient.
Alternative 4 - Entry curve radius and deflection to through traffic is not sufficient.
Alternative 5 - Deflection to through traffic is not sufficient.
Rejected five alternatives are shown from Figure 2.5.5 to Figure 2.5.9.
124
Figure 2.5.5 Alternative 1

125

126

127

128

129
2.7. GEOMETRIC DESIGN CALCULATIONS
2.7.1. CIRCULATING TRAFFIC SPEED

It is the speed at which the vehicle is expected to move around the central island with
safe and comfort. The speed is given by the formula,
V = 127 R (e + f
.(2.7.1)
Where,
V
= Speed in km/h
= Radius in m
= Super-elevation in m/m
= Co-efficient of friction between vehicle tyres and the road pavement
It is usually necessary with small roundabouts to grade the pavement away from the
central island for drainage.
The value of e may range from a maximum of 0.00 at the centre line of each
intersecting roads to minimum of 0.025. The latter figure will control the speed of
circulating vehicles.
With the smaller diameter roundabouts, the path traverses by passenger vehicles is
closer to the inscribed circle than the central island. So the maximum speed for
circulating traffic on the inscribed circle radius is given by,
V
= 127 x 16.5 (-0.025 +0.31)
= 24.44 km/h
2.7.2. THROUGH TRAFFIC SPEED

By adopting a larger radius path, vehicles travelling straight through a roundabout can
travel faster than those circulating. The shape of the path is determined by the radii of
the roundabout and kerb corners together with the widths of the approach and
intersecting roads.
130
The maximum path radius is given by the formula,
R22 + W22 + Z 2 + 2W2 R2 2 ZR 2

R3 =
2Z
.(2.7.2)
Where,
R1
= Radius of central island
R2
= Radius of corner kerb
W1, W2
= Half pavement width of intersecting roads
= Minimum possible lateral deflection into the intersecting
roads
The deflection Z into the cross road is given by the formula,
Z = R1 W1 + z
...............(2.7.3)
Where,
Z
= Width of the vehicle path for passenger vehicles. z may be assumed

to equal 2.4 m.
For Hambantota Roundabout, deflection for through traffic from Gonnoruwa to

Weerawila
=6.0 4.6 +2.4

= 3.8 m
The maximum path radius substituting to Eq. 2.7.2 =26.98m
Where,
R2 = 12.50 m, W2 = 4.40 m, Z = 3.80 m
The maximum attainable speed of a passenger
= 127 x 26.98 (-0.025 +0.31)
Car through the roundabout
= 31.25 km/h
131
2.7.3. CIRCULATING CARRIGEWAY WIDTH

Passenger car and Bus are considered in the inner and outer lane of roundabout
respectively. (Refer Figure2.7.1)
Figure 2.7.1 Derivation of turning roadway width on curves at intersection
The circulating carriageway width, W is given by
= U1 + U2 + FA + FB + 2C + Z
FA
= [RT12 + A (2L + A ) ]1/2 - RT1 + a
(2)
U1
= u + RT1 (RT12 L2)
(3)
RT1
= R + Z + C/2 + U1
(4)
RT2
= RT1 + FA + C + FB + U2
(5)
U2
= u + RT2 (RT22 L2)
(6)
= 0.50 ft for Passenger Car
= 0.00 ft for Bus
= 4.0 ft for all vehicles
= 2.0 ft for all vehicles
= 6.0 m
..
= 19.68 ft
From Equation (4),

RT1
= 19.68 + 2+2+ U1
132
(1)
U1
= RT1 23.68 ..
(7)
From Equations (7) & (3),

u + RT1 (RT12 L2)
= RT1 23.68
u + 23.68
= (RT12 L2 ) (8)
For Passenger Car, u
= 6.0 ft
Substituting in Equation (8),

(6+23.68) 2
= RT12 -112
RT1
= 31.6528 ft
For Passenger Car, A = 3.0 ft,
(9)
L = 11.0 ft
a = 0.50 ft

FA
= [ 31.6532 + 3 ( 2 x 11 + 3 ) ] 1/2 31.653 + 0.50
FA
= 1.663 ft
For
Bus, u =8.50 ft
(10)
L = 25.0 ft

U2
= 8.50 + RT2 (RT22 25.02 )
(11)
From Equation (5),

U2
= RT2 ( RT1 + FA + C + FB )
(12)
From Equation (11) & (12),

8.50 + RT2 (RT22 25.02 ) = RT2 ( RT1 + FA + C + FB )
8.50 + (31.653 +1.663 +4+0)
= (RT22 25.02 )
45.816 2
= RT22 25.0 2
RT2
= 52.193 ft
From Equation (3),

U1
= 6.0+31.653(31.6532 11.02)
= 7.9728 ft
From Equation (6),

U2
= 8.5+52.193(52.1932 25.02)
= 14.877 ft
From Equation (1),

W
= 7.9728+14.877+1.659+0+8+2
= 34.5088 ft
= 10.518m
133
Therefore circulating carriageway width of 10.52m was selected for Hambantota

Roundabout.
2.7.4. ENTRY AND EXIT CURVES
Entry and exit lane widths are governed by the volume of turning traffic and the type
of vehicles to be accommodated. Where there is an approach curve leading up to the
entry curve into the roundabout, it should have the same or a slightly larger radius
than the radius of the curved path, that a vehicle would be expected to travel through
the roundabout.
The exit from roundabout should be as easy to negotiate as practicable. After having
been slowed down by the curved entry path into the circulating carriageway, vehicles
should be able to accelerate on the exit out of the circulating carriageway. Therefore,
the exit radius should generally be greater than the circulating radius.
The entry and exit curve radii adopted in the design of Hambantota Roundabout are
given in Table 2.7.1.
Table 2.7.1 - Entry and Exit Curve Radius of Hambantota Roundabout

Leg
Entry Curve Radius
Exit Curve Radius
(m)
(m)
Gonnoruwa
100.0
150.0
Weerawila
100.0
150.0
Hambantota
100.0
150.0
Entry and exit curve widths were checked using vehicle - turning templates to ensure
that the swept path of SU Design Vehicle and Semi Trailer Design Vehicle were
properly catered for the turning.
134
2.7.5. SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight Distance criteria should be applied to the combination of vertical and horizontal
geometries at roundabout. These criteria generally influence the safety performance of
roundabout and also affect the positioning of signs and plantations.
Refer Chapter 1.5 of Geometric Design of Roads.
For Hambantota Roundabout, the value of Stopping Sight Distance was 45 m

corresponding to the speed of 40 km/h (Refer Table 1.5.1 & 1.5.2 of Geometric
Design of Roads).
A minimum Sight Distance of 50 m was adopted in the design.
2.7.6. VERTICAL CURVES
Vertical curves are introduced between two consecutive grades in order to increase
sight distance across the junction of grades and provide riding comfort. The vertical
curve usually adopted is a parabola.
Vertical curves are provided as specification given in section 2.8 of Geometric design
of Roads.
2.7.7. SPLITTER ISLAND

Splitter Island should be designed to direct vehicles into the roundabout on a small
curve and at an angle, which provide the drivers adequate sighting of approaching
traffic. The curve at the entry side of the splitter island, where it turns into circulating
carriageway should be tangential to the central island.
135
The minimum splitter island area of 8.0 m2 is adopted in the Highway Designs
Division of the Road Development Authority.
The splitter island areas accommodated in the design of Habmantota Roundabout are
given in Table 2.7.2.
Table 2.7.2 - The splitter island areas for Habmantota Roundabout

Splitter island area
Leg
(m2)
Gonnoruwa
95.74
Weerawila
47.41
Hambantota
34.37
136
2.8. REFERENCES
1. National Association of Road and Traffic Authorities in Australia (AUSTROADS)
Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice Part 6 Roundabouts 1993
2. National Association of Road Transport and Traffic Authorities in Australia

(AUSTROADS) Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice Part 5 Intersection at
Grade 1988
3. National
Association
of
Roads
and
Traffic
Authorities
in
Australia
(AUSTROADS) Rural Road Design Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural

Roads 1999
4. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials A Policy

on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets - 2001
137
.
CANDIDATE
(Eng. P.C.I.Kumaratunga)
..
.
.
138
3.0 - DESIGN OF SURFACE WATER

DRAINAGE SYSTEM FOR INTERSECTION
REPORT
ON
DESIGN OF SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE

SYSTEM
FOR
INTERSECTION
OF
AT
139
3.1. INTRODUCTION
3.1.1. GENERAL
Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and subsoil water from the Right Of Way. Provision of adequate drainage facilities for a road
or an intersection is essential for its long life and satisfactory service performance.
The primary problem of drainage design is to limit the amount of water flowing along
the gutters or pounding at sags to quantities which will not interfere with the passage
of traffic. This is achieved by placing inlets at suitable intervals to limit the spread of
water on the traveled way to tolerable widths. Grate inlets and depression or curb
opening inlets should be located outside the through traffic lanes to minimize the
shifting of vehicles attempting to avoid to riding over them.
Removal and diversion of surface water from the carriageway and adjoining land is
termed as surface drainage. Diversion or removal of excess soil water or ground water
is termed as sub surface drainage.

Hambantota intersection has no properly designed drainage system at present as the
intersection was created recently. Even side drains were not there along the
Colombo-Galle-Hambantota-Wellawaya road except the culverts near to the
intersection which working well. Therefore new drainage system had to design for its
long life with the help of existing nearby culverts.
New drainage system introduced should have the facility of draining-off the surface
water from all the approaches and transfer same to the side drains and dispose them
at the culverts.
140
The proposed drainage system consists of
1. Kerb inlets on either side of the carriageway.

2. Built up drains along either side of the road.
3.2. STORM WATER RUNOFF ESTIMATION
3.2.1. INTENSITY OF RAINFALL

Intensity of rainfall is the rate at which rainfall for a given period and is usually
expressed, as mm/hr. Rainfall intensities are similar throughout a small country like
Sri Lanka, irrespective of ground contours. In large countries it will be necessary to
consider the variation among different part of the country.
Rainfall intensity is a function of both time of concentration to the point being

considered and the recurrence interval of the design storm. Intensity will decrease as
the time of concentration increases and also the recurrence interval of the design
storm decreases.
I= f (Time of concentrate, Recurrence interval)
Usually regional wise rainfall intensity duration curves for various recurrence
intervals are available and the intensity of rainfall for the selected frequency and for
the time of concentration could be obtained. That chart used by the Highway Designs
Division of the Road Development Authority is given in Figure 3.2.1.
141
Figure 3.2.1 Rainfall Intensity Duration Curves

142
3.2.2. SELECTION OF DESIGN STORM RECURRENCE INTERVAL
The design storm recurrence interval is the probable period of time in which
combination of intensity and duration repeat themselves and is usually expressed in
years.
When determining a recurrence interval for design purpose the following factors
should be considered.
1.
Economic considerations
2.
Consequence of flooding (i.e. damage to properties, roads and

structures, traffic interruptions etc.)
3.
Location and type of structure
4.
Maintenance requirements
It is difficult to conduct an investigation to find out recurrence interval to be adopted

in various design for every year and it is common practice to specify recurrence
interval for various general design cases.
The following recurrence intervals are generally used in designing of structures.
All major structures such as bridges
100 years
All cross drainage structures
10 50 years
All road surface drainage
1 10 years
Ten years and twenty-five years recurrence intervals are used by the Highway Design
Division at present for road surface drainage and cross drainage structures
respectively.
3.2.3. TIME OF CONCENTRATION

Time of concentration is defined as the time taken by a unit volume of water to flow
143
from the most remote point of the catchments to reach the point under consideration.
In the calculation of the design flow which assumes that rain will continue to fall for
the duration of this time of concentration.
In road surface drainage the time of concentration is generally made up of

a). Time of flow from road surface.
b). Time of flow adjacent road side areas either from direct conduit or surface flow.
c). Time of flow in gutters.
Therefore Time of concentration is given by;
Tc = To + Tch + T p
.. (3.2.1)
Where;
Tc
= Time of concentration.
To
= Overland flow time.
Tch
= Flow time in kerb and channel.
Tp
= Pipe flow time.
In this design minimum time of concentration of 10 minutes is used irrespective of

how small the calculated value is.
In the design of drainage system at Hambantota Intersection, 10 minutes was selected

as the minimum time of concentration.
3.2.4. PEAK RUN-OFF

A portion of the precipitation during the rainfall infiltrates into the ground as ground
water and a small portion gets evaporated. The remaining portion of water, which
flows over the surface, is termed as run-off.
144
Run-off depends upon a number of factors such as topography, soil type, size and
slope of area, land use and percolation (depending upon the nature of soil and its
absorption qualities). All of which have considerable effect upon the amount of the
total rainfall that infiltrates into the ground.
Therefore peak surface run-off is considered in the design of drainage to avoid

flooding.
3.2.4.1. DIFFERENT METHODS FOR ESTIMATING OF PEAK RUN-OFF

It is difficult to derive an equation to determine run-off or rate of run-off for the
various climatic and topographic factors. Therefore with reasonable approximation of
peak rate of run-off for the less frequent storms can be made with satisfactory
accuracy using only a few of variables.
The success of drainage system design depends on the method adopted to estimate the
peak run- off. The different methods available are listed below with a brief
description.
1.
The Rational Method

The most commonly used method for the estimation of peak run-off,
which provides a means of converting rainfall intensity into a rate of
peak run-off for small drainage area.
2.
The Time Area Graph

In this method, an allowance is being made for the irregular disposition
of the impermeable areas within the catchment. As the tendency of
overestimations in the rate of run-off, the method is rarely used in
design calculations.
3.
The Tangent Method

This is a less complex form of time area graph method.
145
4.
Burki Zceglar Formula

This is a modified form of rational formula suitable for areas in the
region of 80 400 hectares.
Out of these methods, Rational Method is widely used for the designs.
For the design of drainage system at Hambantota Intersection, Rational Method was
adopted.
3.2.4.2. RATIONAL METHOD

3.2.4.2.1. RATIONAL FORMULA
The general expression used in the Rational method is;
Q = FICA
(3.2.2)
Where;
Q
= Maximum discharge in m3/s
= Mean rate of rainfall for the storm frequency during the time
of concentration.
= Run-off co-efficient
= Area of catchment
= Factor of proportionality, which depends on the units

F= 0.278, when A is in km2 & I is in mm /h.
F= 0.00278, when A is in hectares & I is in mm/h.
The Rational formula is a mathematically accurate formula, but its simplicity it is

based on certain assumptions, which may contain errors. These assumptions are;
1. Rainfall is uniform over a catchment throughout the storm.

2. The impermeability of the catchment area remains constant.
146
3. The velocity of flow in the sewers remains constant at full velocity

throughout the time of concentration.
4. The Time Area graph is a straight line, (i.e. the impermeable area is
evenly distribute over the catchment.
3.2.4.2.2. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE RATIONAL

FORMULA
ADVANTAGES:Generally this formula could be used for small catchment up to 25km2 and for urban
areas. Although none of the above four assumptions will normally be applicable in
practice, errors resulting from the assumptions to some extent will compensate
themselves. (i.e. 1 & 4 tend to underestimate while item 2 tends to overestimation.)
DISADVANTAGES:-
It is generally accepted that this method overestimates the magnitude of the run-off.
Another shortcoming of the method is the use of constant C, which shows that the
run-off is a fraction of rainfall. The inability to take storage effect in to account is the
other shortcoming.
Most of the catchment areas used in road surface drainage calculations are generally
small enough for the assumption of uniform rainfall to be reasonable. Also most of
the catchments are relatively impervious and hence C values are not greatly
dependant.
3.2.4.2.3. COEFFICIENT OF RUN-OFF

The co-efficient of run-off is the ratio of peak flow of run-off to the rainfall intensity,
when both variables are expressed in the same units. C value depends on the type of
surface, the intensity of the rainfall, topography and the type of land cover.
147
Run-off co-efficient for urban catchments is given in Figure 3.2.2 which is used for
this design.
3.2.4.3. APPLICATION IN THE PROJECT

3.2.4.3.1 Determination of I
For Duration of 10 minutes and a recurrence interval of 10 years, the Intensity of
Rainfall, I was 194 mm /h. (From Figure 3.2.1)
3.2.4.3.2 Determination of C
Corresponding to rainfall intensity of 194 mm / h, co-efficient of run-off was 0.92 for
impervious surface. (From Figure3.2.2)
3.2.4.3.3 Determination of A
Topography maps and aerial photographs are widely used in this purpose. Site
inspection may also required in level terrain.
The area catered by inlet, A was estimated by drawing contour lines and flow
patterns.
For Inlet I2, the area estimated from the scaled drawing adopting above method was
83.59m2.
Specimen Calculation for Peak Run-off for Inlet I2,

Substituting values in Equation 3.2.2,
= FICA
= 0.278 x 194 x 0.92 x 83.59 X 10-6
= 4.147 x 10 3 m3 / s
148
Figure 3.2.2 Coefficient of Run-off

149
3.2.5. DEPTH OF FLOW AND LENGTH OF FLOW PATH
3.2.5.1. DEPTH OF FLOW

This is an important component in the assessment of the efficiency of a pavement in
shedding water. Increasing water depth reduces friction co-efficient. The path is
influenced by the pavement/ carriageway cross-fall and longitudinal grade. Roadways
of constant cross-fall and grade generally produce acceptable flow path unless flow
paths are long or rainfall intensities are abnormally high.
The maximum allowable depth of flow on a road surface is 6.5 mm and desirable
maximum allowable depth is 5.0 mm for a recurrence interval of one year and time of
concentration is not less than 5.0 minutes.
3.2.5.2. LENGTH OF FLOW PATH

The length of flow path is the dominant factor contributing to the water depth. The
length of flow path should therefore be kept as short as possible. This can be achieved
by,
1. Introducing crowns
2. Increasing the rate of rotation of super-elevation development
3. Providing drains in the pavement
3.3. FLOW IN HIGHWAY GUTTERS
3.3.1. INTRODUCTION
Kerbs and channels are the intermediate collectors of the run-off water in the
carriageway and they carry the water into suitable out falls.
150
The gutter is formed by the surface of the carriageway and the kerb face. Gutters also
help to reduce the quantity of water entering the pavement or subgrade. The capacity
of the gutter depends on the cross section.
The drainage system at Hambantota Roundabout was designed in such a way, that the
run-off over the carriageway flowed through the kerb inlets to the drain while
overland flow entered directly.
3.3.2. FORMULA FOR FLOW IN TRIANGULAR GUTTER
Figure 3.3.1 Flow in Triangular Gutter
The flow of water in the gutters should be restricted to such a depth, that the
corresponding ponded width may not obstruct or cause a hazard to traffic. The gutter
cross section is triangular in shape and the most common method used to estimate
gutter capacity is Mannings formula.
The formula for depth of flow at kerb can be derived using Mannings formula and
Continuity equation as follows.
Mannings formula,
1 23
V = R S
n
151
(3.3.1)
and Continuity equation,
Q = VA
(3.3.2)
Where,
V
= Mean velocity of flow (m/s)
= Hydraulic radius (m)
= Slope of the channel
= Mannings roughness co-efficient
= Maximum discharge (m3/s)
= Area of flow (m2)
= A/
= Wetted perimeter (m)
From equation 3.3.1 & 3.3.2,
A 2 3 12
Q= R S
n
(3.3.3)
For flow in triangular channel,
= 1/2 . y . y . z
= y2 z /2
= y (1 + z)
=y.z
= A/W
=y / 2
Therefore,
R
Substituting values in Equation 3.3.3,

Q
= (0.315 /n) x y 8/3 x z x S
This is called Izzards formula.

For asphalt pavement, n = 0.015
152
Since z >> 1
1
y = 299 Q S 2 Z
0.375
(3.3.4)
Where, y is in mm.
3.3.3. PONDED WIDTH

In designing kerb inlets along the highway gutter, the width to which the storm water
can spread should be considered. This width is known as ponded width. For safe
operation of traffic, the ponded width at the kerb and channel should be limited.
Highway Designs Division of the Road Development Authority uses the following
maximum ponded widths for 10 years recurrence interval.
All traffic lanes adjacent to kerb
= 1.0 m
(Usual case in urban roads)
All traffic lanes adjacent to kerb at intersection
= 2.0 m
3.3.4. CALCULATIONS FOR FLOW IN GUTTERS

The flow to be carried along the gutter is calculated using Rational formula
Specimen Calculation for Inlet, I2,

Q
= 4.147 x 10 -3 m3/s
= Longitudinal grade of the road, 1.25 %
= 40.00
= 299 (4.147 x10-3 / 0.01251/2 x 40.00)0.375
(Refer Section 3.2.4.3.3)
(Cross-fall of the road was 2.50 %)
= 21.797 mm
Ponded Width = 21.797 x 40.00/1000
= 0.87 m
153
3.4. INLETS
3.4.1. INTRODUCTION
Inlets are suitably placed to intercept the gutter flow from where water is lead in to the
drains.
Inlet should be provided at all sag points and suitable intervals, so that the gutter flow
will not exceed the gutter capacity for the limited ponded widths. Care should be
taken at road intersections to prevent ponding at radius kerbs and it is therefore
preferable to place inlets just upstream of the tangent point of these kerbs to prevent
surface water flowing across the junction.
3.4.2. TYPES OF INLETS

The types of inlets generally used are,
1.
Grated inlets
2.
Kerb opening inlets
3.
Combination of kerb and grate inlets
3.4.2.1. GRATED INLETS

This type of inlets will intercept the water flowing over the entire width of the grating
and where the cross slope is greater and the grating is depressed, then some water will
flow along the edge. For highways, it is not usually practical to depress the grating
and then the flow outside the area of the grating will flow past to the next pit.
Grates may be used in locations such as,
1. Median drainage inlets

2. Transverse driveway interceptions
154
These are typically installed at service stations and other paved areas to
prevent surface flow entering the road.
3. Against shoulder kerbs, vertical walls such as bridge abutments
4. On the road surface in an extended form to intercept sheet flow. These are
commonly called grated drains.
The principal disadvantage in grated inlet is their tendency to clog with debris unless
flow velocity is high enough to clean the grate.
The bars in the grating should be parallel to the direction of flow as experiments
indicate that this minimizes the clogging by small particles of debris and increases the
capacity of grate.
3.4.2.2. KERB OPENING INLETS

A kerb-opening inlet has an opening in the face of the kerb through which the flow is
disposed to the drain. Kerb opening inlets are feasible only where kerbs have
essentially vertical faces. A change of direction is necessary when water enters a kerbopening inlet for smooth functioning. If a road has a low crown, the gutter flow will
spread over a considerable width, which will require a corresponding length of inlet
for the change of direction to be accomplished. Hence kerb-opening inlets function
best with relatively steep transverse slopes.
In order to increase the capacity of inlets, a gutter depression is adopted. A gutter

depression of 50 mm is used in kerb opening inlets at the design.
One advantage of kerb-opening inlets over the grated inlets is their ability to self
cleanse. Also kerb-opening inlets are economical and desirable than the grate type.
155
3.4.2.3. COMBINATION OF GRATED AND KERB OPENING INLETS

Combination inlets use both kerb opening and grates. They are generally the most
expensive, but offer a high efficiency inlet, which combines the best aspects of both.
3.4.3. SELECTION OF TYPE OF INLET FOR THE DESIGN

Kerb opening inlets were selected to the surface drainage system at Hambantota
Roundabout due to its economical advantages and less tendency of clogging.
3.4.4. CAPACITY OF INLETS
3.4.4.1. GENERAL
Capacity of inlet pits will depend on
1.
Longitudinal grade
2.
Crossfall
3.
Channel discharge
4.
Width of gutter flow
5.
Depth of gutter flow
6.
Gutter depression
3.4.4.1.1. CAPACITY OF KERB OPENING INLET ON A CONTINUOUS

GRADE
The amount of water that will be intercepted by a kerb-opening inlet of given length,
depression and gradient may be determined using the following formula.
q=
0.3865
(a + y )2.5 a 2.5
y
156
(3.4.1)
Where,
q
= Capacity of inlet per unit length (m3/s/m)
= Channel/ gutter depression (m)
= Depth of flow (m)
3.4.4.1.2. CAPACITY OF KERB OPENING INLET ON SAG

The flow of water through an inlet located at a sag or low point may be determined
using following formula.
q = 1.7043 (a + y )
1.5
(3.4.2)
Where q, a and y parameters are same as in Section 3.4.4.1.1.
If the depth of flow is high, the kerb inlet will be fully submerged. The restriction
imposed on the ponded widths for different locations renders the above.
3.4.4.2. SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS

Considering inlet I2,
Since it was on continuous grade, capacity was calculated by using Equation 3.4.1.
= 0.3865 [(0.021797 + 0.050)2.5 0.050 2.5] = 0.015 x 10 -3 m3/s/m

0.021797
3.4.5. GENERAL RULES FOR SPACING OF INLETS

1. Pits should be located at all low points.
2. To permit pedestrian access and to minimise water flow across traffic lanes,
pits be located on the upstream side of kerb return, pedestrian crossings, bus bays, left
turn lanes and noses of islands.
157
When deciding the pit spacing, the following factors also should be considered.
1. Pit capacity
2. Allowable ponded width
3. Cleaning requirements
In Highway Designs Division of the Road Development Authority, the normal

practice is to limit the spacing between inlets to 8.0 m 30.0 m.
3.4.6. INLET COMPUTATIONS

In designing the surface water drainage system for Hambantota Intersection, inlet
positions were firstly determined considering the contour lines and the flow patterns.
Secondly computations were carried out to select the size and to check the suitability.
Those computations are tabulated in Table 3.4.1.
3.4.6.1. DESCRIPTION OF TABLE FOR INLET COMPUTATIONS AND

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS
Description of Table 3.4.1 and Specimen Calculations for Inlet I2
Column 01
: Kerb inlet number

All kerb inlets bear a standard notation of I followed by a subscript
number
Specimen
: I2
Column 02
: The chainage along the centre line opposite the kerb inlet
Specimen
: 0+049.60
Column 03
: When facing the direction of increasing chainage, the side on which

the kerb inlet is located.
R Right Hand Side
L Left Hand Side

158
Specimen
:R
Column 04
: Area in square metres of the drainage area under consideration.

This is obtained from contour plan.
Specimen
: 83.59 m2
Column 05
: The run-off for the drainage area given in Column (4) calculated
using Rational formula.
= 0.278 x 0.92 x 194 x 83.59 x 10 6 = 4.147 x 10 -3 m3/s
Specimen
:Q
Column 06
: Longitudinal slope of the gutter (%)
Specimen
: 1.25 %
Column 07
: The value of Q / S1/2
Specimen
: 0.004147 / (0.0125)1/2
Column 08
: The reciprocal of the cross slope of the road
Specimen
:Z
Column 09
: The maximum flow in the gutter (y), which is obtained by Equation
= 0.037
= 1/e = 1/ 0.025
= 40.00
3.3.4.
= 299 x (0.037/40.00)0.375
Specimen
:y
Column 10
: The water spread (or ponding) width in gutter, when carrying the
discharge Q given in Column (5)
Ponded Width = Column (7) x Column (9)

Specimen
: 21.797 x 40.00/1000 = 0.87 m
Column 11
: Type of inlet
Specimen
: K1/T1
Column 12
: Gutter depression (a)

159
= 21.797 mm
This is the vertical distance from the normal gutter line to the throat of
the Inlet
Specimen
: 0.050 m
Column 13
: Capacity of the inlet per linear metre

This can be obtained from equations given in Section 4.4.1
Specimen
: q= 0.3865 x [(0.050+0.021797) 2.5 0.050 2.5] /0.021797= 0.015
m3/s/m
Column 14
: Length of the kerb inlet required

Lreq
= Column (5) / Column (13)
Specimen
: Lreq = 284 mm
Column 15
: Length of the standard kerb inlet provided

Generally three sizes of kerb inlets are used; 600mm, 900mm
&1200mm.
Specimen
: Length of the inlet provided was 600 mm.
Column 16
: The ratio of length provided to length required of the inlet is a

measure of efficiency of the kerb inlet. Any value less than 1.0 means
that a different kerb inlet length has to be selected or allow a carry over
to the next inlet.
Column (16) / Column (17)
Specimen
: 600 / 282
= 2.13
Column 17
: Carry over amount allowed to the next inlet

Column (5) [Column (13) x Column (15) ]
Specimen
: 0.00 m3/s
[Since 0.015 x 0.6 > 0.004102]
160
Table 3.4.1 Inlet Computations

1
Inlet
No
I1
I2
I3
I4
I5
I6
I7
I8
I9
I10
I11
I12
I13
I14
I15
Station
Chainage
R/L
Gonnoruwa
0+057.60
R
0+049.60
R
0+041.70
R
0+032.80
R
0+032.80
R
0+024.00
R
0+016.50
R
0+013.30
L
0+021.50
L
0+029.80
L
0+037.60
L
0+046.00
L
0+057.00
L
0+064.00
L
0+072.00
L
0+080.60
L
10
11
Type
12
13
inlet
14
La=
15
Kerb
16
17
Carry
Area
S in
%
Q/S0.5
Zb
Y mm
PW
of
capacity(qb)
Q/qb
width
L/La
over
Inlet
m3/s/m
L mm
y=
m
8*9
0.66
0.87
0.97
1.33
1.87
1.90
1.38
1.32
1.19
1.25
0.95
0.76
0.96
0.97
0.96
0.93
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.014
0.015
0.015
0.033
0.033
0.015
0.016
0.015
0.014
0.014
0.015
0.014
0.015
0.015
0.015
0.015
173
284
282
141
195
588
414
335
345
529
417
304
538
553
456
403
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
m /s
Q=FICA
- Weerawila road
47.39 0.002
1.75
83.59 0.004
1.25
0.95
83.28 0.004
94.63 0.005
0.60
131.02 0.007
0.60
1.00
175.04 0.009
130.84 0.006
0.55
104.03 0.005
0.45
96.27 0.005
1.75
2.30
154.32 0.008
122.59 0.006
2.30
87.09 0.004
2.50
164.63 0.008
2.50
2.50
169.75 0.008
137.94 0.007
2.00
1.80
120.82 0.006
0.018
0.037
0.042
0.061
0.084
0.087
0.088
0.077
0.036
0.050
0.040
0.027
0.052
0.053
0.048
0.045
1/n.c.f
(1/n)*
R2/3S1/3
40.00
40.00
43.48
58.82
83.33
83.33
50.00
50.00
66.67
58.82
43.48
38.46
38.46
38.46
40.00
40.00
16.541
21.797
22.211
22.676
22.482
22.772
27.662
26.356
17.816
21.173
21.754
19.725
25.045
25.335
24.082
23.372
161
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
m3/s
3.48
2.11
2.13
4.27
3.07
1.02
1.45
1.79
1.74
1.13
1.44
1.97
1.12
1.09
1.32
1.49
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
I16
I17
I18
I19
I20
I21
I22
I23
I24
I25
I26
I27
I28
I29
I30
I31
I32
I33
I34
I35
Hambantota - Weerawila road

0+038.80
R
40.73 0.002
0+031.80
R
105.59 0.005
0+023.80
R
96.89 0.005
0+015.70
R
98.98 0.005
0+023.40
L
189.75 0.009
0+031.40
L
140.02 0.007
0+039.40
L
73.24 0.004
110.22 0.005
0+050.00
L
0+058.40
L
89.69 0.004
0+073.10
L
143.76 0.007
Gonnoruwa - Hambantota road
0+046.90
R
89.96 0.004
106.26 0.005
0+038.80
R
0+029.20
R
130.91 0.006
0+021.20
R
100.77 0.005
0+013.20
R
48.97 0.002
93.48 0.005
0+021.40
L
0+029.40
L
162.25 0.008
0+029.40
L
110.79 0.005
88.56 0.004
0+037.50
L
0+045.50
L
79.42 0.004
0+054.10
L
81.31 0.004
1.70
1.70
1.80
1.40
1.50
3.30
3.30
3.50
3.60
2.40
0.015
0.040
0.036
0.042
0.077
0.038
0.020
0.029
0.023
0.046
76.92
76.92
62.50
55.56
71.43
45.45
41.67
40.00
40.00
40.00
12.296
17.576
18.200
20.099
23.048
21.016
17.028
19.934
18.354
23.637
0.95
1.35
1.14
1.12
1.65
0.96
0.71
0.80
0.73
0.95
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T2
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.013
0.014
0.014
0.014
0.015
0.014
0.014
0.014
0.014
0.015
157
379
345
344
636
481
265
384
319
478
600
600
600
600
900
600
600
600
600
600
3.82
1.58
1.74
1.74
1.42
1.25
2.26
1.56
1.88
1.25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.70
3.50
3.30
1.90
0.35
0.75
0.65
0.55
1.20
2.10
1.60
0.023
0.028
0.036
0.036
0.041
0.054
0.100
0.074
0.040
0.027
0.032
40.00
41.67
47.62
66.67
52.63
55.56
66.67
62.50
45.45
50.00
50.00
18.281
19.364
20.138
17.846
20.431
22.116
26.090
23.903
21.395
17.843
18.943
0.73
0.81
0.96
1.19
1.08
1.23
1.74
1.49
0.97
0.89
0.95
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.014
0.014
0.014
0.014
0.014
0.015
0.036
0.034
0.015
0.014
0.014
320
373
455
361
170
317
225
161
303
284
287
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
1.87
1.61
1.32
1.66
3.54
1.89
2.67
3.74
1.98
2.11
2.09
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
162
KI/T1
KI/T1
KI/T1
3.5. FLOW IN RECTANGULAR DRAINS
3.5.1. INTRODUCTION
The water collected through inlets and overland flow is transported through the drains
to the culvert, bridge and/or bare land depending on the situations. Usually
rectangular drains are used because, it is easy to design, construct and maintain.
The design of a drain to carry the discharge is accomplished in two stages. First a
convenient section is selected with the available slope to carry the design discharge.
Then the degree of protection required to prevent scour in the drainage channel is
determined. Mannings formula is used to calculate the velocity at the design
discharge and is compared with the permissible minimum and maximum velocities
for a given type of channel.
Generally open channel flow conditions are used to design rectangular channels. But
in roadside drainage, there will be cases, where some hydraulic disturbances are
present due to roof run-off, conduit discharge etc.
3.5.2. DESIGN CRITERIA

Following design criteria is used in designing the rectangular drains.
1.
10 years storm recurrence interval is selected for the design of

rectangular channels.
2.
Minimum possible velocity is taken as 0.70 m/s to prevent siltation.
3.
Maximum possible velocity is taken as 6.0 m/s to prevent erosion or

scouring.
In order to satisfy above, channel section should be designed first and the slope of the
drainage channel should be decided secondly, conforming to the speed limits of the
flow. This slope may be useful to dispose the muddy material on the drain.
163
3.5.3. CAPACITY OF RECTANGULAR DRAINS
3.5.3.1. GENERAL
Capacity of rectangular drain can be calculated from the Mannings formula and
continuity equation.
= 1/n . A .R2/3. S1/2
3.5.3.2. CALCULATIONS AND PREPARATION OF GRAPHS FOR DESIGN

Consider a rectangular drain of breadth b and depth of water d.
A
=bxd
= (b+2d)
= bd / (b+2d)
So the above equation can be expressed as,
Q
S1/2
1
0.015
(bd)5/3
(b+2d)2/3
(for concrete drains, n = 0.015)
i.e. Q/S 1/2 is a function of b and d.

Table 3.5.1 gives the Q/S values for varying depth.
164
Table 3.5.1 - Q/S values for varying depth

Q/S
Q/S
b = 0.45m
b = 0.60m
0.506
1.340
2.290
3.30
4.33
5.38
6.45
7.51
8.61
9.70
0.710
1.950
3.390
4.940
6.55
8.21
9.89
11.60
13.32
15.05
d (m)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
3.5.4. STORM DRAIN COMPUTATIONS

Storm drain computations for Hambantota Intersection are given in Table 3.5.2 for
built-up (concrete) drains, which carry overland flow and flow from the surface runoff.
Description of Table 3.5.2 and Specimen Calculations for drain section I1 to I2.
Column 01
: Kerb inlet number
Specimen
: I2
Column 02
: The chainage along the centre line opposite the kerb inlet
Specimen
: 0 + 049.60
Column 03
: When facing the direction of increasing chainage, the side on which

the kerb inlet is located
Specimen
:R
Column 04
: Length of catchment in meters
Specimen
: From the contour plan, length of catchment along the road surf-ace for kerb inlet I2 was 8.30m.
165
Column 05
: Catchment area of the road surface to the particular inlet m2
Specimen
: Catchment area measured from contour plan for I2 was 83.60 m2.
Column 06
: Co-efficient of run-off for the road surface
Specimen
: Co-efficient of run-off from was 0.92.
Column 07
:The value C x A for road surface

Column (5) x Column (6)
Specimen
: 83.6 X 0.92 = 76.91 m2
Column 08
: Flow time for the above run-off in minutes

3 minutes if the length of flow path given in Column (4) < 12.0 m
5 minutes if the length of flow path given in Column (4) > 12.0 m
Specimen
: Flow time, T was taken as 3 minutes as the length of flow path was
less than 12.0 m
Column 09
: Catchment area of the overland flow to the particular inlet in m2
Specimen
: Catchment area of the overland flow was estimated as 498 m2.
Column 10
: Co-efficient of run-off for the overland flow obtained from Figure

3.2.2
Specimen
: Co-efficient of run-off for overland flow was 0.88.
Column 11
: The value for C x A for overland flow

Column (10) x Column (9)
= 438.2 m2
Specimen
: 0.88 x 498
Column 12
: Flow time for the overland flow in minutes
Specimen
: Flow time for overland flow was taken as 5.0 minutes.
Column 13
: Cumulative value of C x A
Column (7) + Column (11)
166
= 515.14 m2
Specimen
: 76.91 + 438.20
Column 14
: Length of drain section under consideration in meters

The distance travelled by water along the drain from the previous
inlet to the particular inlet.
Specimen
: Length of drain section was 8.3 m.
Column 15
: The maximum time taken by water from both road surface and
overland flow to reach the inlet under consideration in minutes.
Higher value of Column (8) and Column (12)
Specimen
: Maximum flow time from Column (8) & (12) was 5.0 minutes.
Column 16
: Time taken for water to travel along the drain section under
consideration in minutes.
Column (14) / Column (28)
Specimen
: 8.3 / (1.00 x 60)
= 0.14 minutes
Column 17
: Total flow time in minutes

The overland flow time + time taken to flow through the drain
Column (15) + Column (16)
Specimen
: 5.0 +0.14
= 5.14 minutes
Column 18
: Minimum time of concentration used in design
Specimen
: Minimum time of concentration was 10.0 minutes.
Column 19
: The time of concentration selected for design

The greater value of Column (17) and Column (18)
Specimen
: 10 minutes
Column 20
: Rainfall intensity from Figure 3.2.1, corresponding to time of

concentration given in Column (19)
Specimen
: Rainfall intensity corresponding to the time of concentration of 10

minutes and 10 years recurrence interval was 194 mm / h.
167
Column 21
: Maximum discharge in m3 / s calculated using Rational Formula
Specimen
:Q
Column 22
: Additional discharge to the particular drain section from culverts
Specimen
: 0.0 x 10 -3 m3 / s
Column 23
: Cumulative discharge along the drain
= 0.278 x 515.14 x 10 6 x 194
= 27.78 x 10 -3 m3 / s
Column (21) + Column (22) + Column (23) of previous raw

Specimen
: Qcum = (27.78 + 0.00 + 16.02) x 10 -3
Column 24
: Slope of the drain bottom (m/m)
Specimen
: 0.010 m/m
Column 25
: The value of ( Q / S )
Specimen
: 43.80 x 10 -3 / (0.010)1/2
Column 26
: Width of the drain meters
= 43.80 x 10 -3 m3 / s
= 0.44
It may be selected from the standard sizes, so that the velocity lies
within allowable limits
Specimen
: 0.60 m was selected as the width of particular section.
Column 27
: Depth of flow at the drain section in meters
Specimen
: From ( Q / S ) value and Mannings equation, it was calculated as

0.073 m.
Column 28
: Velocity of flow along the drain m/s

Column (23) / Column (26) x Column (27)
= 43.80 x 10 -3 / (0.60 x 0.073)
Specimen
:V
Column 29
: Remarks if any
Specimen
: The direction of flow was from I1 to I2.
168
= 1.00 m/s
Table 3.5.2 Storm Drain Computations
169
3.6. REFERENCES
1. Drainage system design guide lines Road development Authority.
2. Renold E. Bartlett - Surface Water Sewerage Applied Science Publishers 1981
170
.
CANDIDATE
..
.
.
171
4.0 BILL OF QUANTITIES

BILL OF QUANTITIES
FOR
THE CONSTRUCTION
OF
INTERSECTION
OF
AT
172
4.1. SUMMARY OF THE BILL OF QUANTITIES
173
174
4.2. BILL OF QUANTITIES
175
176
177
178
179
4.3. TAKING OFF SHEETS
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
4.4. RATE ANALYSIS FOR B.O.Q. ITEMS
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
.
CANDIDATE
..
.
.
219

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS ................................................................... 1

1.4.9.2. WIDTH OF PARKING STRIPS ........................................................ 27

1.8.4.1. GENERAL .......................................................................................... 64

2.4.2.3. INSCRIBED CIRCLE DIAMETER................................................... 90

3.3.2. FORMULA FOR FLOW IN TRIANGULAR GUTTER ........................ 151

Table 1.4.2 - Recommended Shoulder Cross-falls on Straight .................................... 23

Table 2.5.12 - Geometric Delay Values for Gonnoruwa Leg of Hambantota

1.0 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS

should economically feasible as far as possible, while providing safe continuous

1.1.2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Figure 1.1.1 Location Map of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road.

1.2. DESIGN CONTROL & CRITERIA

Table 1.2.1 Classification of Terrain

Traffic composes of the following groups.

1.2.2.1. ROAD USER

1.2.2.2. TRAFFIC DATA

II. Composition of Traffic.

Table 1.2.2 Traffic data for Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road

Light Goods Vehicles

Medium Goods Vehicles

1.2.2.3. THE VEHICLE

- Passenger Car class

- Single unit trucks and buses

WB-40 design vehicle - Semi-trailor intermediate

WB-50 design vehicle - Semi-trailor combination

In a road section having uniform topographical character all curves should be of a

traffic control devices. To provide safety of pedestrians, sufficient width of sidewalks,

1.2.5. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

A properly designed highway afford benefit to the community as it improve

In the design of Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale Road, attempts were made to

1.3. WIDTH OF TRAFFIC LANES & SHOULDERS

1.3.2. FACTORS AFFECTING THE LANE WIDTH

II. Vehicle Dimension

III. Speed environment

IV. Combination of speed and traffic volume

1.3.2.1. VEHICULAR TRAFFIC

1.3.2.2. GENERAL LANE WIDTHS

1.3.2.3. DERIVATIONS OF NUMBER OF LANES

Table 1.3.1 gives the recommended minimum width of sealed carriageway of

Table 1.3.1 Minimum width of sealed pavements of undivided roads

Minimum carriageway width(m) for design traffic

As per Table 1.3.1 minimum carriageway width required, corresponding to design

b) Capacity analysis level of service concept

Table 1.3.2 Design Level of Service

f HV = 1 [1 + PT (ET 1) + PB (EB 1)]

= Adjustment factor for directional distribution of traffic, obtained from

= Proportion of trucks in the traffic stream, expressed as a decimal

= Proportion of buses in the traffic stream, expressed as a decimal

Table 1.3.3 Adjustment factors for directional distribution (f d)

Specimen Calculation for Palugama-Boralanda-Haputale road;

Average Daily Traffic

Present peak Hour Traffic

=0.94(From Table 1.3.3- assuming 60/40

= 0.77 (from Table 1.3.4)

=0.8 (from Table 1.3.2)

From Equation 1.3.2,

= 1 /{ 1+[17.24 x (5.0 1)/100 + 8.58 x (2.9 1)/100]}

From Equation 1.3.1

= 2800 x 0.8 x 0.94 x 0.77 x 0.54

1.3.3. SHOULDER WIDTHS

1.3.3.1. FACTORS AFFECTING SHOULDER WIDTH

Maneuvering to escape potential accidents.

Emergency and rest stops.