Islam

live in Indonesia,[11] the largest Muslim-majority country, 25% in South Asia,[11] 20% in the Middle East,[12]
and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa.[13] Sizable Muslim communities are also found in Europe, China, Russia, and
the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are
found in almost every part of the world. With about 1.6
billion followers or 23% of the global population,[14][15]
Islam is the second-largest religion and the fastestgrowing religion in the world.[16][17][18]

For other uses, see Islam (disambiguation).

1 Etymology and meaning

The Kaaba, in Mecca, Hejaz region, todays Saudi Arabia, is the

center of Islam. Muslims from all over the world gather there to
pray in unity.

Islam (/slm/;[note 1] Arabic: , al-Islm IPA:

[lslm][note 2] ) is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Qur'an, an Islamic holy book considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God
(Allh), and for the vast majority of adherents, also by the
teachings, normative example and way of life (or sunnah);
it also is composed of prophetic traditions (or hadith) of
Muhammad (c. 5708 June 632 CE), considered by most
of them to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim (sometimes spelled Moslem).[1]
Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable[2]
and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[3]
Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed
many times before through prophets including Adam,
Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.[4] They maintain that
the previous messages and revelations have been partially misinterpreted or altered over time,[5] but consider
the Arabic Qur'an to be both the unaltered and the nal revelation of God.[6] Religious concepts and practices include the ve pillars of Islam, which are basic
concepts and obligatory acts of worship, and following
Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of
life and society, providing guidance on multifarious topics from banking and welfare, to family life and the
environment.[7][8]

The dome of the Carol I Mosque in Constana, Romania, topped

by the Islamic crescent

Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root

s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, safeness and peace.[19]
In a religious context it means voluntary submission to
Most Muslims are of two denominations: Sunni (75 God.[20][21] Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam,
90%)[9] or Shia (1020%).[10] About 13% of Muslims is the active participle of the same verb of which Islm is
1

ARTICLES OF FAITH

the innitive. Believers demonstrate submission to God

by serving God, following his commands, and rejecting
polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Qur'an. In some
verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction: Whomsoever God desires to guide, He
opens his heart to Islam.[22]

Him."(112:1-4) Muslims and Jews repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islam, God is beyond all
comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God.[28][29][30][31] God is described and referred to
by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahmn, meaning The Compassionate and Almeaning The Merciful (See Names of God in
Other verses connect Islm and dn (usually translated Rahm,[32]
Islam).
as religion): Today, I have perfected your religion
(dn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; Muslims believe that the creation of everything in the uniI have approved Islam for your religion.[23] Still others verse was brought into being by Gods sheer command,
describe Islam as an action of returning to Godmore "'Be' and so it is,[33] and that the purpose of existence
than just a verbal armation of faith.[24] In the Hadith is to worship God.[34] He is viewed as a personal god
of Gabriel, islm is presented as one part of a triad that who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls
includes imn (faith), and ihsn (excellence), where is- him.[35] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to
lm is dened theologically as Tawhid, historically by as- contact God who states, I am nearer to him than (his)
serting that Muhammad is messenger of God, and doctri- jugular vein.[36] The reciprocal nature is mentioned in
nally by mandating ve basic and fundamental pillars of the hadith qudsi, I am as My servant thinks (expects) I
practice.[25][26]
am.[37]

Articles of faith

Main articles: Aqidah and Iman

2.1

God

Allh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to reference God, while ilh (Arabic: )is the term used for
a deity or a god in general.[38] Other non-Arab Muslims
might use dierent names as much as Allah, for instance
Tanr" in Turkish, Khod" in Persian or ud in Urdu.

2.2 Angels
Main article: Islamic view of angels
Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam.
The Arabic word for angel (Arabic: malak) means
"messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malkh)
and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do
not possess free will, and therefore worship and obey God
in total obedience. Angels duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every persons actions, and taking a persons soul at the time
of death. Muslims believe that angels are made of light.
They are described as messengers with wingstwo, or
three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He
pleases...[39]

2.3 Revelations
Medallion showing "Allah" (God) in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul,
Turkey.

Main articles: God in Islam and Allah

Islams most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawd (Arabic: ). God is described in
chapter 112 of the Qur'an as:[27] Say: He is God, the
One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto

Main articles: Islamic holy books, Quran and Wahy

See also: History of the Quran
The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets.
Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed
scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels),
had become distortedeither in interpretation, in text, or
both.[5] The Qur'an (literally, Reading or Recitation)
is viewed by Muslims as the nal revelation and literal

2.5

Resurrection and judgment

Anbiya are considered prophets of the past in Islam.[48]

11th-century Qur'anic manuscript with vocalization marks.

word of God and is widely regarded as the nest literary

work in the Arabic language.[40][41]
Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel
Gabriel (Jibrl) on many occasions between 610 CE until
his death on June 8, 632.[42] While Muhammad was alive,
all of these revelations were written down by his companions (sahabah), although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization.[43]
The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which
combined, contain 6,236 yt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily
concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later
Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[44]
The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than
legal instruction, and is considered the sourcebook of
Islamic principles and values.[45] Muslim jurists consult
the hadith (reports), or the written record of Prophet
Muhammads life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[46] Rules governing proper pronunciation is called tajwid.

Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: anbiy ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Quran, the prophets were instructed by God to bring the will of God to the peoples
of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human
and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all
of Gods messengers preached the message of Islam
submission to the will of God. The Quran mentions
the names of numerous gures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus,
among others.[49]
Muslims believe that God nally sent Muhammad as the
last law bearing prophet (Seal of the Prophets) to convey
the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and
to nalize the word of God). In Islam, the normative
example of Muhammads life is called the Sunnah (literally trodden path). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is
a sub-category of hadith, regarded as the words of God
repeated by Muhammad diering from the Quran in that
they are expressed in Muhammads words, whereas the
Qur'an is understood as the direct words of God. The
classical Muslim jurist ash-Sha'i (d. 820) emphasized
the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammads actions in
their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding
interpretation of the Qur'an.[50]

Muslims usually view the Qur'an as the original scrip- 2.5 Resurrection and judgment
ture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are
necessarily decient, which are regarded only as com- Main article: Qiyama
mentaries on the Qur'an.[47]

2.4

Prophets

Main article: Prophets in Islam

Belief in the Day of Resurrection, Yawm al-Qiymah

(Arabic: ) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of Qiymah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and
during the Qiymah are described in the Qur'an and the
hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The

FIVE PILLARS

Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the agree on the essential details for the performance of these
pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[51]
acts.[60]
On Yawm al-Qiymah, Muslims believe all mankind will
be judged on their good and bad deeds and consigned 3.1 Testimony
to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Quran in
Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as, So whoever does an
atoms weight of good will see it (99:7) and whoever does
an atoms weight of evil will see it (99:8). The Quran
lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such
as disbelief in God (Arabic: kufr), and dishonesty;
however, the Quran makes it clear God will forgive the
sins of those who repent if he so wills. Good deeds, such
as charity, prayer and compassion towards animals,[52][53]
will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view
heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Quranic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to
come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor Akbar with inscriptions of the
delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[54] Islamic declaration of faith
Yawm al-Qiymah is also identied in the Qur'an as Main article: Shahadah
Yawm ad-Dn (Arabic: ) , Day of Religion";[55]
as-sah (Arabic: ), the Last Hour";[56] and alThe Shahadah,[61] which is the basic creed of Islam that
Qriah (Arabic: ), The Clatterer.[57]
must be recited under oath with the specic statement:
"'ahadu 'al-l ilha ill-llhu wa 'ahadu 'anna muammadan raslu-llh", or I testify that there is no god but
2.6 Predestination
God, Muhammad is the messenger of God.[62] This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in
Main article: Predestination in Islam
Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and
non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to
In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, recite the creed.[63]
or divine preordainment (al-qad wa'l-qadar), God has
full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is
explained in Qur'anic verses such as Say: 'Nothing will 3.2 Prayer
happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He
is our protector'...[58] For Muslims, everything in the Main article: Salat
world that occurs, good or bad, has been preordained and See also: Mosque and Jumu'ah
nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According
to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained,
The weekly Jumu'ah prayer, being held in Pristina,
man possesses free will in that he or she has the faculty to
Kosovo.
choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible
for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has
Muslim men prostrating during prayer in a Mosque.
been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfz, the
[59]
Preserved Tablet.
Ritual prayers, called alh or alt (Arabic: ), must
be performed ve times a day. Salat is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal commu3 Five pillars
nication with him that expresses gratitude and worship.
Salat is compulsory but exibility in the specics is alMain article: Five Pillars of Islam
lowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from
[64]
The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, the Qur'an. The prayers are done with the chest in dipillars of religion) are ve basic acts in Islam, con- rection of the kaaba though in the early days of Islam,
sidered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents they were done in direction of Jerusalem.
them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the creed (shahadah), (2)
daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting
during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj)
at least once in a lifetime. Both Shia and Sunni sects

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often

refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque
in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to
Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the

5
larger, collective mosque (masjid jmi').[65] Although
the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place
of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community
as a place to meet and study. Al-Masjid al-Nabawi the
Prophets Mosque in Madina was also a place of refuge
for the poor.[66] Modern mosques have evolved greatly
from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a
variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[67]

3.3

Alms-giving

Main articles: Zakat and Sadaqah

Zakt (Arabic: zakh "alms") is giving a xed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can aord it
to help the poor or needy and for those employed to
collect Zakat; also, for bringing hearts together, freeing
captives, for those in debt (or bonded labour) and for
the (stranded) traveller.[68][69] It is considered a religious
obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the wello owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a
trust from Gods bounty. Conservative estimates of annual zakat is estimated to be 15 times global humanitarian
aid contributions.[70] The amount of zakat to be paid on
capital assets (e.g. money) is 2.5% (1/40) per year,[71] for
people who are not poor. The Qur'an and the hadith also
urge a Muslim to give even more as an act of voluntary
alms-giving called Sadaqah.[72]

Pilgrims at the Masjid al-Haram on Hajj

then a day in the desert plain of Arafat praying and worshiping God, following the foot steps of Abraham. Then
spending a night out in the open, sleeping on the desert
sand in the desert plain of Muzdalifah, then moving to
Jamarat, symbolically stoning the Devil recounting Abrahams actions.[74][75][76] Then going to Makkah and walking seven times around the Kaaba which Muslims believe
was built as a place of worship by Abraham. Then walking seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah
recounting the steps of Abrahams wife, while she was
looking for water for her son Ismael in the desert before
Mecca developed into a settlement.
[77]

3.4

Fasting

Main article: Sawm

Further information: Sawm of Ramadan
Fasting, (Arabic: awm), from food and drink
(among other things) must be performed from dawn to
dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence
on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy.
Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it
would constitute an undue burden. For others, exibility
is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts
usually must be made up quickly.[73]

3.5

Pilgrimage

Main article: Hajj

The pilgrimage, called the ajj (Arabic: ), has to be
done during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the
city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in
his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include: spending
a day and a night in the tents in the desert plain of Mina,

4 Law and jurisprudence

Main articles: Sharia, Fiqh and Early scholars of Islam
The Shariah (literally the path leading to the watering
place) is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. Shariah
constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a
Muslim by virtue of his or her religious belief.[78]
The Quran set the rights, the responsibilities and the rules
for people and for societies to adhere to. Muhammad provided an example, which is recorded in the hadith books,
showing how he practically implemented those rules in a
society.
Many of the Sharia laws that dier are devised through
Ijtihad where there is no such ruling in the Quran or the
Hadiths of Islamic prophet Muhammad regarding a similar case.[79][80] As Muhammads companions went to new
areas,[81] they were pragmatic and in some cases continued to use the same ruling as was given in that area during
pre-Islamic times. If the population felt comfortable with
it, it was just and they used Ijtihad to deduce that it did
not conict with the Quran or the Hadith. This made it
easier for the dierent communities to integrate into the

6
Islamic State and that assisted in the quick expansion of
the Islamic State. Since the Constitution of Medina, was
drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad the Jews and
the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their own judges.[82][83][84]
Much of the knowledge we have about Muhammad is
narrated through Aisha, the wife of Muhammad. Aisha
raised and taught her nephew Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn
Abu Bakr the grandson of Abu Bakr and the grandfather
of Ja'far al-Sadiq. Aisha also taught her nephew Urwah
ibn Zubayr. He then taught his son Hisham ibn Urwah,
who was the main teacher of Malik ibn Anas.

LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE

and they wanted people to refer to the Quran.[98] Ahmad

ibn Hanbal rejected the writing down and codifying of the
religious rulings he gave. They knew that they might have
fallen into error in some of their judgements and stated
this clearly. They never introduced their rulings by saying, This is the judgement of God and His prophet.[99]
There is also very little text actually written down by Jafar
al-Sadiq himself. Since Jafar al-Sadiq (702-765) did not
write any books, the books followed by the Twelver Shi'a
were written by Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (864941), Ibn Babawayh (923-991), and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
(1201-1274).[100][101] Since Jafar al-Sadiq and Zayd ibn
Ali did not them selves write any books. But they worked
closely with imam Abu Hanifa and imam Malik ibn Anas
and the views of imam Jafar al-Sadiq and imam Zayd
ibn Ali are in the early Hadith books written by imam
Abu Hanifa and imam Malik ibn Anas,[92] the oldest
branch of the Shia, the Zaydis to this day and originally
the Fatamids, use the Hana jurisprudence, as do most
Sunnis.[99][102][103]

When Umar bin Abdul Azeez became a Caliph in

717[85][86] he appointed a committee of jurist in Madina
headed by Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr and it
included Urwah ibn Zubayr to advise on legal matters[87]
The work of Malik ibn Anas and successive jurists is
based on the work of this early committee in Madina.
Muwatta[88] by Malik ibn Anas was written as a consensus of the opinion, of these scholars.[89][90][91] The
Muwatta[88] by Malik ibn Anas also quotes 13 hadith nar- Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of
state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of
rated through Imam Jafar al-Sadiq.[92]
daily living. The Qur'an denes hudud as the punishThe early scholars of Islam including, imam Abu Hanifa, ments for ve specic crimes: unlawful intercourse, false
imam Malik ibn Anas and imam Jafar al-Sadiq worked accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcotogether in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina along with hol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah
over 70 other leading jurists and scholars. They did not also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitudistinguish between each other or classify them selves as tion for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting,
Sunni or Shiah. They felt that they were following the charity, and prayer.
religion of Abraham.[93] In the books actually written by
these original jurists and scholars, there are very few the- The dierences between the denominations in Islam are
primarily political and amplied after the Safavid invaological and judicial dierences between them.
sion of Persia in the 1500s and the subsequent Safavid
Fiqh, or jurisprudence, is dened as the knowledge of conversion of Iran to Shia Islam due to the politics bethe practical rules of the religion. Much of it has evolved tween the Safavids and the Ottoman Empire.[104] After
to prevent innovation or alteration in the original religion, the demise of the Safavid dynasty, the new ruler of Persia,
known as bid'ah.
Nader Shah (1698 to 1747) himself a Sunni attempted to
The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known improve relations with Sunni nations by propagating the
[105]
as usul al-qh (legal theory, or principles of jurispru- integration of Shiism by calling it Jaafari Madh'hab.
dence). To reduce the divergence, in the 9th century, a Since Jafar al-Sadiq himself disapproved of people who
student of Malik ibn Anas, the jurist ash-Sha'i provided disapproved of his great grand father Abu Bakr the rst
a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the prin- caliph.
ciples of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental
roots) in his book ar-Rislah.[94] According to ash-Sha'i,
law has four fundamental roots, which are given prece- 4.1 Jurists
dence in this order: the Qur'an, the Hadith (the pracMain articles: Ulama, Sheikh and Imam
tice of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists
(ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). Al-Sha'i also
codied a method to establish the reliability of hadith.
Imam teaches the Quran in Eastern Europe, 19th
Muhammad al-Bukhari[95] then travelled around and colcentury.
lected over 300,000 hadith, but only included 2,602 dis[95]
tinct hadith in his book Sahih al-Bukhari, that passed
An Imam leading prayers in Cairo, Egypt, in 1865.
these tests and he codied as authentic and correct. Sahih
al-Bukhari is therefore considered by many to be the most
There are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sancauthentic book after the Quran.[96][97] The Arabic word
tioned positions of Islam, but jurist generally refers
sahih translates as authentic or correct.
to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged
They all gave priority to the Qur'an and the Hadith and felt in several elds of Islamic studies. In a broader sense,
that Islam was completed during the time of Muhammad the term ulema is used to describe the body of Muslim

4.4

Science

clergy who have completed several years of training and

study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or
muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the
village mullahs, imams, and maulviswho have attained
only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship;
other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher
standards to be considered ulama (singular Aalim). Some
Muslims practise ijtihad whereby they do not accept the
authority of clergy.[106] Education is considered very important to Muslims, so that they could distinguish between right and wrong, but when it comes to entry into
heaven, the most noble in the sight of Allah are the most
righteous and they may be honest, compassionate and
helpful to others but not necessarily very educated.[107]

4.2

Etiquette and diet

4.3

Family life

The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam

denes the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as nancially responsible for his
family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The
division of inheritance is specied in the Qur'an, which
states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts
and the making of bequests. With some exceptions, the
womans share of inheritance is generally half of that of
a man with the same rights of succession.[109] Marriage
in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an oer and
acceptance between two qualied parties in the presence
of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal
gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[110]

The Quran (verse 4:3)[Quran 4:3] limits the number of wives

to four and only if a man could treat them with fairMain articles: Adab (behavior) and Islamic dietary laws ness and equity. Most families in the Islamic world are
monogamous as the rule is a conditional permission not a
[111][112]
Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic recommendation.
etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu In case of family disputes, the Quran[Quran 4:34] directs the
`alaykum" (peace be unto you), saying bismillah (in husband to treat his spouse kindly and not to overlook her
the name of God") before meals, and using only the right positive aspects, and exhort and appeal for reason. If this
hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices fails, the husband may express his displeasure by sleeping
mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and in a separate bed. As a last retort, the husband may tap
health. Circumcision of male ospring is also practiced or lightly strike her in a manner which causes no pain and
in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat leaves no mark on the body. This has been interpreted
al-Janazah (funeral prayer) over the bathed and en- by early jurists as a symbolic use of the miswak. Even
shrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Mus- this measure has been discouraged in several hadeeth, and
lims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include the prophet never retorted to that measure.[113][114][115]
pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must A minority of Islamic scholars contest this interpretation
come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name and state that even tapping or striking is not allowed.[116]
of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception The man of the house is allowed to beat young children;
of game that one has hunted or shed for oneself. Food but not adult children.[117]
permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[108]

4.4 Science
Main article: Islam and science

Women in Islam

See also: Women in Islam

Science, from an Islamic standpoint, is the study of nature

as stemming from Tawhid.[118] In Islam, nature is not
seen as something separate but as an integral part of a
holistic outlook on God, humanity, the world and the
cosmos.[119] Theoretical physicist Jim Al-Khalili believes
the modern scientic method was pioneered by Ibn AlHaytham (known in the Western world as "Alhazen"),
whose contributions he likened to those of Isaac Newton.[120] Muslim scientists and scholars have subsequently
developed a spectrum of viewpoints on the place of scientic learning within the context of Islam, none of which
are universally accepted.[121]

4.5

Economy

Main article: Islamic economic jurisprudence

To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, Islamic
economic jurisprudence encourages trade,[122] discourages the hoarding of wealth and outlaws interest-bearing
loans (usury; the term is riba in Arabic).[123][124] Therefore wealth is taxed through Zakat, but trade is not taxed.
Usury, which allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk, is forbidden in Islam. Prot sharing and
venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is
acceptable.[125] Hoarding of food for speculation is also
discouraged.[126]

LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE

Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and

Sus, distinguish between the greater jihad, which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the lesser jihad,
dened as warfare.[138]
Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken
to mean military exertion against non-believer/nonMuslim/Muslim combatants who insulted Islam. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within
the Islamic community and without. Jihad is the only
form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may
be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal
groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[139][140] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[141] Jihad only
becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in
the case of a general mobilization.[140] For most Twelver
Shias, oensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely
appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such
is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's[142] occultation in 868 AD.[143]

Grabbing other peoples land is also prohibited. The

prohibition of usury has resulted in the development of
Islamic banking. During the time of Muhammad, any
money that went to the state, was immediately used to
help the poor. Then in 634, Umar formally established
the welfare state Bayt al-mal. The Bayt al-mal or the
welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor,
needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The
Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun
4.8 Slavery
Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the
Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar
Main article: Islamic views on slavery
also introduced Child Benet and Pensions for the chil[127][128][129][130]
dren and the elderly.
Islamic views on slavery rst developed out of the slavery
practices of pre-Islamic Arabia,[144] and were at times
radically dierent, depending on social-political factors
4.6 Government
such as the Arab slave trade.
Main articles: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic state, In Islamic law, the topic of slavery is covered at great
Islam and secularism, Islamic democracy, Sultanate, length.[144] The Quran (the holy book) and the hadith
Khanate, Imamate, Emirate, Mansa and Caliphate
(the sayings of Muhammad) see slavery as an excepMainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between
matters of church and matters of state"; the scholars
function as both jurists and theologians. Currently
no government conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, but steps have been taken to implement some of
its tenets.[131][132][133]

4.7

Jihad

tional condition that can be entered into under certain

limited circumstances.[145] Only children of slaves or nonMuslim prisoners of war could become slaves, never a
freeborn Muslim.[146] They also consider manumission of
a slave to be one of many meritorious deeds available for
the expiation of sins.[147] According to Sharia, slaves are
considered human beings and possessed some rights on
the basis of their humanity. In addition, a Muslim slave
is equal to a Muslim freeman in religious issues and superior to the free non-Muslim.[148]

In practice, slaves played various social and economic

Main articles: Jihad, Islamic military jurisprudence and roles, from Emir to worker. Slaves were widely employed
List of expeditions of Muhammad
in irrigation, mining, pastoralism, and the army. Some
rulers even relied on military and administrative slaves to
Jihad means to strive or struggle (in the way of God). Ji- such a degree that they seized power. However, people
had, in its broadest sense, is exerting ones utmost power, did not always treat their slaves in accordance with Iseorts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an ob- lamic law. In some cases, the situation was so harsh that
ject of disapprobation". Depending on the object being it led to uprisings, such as the Zanj Rebellion.[149] Howa visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of ones own self ever, this was an exception rather than the norm, as the
(such as sinful desires), dierent categories of jihad are vast majority of labor in the medieval Islamic world condened.[134] Jihad, when used without any qualier, is un- sisted of free, paid labour.[150] For a variety of reasons,
derstood in its military aspect.[135][136] Jihad also refers to internal growth of the slave population was not enough
ones striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[137] to fulll the demand in Muslim society. This resulted

5.1

Muhammad (610632)

in massive importation, which involved enormous suering and loss of life from the capture and transportation
of slaves from non-Muslim lands.[151] In theory, slavery
in Islamic law does not have a racial or color component,
although this has not always been the case in practice.[152]
The Quran provides for emancipation of a slave as a
means of religious atonement for sins.[153] One of the ve
pillars of Islam, zakt, is meant to encourage Muslims
to donate money to free slaves and bonded laborers in
countries where slaves and bonded laborers may exist, in
the hope that over time there will be no slaves left in that
country.[71]

History
The calligraphic representation of Muhammad in Islam.

the Migration to Abyssinia of some Muslims (to the

Aksumite Empire). Many early converts to Islam, were
the poor and former slaves like Bilal ibn Rabah alHabashi. The Meccan elite felt that Muhammad was
destabilising their social order by preaching about one
God, racial equality and in the process giving ideas to the
poor and their slaves.[156][157][158][159]

A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque

of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, todays Saudi
Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam
Main articles: History of Islam and Spread of Islam

5.1

Muhammad (610632)

Main articles: Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam

See also: Early social changes under Islam
In Muslim tradition, Muhammad (c. 570 June 8, 632) is
viewed as the last in a series of law-bearing prophets.[154]
During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age
40 in 610 CE, according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported revelations that he believed to be from God conveyed to him through the
archangel Gabriel (Jibril). The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded
by his companions.[155]
During this time, Muhammad in Mecca preached to
the people, imploring them to abandon polytheism and
to worship one God. Although some converted to
Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted
by the leading Meccan authorities. This resulted in

After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the

Meccans and the Meccan boycott of the Hashemites,
Muhammads relatives, Muhammad and the Muslims
performed the Hijra (emigration) to the city of Medina
(formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the
Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants
(Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. A state was established in
accordance with Islamic economic jurisprudence. The
Constitution of Medina was formulated, instituting a
number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim,
Jewish, Christian and pagan communities of Medina,
bringing them within the fold of one community the
Ummah.[160][161]
The Constitution established: the security of the community, religious freedoms, the role of Medina as a sacred
place (barring all violence and weapons), the security of
women, stable tribal relations within Medina, a tax system for supporting the community in time of conict, parameters for exogenous political alliances, a system for
granting protection of individuals, and a judicial system
for resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use
their own laws. All the tribes signed the agreement to
defend Medina from all external threats and to live in
harmony amongst themselves. Within a few years, two
battles were fought against the Meccan forces: rst, the
Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and
then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina,
the Battle of Uhud, which ended inconclusively.

10

The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during the Battle of the Trench besieged
Medina intent on nishing o Islam. In 628, the Treaty
of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After the
signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah many more people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade
routes were cut o as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[162] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of
Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of
62) he united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious
polity.[163]

5.2

Caliphate and civil strife (632750)

HISTORY

After the rst civil war (the First Fitna), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following a peace treaty,
Mu'awiyah came to power and began the Umayyad dynasty.[166]
These disputes over religious and political leadership
would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The
majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior
to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that only Ali and some of his descendants should rule; they became known as the Shia.[167]
After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second
Fitna".
The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the
Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[168] Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to nance
the ByzantineSassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to
take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.[169][170] Since
the Constitution of Medina, Jews and Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had
their own judges.[82][83][84]
The descendants of Muhammads uncle Abbas ibn
Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented non-Arab converts (mawali), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the
Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in
750.[171]

Dome of the Rock built by Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan; completed

at the end of the Second Fitna.

5.3 Classical era (7501258)

Further information: Muslim conquests, First Fitna and During this time, the Delhi Sultanate took over the InSecond Fitna
dian subcontinent. Religious missions converted Volga
Bulgaria to Islam. Many Muslims also went to China to
With Muhammads death in 632, disagreement broke out trade, virtually dominating the import and export indusover who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim try of the Song Dynasty.[172]
community. Abu Bakr, a companion and close friend of The major hadith collections were compiled during the
Muhammad, was made the rst caliph. Under Abu Bakr
early Abbasid era. The Ja'fari jurisprudence was formed
the Muslims expanded into Syria after putting down a re- from the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq while the four Sunni
bellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda
Madh'habs, the Hana, Hanbali, Maliki and Sha'i, were
wars, or Wars of Apostasy.[164] The Quran was com- established around the teachings of Ab anfa, Ahmad
piled into a single volume at this time.
bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Sha'i respectively.
His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar ibn
al-Khattab as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn alAan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali. The rst
caliphs are known as al-khulaf' ar-rshidn ("Rightly
Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into the parts of the Persian and
Byzantine territories.[165]

Al-Sha'i also codied a method to establish the reliability of hadith.[173] Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir completed
the most commonly cited commentaries on the Quran,
the Tafsir al-Tabari in the 9th century and the Tafsir ibn
Kathir in the 14th century, respectively. Philosophers AlFarabi and Avicenna sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like Al-Ghazali
[174]
When Umar was assassinated by Persians in 644, the elec- argued against them and ultimately prevailed.
tion of Uthman as successor was met with increasing op- Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made
position. The standard copies of the Quran were also dis- the mutazilite philosophy an ocial creed and imposed
tributed throughout the Islamic State. In 656, Uthman it upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek inuwas also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. enced school of speculative theology called kalam, which

5.4

Pre-Modern era (125820th century)

11

refers to dialectic.[175] Many orthodox Muslims rejected retrieved.[195] The Mongol Empire put an end to the Abmutazilite doctrines and condemned their idea of the cre- bassid dynasty in 1258.[196]
ation of the Quran. In inquisitions, Imam Hanbal refused
to conform and was tortured and sent to an unlit Baghdad
prison cell for nearly thirty months.[176]
5.4 Pre-Modern era (125820th century)
The other branch of kalam was the Ash'ari school
founded by Al-Ash'ari. Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan alBasri would inspire a movement that would evolve into
Tasawwuf (Susm).[177] Beginning in the 13th century,
Susm underwent a transformation, largely because of
eorts to legitimize and reorganize the movement by AlGhazali, who developed the model of the Su ordera
community of spiritual teachers and students.[178]

By the medieval era most of the countries on the Silk Road were
Muslim majority.

Islam spread with Muslim trade networks and Su orders

activity that extended into Sub-Saharan Africa, Central
Asia and the Malay archipelago.[197][198] The Ottomans
challenged European powers on land and sea, and reached
The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Al-Idrisi in 1154, one of the deep into Central Europe at the Siege of Vienna (1529).
most advanced ancient world maps. Al-Idrisi also wrote about Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast
the diverse Muslim communities found in various lands.
Europe, Crimea, and the Caucasus.[199] The Muslims in
China who were descended from earlier immigration beThis era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden gan to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and culture
Age".[179] Public hospitals established during this time while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic
(called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered the rst study.[200][201]
hospitals in the modern sense of the word,[180][181]
and issued the rst medical diplomas to license The Muslim world was generally in serious political dedoctors.[182][183] The Guinness World Records recog- cline starting the 1800s, especially relative to the nonnizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, Muslim European powers. This decline was evident
culturally; while Taqi al-Din founded an observatory in
as the worlds oldest degree-granting university.[184] The
doctorate is argued to date back to the licenses to teach Istanbul and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the
18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with
in Muslim law schools.[185] Standards of experimental
[202]
The
and quantication techniques, as well as the tradition a major observatory by the twentieth century.
Reconquista, launched against Muslim principalities in
[186]
of citation,
were introduced. An important pioneer in this, Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father Iberia, succeeded in 1492 and Muslim Sicily was lost to
the Normans. By the 19th century the British Empire had
of the modern scientic method and often referred to
[203]
The
[187][188]
as the worlds rst true scientist.
The govern- formally ended the last Mughal dynasty in India.
Ottoman
Empire
disintegrated
after
World
War
I
and
the
ment paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional
[204][205]
Caliphate
was
abolished
in
1924.
[186]
The data used by Copernicus for his
athletes today.
heliocentric conclusions was gathered and Al-Jahiz pro- The majority Shia group at that time, the Zaydis, used the
posed a theory of natural selection.[189][190] Rumi wrote Hana jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.[99][102][103] The
some of the nest Persian poetry and is still one of Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conthe best selling poets in America.[191][192] Legal insti- quered all of Iran.[206] The ensuing mandatory conversion
tutions introduced include the trust and charitable trust of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam for the largely Sunni pop(Waqf).[193][194]
ulation also ensured the nal dominance of the Twelver
The rst Muslims states independent of a unied Mus- sect within Shiism over the Zaidi sect, the largest group
Shia before the Safavid Dynasty, and the
lim state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740- amongst the[207]
Ismaili
sect.
743). In 930, the Ismaili group known as the Qarmatians
unsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked A revival movement during this period an 18th-century
Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually Sala movement led by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in todays

12
Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier eorts such as those by Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn
al-Qayyim, the movement allegedly seeks to uphold
monotheism and purify Islam of what they see as later
innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines led to
the desecration of shrines around the world, including
that of Muhammad and his companions in Mecca and
Medina.[208][209] In the 19th century, the Deobandi and
Barelwi movements were initiated.

6 DENOMINATIONS
norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islams
sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for independent thought on religious matters.[213] Womens issues receive a signicant weight in the modern discourse
on Islam.[214]

Secular powers such as Chinese Red Guards closed many

mosques and destroyed Qurans and Communist Albania became the rst country to ban the practice of every religion.[215][216] About half a million Muslims were
killed in Cambodia by communists whom, it is argued,
viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to ex5.5 Modern times (20th centurypresent) terminate them since they stood out and worshipped their
own god.[217] In Turkey, the military carried out coups to
Further information: Islamic revival
oust Islamist governments and headscarves were, as well
Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim pop- as in Tunisia, banned in ocial buildings.[218][219]
Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani, along with his acolyte
Muhammad Abduh, have been credited as forerunners
of the Islamic revival.[220] Abul A'la Maududi helped
inuence modern political Islam.[221] Islamist groups
such as the Muslim Brotherhood advocate Islam as a
comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being
banned.[222] In Iran, revolution replaced a secular regime
with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the Islamist AK Party
has democratically been in power for about a decade,
while Islamist parties did well in elections following
the Arab Spring.[223] The Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was
established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa
Mosque in Jerusalem.[224]

This map shows the 1979 demographic distribution of Muslims

within the former Soviet Union as a percentage of the population
by administrative division.

ulations to new areas through economic migration. Many

Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly
India and Indonesia, to the Caribbean, forming the largest
Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[210]
The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in subSaharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim
population between 1869 and 1914.[211] Muslim immigrants, many as guest workers, began arriving, largely
from former colonies, into several Western European nations since the 1960s.

Piety appears to be deepening worldwide.[225][226][227] In

many places, the prevalence of the Islamic veil is growing increasingly common[228] and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased.[229] With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for
them rather than rely on state clerics who are often seen
as stooges.[226] Some organizations began using the media
to promote Islam such as the 24-hour TV channel, Peace
TV.[230] Perhaps as a result of these eorts, most experts
agree that Islam is growing faster than any other faith in
East and West Africa.[231][232]

6 Denominations

New Muslim intellectuals are beginning to arise, and are

increasingly separating perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions.[212] Liberal Islam is a movement Main article: Islamic schools and branches
that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern See also: ShiaSunni relations

6.2

Shia

13
the Qur'an and the Hadith, the example of Muhammad
and give the people their rights.
The Sunnis follow the Quran, then the Hadith. Then
for legal matters not found in the Quran or the Hadith,
they follow four madh'habs (schools of thought): Hana,
Hanbali, Maliki and Sha'i, established around the teachings of Ab anfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas
and al-Sha'i respectively.

The main Islamic madh'habs (schools of law) of Muslim

countries or distributions

All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim

may choose any one that he or she nds agreeable.[235]
The Sala (also known as Ahl al-Hadith (Arabic:
;The people of hadith), or the pejorative term
Wahhabi by its adversaries) is an ultra-orthodox Islamic
movement which takes the rst generation of Muslims as
exemplary models.[236]

6.2 Shia

Islam

Main article: Shia Islam

Sunni

Ahmadiyya

Shi'ah

Schools of law (Madh'hab)

Hanafi

Barelvi

Hanbali

Maliki

Shafi'i

The Shia constitute 1020% of Islam and are its second[10]

largest branch.
Ibadiyya
Jafri
Zaidiyyah

Isma'ilism

Deoband
movement

Sevener

Nizari

Musta'li

Druze

**

Tayyibi

Qaramita

Sufi
Orders (Tariqah)
Bektashi Chisht

Mawlawi

Naqshbandi

Oveyssi

Qadiriyyah

Suhrawardiyya

Tijniyyah

Murdiyya

Khawarij

Bohras
Dawoodi Bohras
Jafan Bohras
Sulaimani Bohras
Alavi Bohras
Hebitahs Bohras
Atba-I Malak Bohras
Progressive Dawoodi
Bohras

While the Sunnis believe

that
a Caliph should be elected
Extinct
Khawarij
sects: believe that Muhammad apby
the
community,
Shias
Twelver
Alevi
Azraqi
pointed'Alawi
his son-in-law,
Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his succesHaruriyya
sor and only certain descendants
of Ali could be Imams.
Sufri
a result, they believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the
AkbariAs Usuli
rst Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previShaykhious Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr, Uthman ibn al-Aan and
Umar ibn al-Khattab.

Shia Islam has several branches, the largest of which is

Ismailis. Dierent
Shadhil
branches accept dierent descendants of Ali as Imams.
Universal
After the death of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq considered the
Sufism
sixth Imam by the Twelvers, and the Ismaili's, the IsAn overview of the major schools and branches of Islam. mailis started to consider his son Isma'il ibn Jafar as the
Imam and the Twelver Shias (Ithna Asheri) started to
consider his other son Musa al-Kazim as their seventh
Imam. While the Zaydis consider Zayd ibn Ali, the uncle
6.1 Sunni
of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, as their fth Imam.
* Sect extinct**
Druze are notfollowed
always considered
Muslimand
the Twelvers,
by Zaidis

Other smaller groups include the Bohra and Druze,[237] as

well as the Alawites and Alevi. Some Shia branches label
other Shia branches that do not agree with their doctrine
The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which as Ghulat.
makes up 75%90% of all Muslims.[9] Sunni Muslims
also go by the name Ahl as-Sunnah which means people of the tradition [of Muhammad]".[233][234] These ha- 6.3 Susm
diths, recounting Muhammads words, actions, and personal characteristics, are preserved in traditions known as Main article: Susm
Al-Kutub Al-Sittah (six major books).
Main article: Sunni Islam

Sunnis believe that the rst four caliphs were the rightful
successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any
particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were
elected. Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and
just could be a caliph but they have to act according to

Susm (Tasawwuf) is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to nd divine love and knowledge through
direct personal experience of God.[238] By focusing on
the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sus strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of intu-

14

8 CULTURE

7 Demographics

% of population
Muslim
90-100
80-90
65-80
50-65
30-50
15-30
7-15
1-7

Su whirling dervishes in Istanbul, Turkey

itive and emotional faculties that one must be trained

to use.[239] However, Susm has been criticized by the
Sala sect for what they see as an unjustied religious
innovation.[240][241] Hasan al-Basri was inspired by the
ideas of piety and condemnation of worldliness preached
by Muhammad and these ideas were later further developed by Al-Ghazali in his books on Susm. Su-majority
countries include Senegal, Chad and Niger.[242]

6.4

Other denominations

Ahmadiyya is an Islamic reform movement (with

Sunni roots) founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad[243]
that began in India in 1889 and is practiced by 10 to
20 million[244] Muslims around the world. Ahmad
claimed to have fullled the prophecies concerning
the arrival of the 'Imam Mahdi' and the 'Promised
Messiah'.

World Muslim population by percentage (Pew Research Center,

2014).

Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah

See also: List of countries by Muslim population
A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population, or 1.57 billion people, are Muslims. Of those,
it is estimated over 7590% are Sunni and 1020%
are Shia[13][233][246] with a small minority belonging to
other sects. Approximately 57 countries are Muslimmajority,[247] and Arabs account for around 20% of all
Muslims worldwide.[248] The number of Muslims worldwide increased from 200 million in 1900 to 551 million
in 1970,[249] and tripled to 1.57 billion by 2009.
The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.[250] Approximately 62% of the worlds Muslims live in Asia,
with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan,
India, and Bangladesh.[251][252] In the Middle East, nonArab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest
Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria
have the most populous Muslim communities.[253]

Non-denominational Muslims are Muslims who do

Most estimates indicate that the Peoples Republic of
not restrict their religious aliation to any particular
China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5%
branch of Islam.
to 2% of the population).[254][255][256][257] However, data
The Ibadi is a sect that dates back to the early days provided by the San Diego State University's InternaReport
of Islam and is a branch of Kharijite and is practiced tional Population Center to U.S. News & World
[258]
suggests
that
China
has
65.3
million
Muslims.
Islam
by 1.45 million Muslims around the world.[245] Unis
the
second
largest
religion
after
Christianity
in
many
like most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard
[259]
European
countries,
and
is
slowly
catching
up
to
that
sinful Muslims as unbelievers.
status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, accord Mahdavia is an Islamic sect that believes in a 15th- ing to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims,
according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations
century Mahdi, Muhammad Jaunpuri
(CAIR), in the United States.[13][260]
The Quranists are Muslims who generally reject the
Hadith.

8 Culture

Yazdnism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs

and Islamic Su doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by
Main article: Islamic culture
Sheikh Adi ibn Musar in the 12th century.
The term "Islamic culture" could be used to mean aspects
There are also black Muslim movements such as of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals
the Nation of Islam (NOI), Five-Percent Nation and and dress code. It is also commonly used to denote the
Moorish scientists.
cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[261] Fi-

8.2

Art

15

8.2 Art
Main article: Islamic art
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from

Bismallah (In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most
Merciful) in Islamic calligraphy form.

nally, Islamic civilization may also refer to the aspects

of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[262] sometimes referred to as
'Islamicate'.

8.1

Architecture

Main article: Islamic architecture

Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is

Girih pattern with inlaid oral decoration from Shah-i-Zinda in

Semerkand, Uzbekistan

Detail of arabesque decoration at the Alhambra in Spain.

the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily

Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited
by Muslim populations.[265] It includes elds as varied as
architecture, particularly that of the mosque (four-iwan architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among
and hypostyle).[263] Through the edices, the eect of others.
varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illus- Making images of human beings and animals is frowned
trated. The North African and Spanish Islamic archi- on in many Islamic cultures and connected with laws
tecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as against idolatry common to all Abrahamic religions, as
seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains 'Abdullaah ibn Masood reported that Muhammad said,
marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzan- Those who will be most severely punished by Allah on
tine buildings,[264] in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or the Day of Resurrection will be the image-makers (rein the Great Mosque of Cordoba.
ported by al-Bukhaari, see al-Fath, 10/382). However
The front of the Nur-Astana Mosque in Astana, Kazakhstan, the
countrys largest mosque.

16

11

this rule has been interpreted in dierent ways by dierent scholars and in dierent historical periods, and there
are examples of paintings of both animals and humans in
Mughal, Persian and Turkish art. The existence of this
aversion to creating images of animate beings has been
used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation
and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.

8.3

Calendar

Main article: Islamic calendar

REFERENCES

Glossary of Islam
History of Islam
Islam and other religions
Criteria of True Prophet
Islam by country
Islamic economics
Islamic ethics

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to

be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning
point in Muhammads fortunes. The assignment of this
year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar
calendar with days lasting from sunset to sunset.[266] Islamic holy days fall on xed dates of the lunar calendar,
which means that they occur in dierent seasons in dierent years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important
Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: ) on the
1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha ( ) on the 10th of Dhu
al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.[267]

Islamic literature
Islamic mythology
Islamic schools and branches
Islamic studies
List of Muslim empires and dynasties
List of notable converts to Islam
Lists of Muslims

Criticism

Main article: Criticism of Islam

Criticism of Islam has existed since Islams formative
stages. Early written criticism came from Christians,
prior to the ninth century, many of whom viewed Islam as
a radical Christian heresy.[268] Later there appeared criticism from the Muslim world itself, and also from Jewish
writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.[269][270][271]

Major religious groups

Muslim world
Religious conversion#Islam
Scientic foreknowledge in sacred texts
Timeline of Muslim history

Objects of criticism include the morality of the life of

Muhammad, the last law bearing prophet of Islam, both 11 References
in his public and personal life.[271][272] Issues relating to
the authenticity and morality of the Qur'an, the Islamic
holy book, are also discussed by critics.[273][274] Other 11.1 Notes
criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Islamic nations, and the treatment of women in Is- [1] There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the rst or second syllable has the
lamic law and practice.[275][276] In wake of the recent
stress, whether the s is /z/ or /s/, and whether the a is
multiculturalism trend, Islams inuence on the ability of
pronounced //, // or (when the stress is on the rst
Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been
syllable) // (Merriam Webster). The most common
[277]
criticized.
are /zlmslmzlmslm/ (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and /zlmslm/ (American
Heritage Dictionary).

10

See also

Main article: Outline of Islam

[2] /islam/: Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The

rst vowel ranges from [i]~[]~[e]. The second vowel
ranges from []~[a]~[]~[]. In Northwestern Africa,
they do not have stress or lengthened vowels.

11.2

11.2

Citations

Citations

[1] thefreedictionary.com: "muslim"

[2] quran.com:
[3] See:
Quran 51:56
God. Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved
2010-12-18. For Muslims, God is unique and without equal.
Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence.
Patheos.com. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
[4] People of the Book. Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-12-18.
[5] See: * Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although
only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of
it. * Esposito (1998, pp. 6,12) * Esposito (2002, pp. 4
5)* Peters (2003, p. 9) *F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. Muhammad. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. * Hava LazarusYafeh. Tahrif. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
[6] Bennett (2010, p. 101)
[7] Esposito (2002b, p. 17)
[8] See: * Esposito (2002b, pp. 111,112,118)
Shari'ah. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
[9] See:
Sunnite. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-26. They numbered about 900
million in the late 20th century and constituted
nine-tenths of all the adherents of Islm.
Islamic Beliefs, Practices, and Cultures. Marshall
Cavendish. 2010. p. 352. ISBN 0-7614-7926-0.
Retrieved December 19, 2011. A common compromise gure ranks Sunnis at 90 percent.
Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report
on the Size and Distribution of the Worlds Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. October 7,
2009. Retrieved 2013-09-24. Of the total Muslim
population, 10-13% are Shia Muslims and 87-90%
are Sunni Muslims.
Quick guide: Sunnis and Shias. BBC News.
2011-12-06. Retrieved December 18, 2011. The
great majority of Muslims are Sunnis - estimates
suggest the gure is somewhere between 85% and
90%.
Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide Sunni Islam is the dominant division
of the global Muslim community, and throughout
history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to
90 percent) of that community.
Sunni and Shia Islam. Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved December 17, 2011. Sunni
constitute 85 percent of the worlds Muslims.

17
Sunni. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and
World Aairs. Retrieved December 20, 2012.
Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam,
comprising about 85% of the worlds over 1.5 billion Muslims.
Tension between Sunnis, Shiites emerging in
USA. USA Today. 2007-09-24. Retrieved 201309-24. Among the worlds estimated 1.4 billion
Muslims, about 85% are Sunni and about 15% are
Shiite.
Inside Muslim minds around 80% are Sunni
Who Gets To Narrate the World The Sunnis (approximately 80%)"
A world theology N. Ross Reat 80% being the
Sunni
Islam and the Ahmadiyya jama'at The Sunni segment, accounting for at least 80% of the worlds
Muslim population
Eastern Europe Russia and Central Asia some 80%
of the worlds Muslims are Sunni
A dictionary of modern politics probably 80% of
the worlds Muslims are Sunni
Religions. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Sunni Islam
accounts for over 75% of the worlds Muslim population...
[10] See
Shite. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Shites have come to account
for roughly one-tenth of the Muslim population
worldwide.
Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report
on the Size and Distribution of the Worlds Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 2009-1007. Retrieved 2013-09-24. The Pew Forums estimate of the Shia population (10-13%) is in keeping
with previous estimates, which generally have been
in the range of 10-15%. Some previous estimates,
however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly
20% of the worlds Muslim population.
Shia. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and
World Aairs. Retrieved December 5, 2011. Shi'a
Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise
around 15% of all Muslims worldwide...
Religions. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Shia Islam
represents 10-20% of Muslims worldwide...
Iran, Israel and the United States The majority of
the worlds Islamic population, which is Sunni, accounts for over 75% of the Islamic population; the
other 10-20 percent is Shia. (reference: CIA)
Sue Hellett; U.S. should focus on sanctions against
Iran Let me review, while Shia Islam makes up
only 10-20 percent of the worlds Muslim population, Iraq has a Shia majority (between 60-65 percent), but had a Sunni controlled government under Saddam Hussein and cronies from 1958-2003...

18

11

(If you like government gures, see the CIA World

Factbook.)"
[11] Miller (2009, pp. 8,17)
[12] See:
Esposito (2002b, p. 21)
Esposito (2004, pp. 2,43)
Miller (2009, pp. 9,19)
[13] Miller (2009)
[14] Executive Summary. The Future of the Global Muslim
Population. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
[15] Table: Muslim Population by Country | Pew Research Centers Religion & Public Life Project. Features.pewforum.org. 2011-01-27. Retrieved 2014-07-23.

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[18] Lippman, Thomas W. (2008-04-07). No God But God.

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[25] Esposito, John L. (2000-04-06). The Oxford History of
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Esposito (2004, p. 22)
Grith (2006, p. 248)

Re-

[34] See:
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Quran 51:56
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Re-

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[36] Quran 50:16
[37] I am as My Servant Thinks (expects) I am. Hadithaday.org. Archived from the original on 2011-11-07. Retrieved 2011-11-06.
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Gisela Webb. Angel.
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[40] Chejne, A. (1969) The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.

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Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in
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66.
[42] Esposito (2004, pp. 17,18,21)

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Heaven, The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
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[55] Quran 1:4

[43] Al Faruqi; Lois Ibsen (1987). The Cantillation of the

Qur'an. Asian Music (Autumn Winter 1987): 34.

[56] Quran 6:31

[44] See:

[57] Quran 101:1

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[48] Google. google.com.pk.
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[58] See:
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Allah has decreed for us... ' "
Ahmet T. Karamustafa. Fate. Encyclopaedia of
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[59] See:
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Patton (1900, p. 130)
[60] Pillars of Islam, Oxford Islamic Studies Online
[61] Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for
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[62] N Mohammad (1985), The doctrine of jihad: An introduction, Journal of Law and Religion, 3(2): 381-397
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[64] See:
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Hedyetullah (2006, pp. 5355)
Kobeisy (2004, pp. 2234)
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[68] Quran, Surat al-Tawbah 9:60 Zakat expenditures are

only for the poor and for the needy and for those employed
to collect (Zakat) and for bringing hearts together and for
freeing captives and for those in debt (or bonded labour)
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[160] Serjeant (1978), p. 4.

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Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam
2/624. Even Moshe Gil a skeptic of Islamic history argues that it was written within 5 months of Muhammads
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arrival in Medina. Moshe Gil. The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration. Israel Oriental Studies 4 (1974):
Gordon 1987, page 40.
p. 45.
See: Martin (2005), pp.150 and 151; Clarence-Smith
[162] See:
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[138]

[139]
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[142]
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[144]
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[149] Clarence-Smith (2006), pp.2-5

Peters (2003, pp. 78,79,194)

Lapidus (2002, pp. 2328)

[150] William D. Phillips (1985). Slavery from Roman times to
the early transatlantic trade. Manchester University Press. [163] F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. Muhammad. Encyclopaedia of
p. 76. ISBN 0-7190-1825-0.
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[151] Lewis 1990, page 10
[152] Bernard Lewis, Race and Color in Islam, Harper and Row,
1970, quote on page 38. The brackets are displayed by
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[153] Administrator N. Quran Tafsir Ibn Kathir. qtafsir.com.
[154] See:
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[164] See:
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[165] See
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L. Gardet; J. Jomier. Islam. Encyclopaedia of
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Quran 18:110

[167] Waines (2003) p.46

F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. Muhammad. Encyclopae[168] Donald Puchala, Theory and History in International Redia of Islam Online.
lations, page 137. Routledge, 2003.
[156] The Qur'an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern En[169] Esposito (2010), p.38
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[157] Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Slaves and Slavery

[170] Hofmann (2007), p.86

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[172] Islam in China. BBC. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
[173] Lapidus (2002), p.86
[174] See: Lapidus (2002), p.160 Waines (2003) p.126,127
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[188] Gorini, Rosanna (October 2003). Al-Haytham the man

of experience. First steps in the science of vision (PDF).
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[189] Al-Khalili, Jim (2008-01-30). Its time to herald the
Arabic science that pregure Darwin and Newton. The
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[176] Doi, Abdur Rahman (1984). Shariah: The Islamic Law. [190] Al-Khalili, Jim (2008-01-29). Science: Islams forgotten
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[177] See:
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[192] Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi. BBC. 2009-09-01. Retrieved

2011-08-10.

[178] Esposito (2004, pp. 104,105)

[193] (Gaudiosi 1988)

[179] See:

[194] (Hudson 2003, p. 32)

Holt (1977a, pp. 80,92,105)

Holt (1977b, pp. 661663)

[195] Mecca (Saudi Arabia)". Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 2011-11-12.

Lapidus (2002, p. 56)

[196] See:

Lewis (1993, p. 84)

L. Gardet; J. Jomier. Islam. Encyclopaedia of
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Lapidus (2002, pp. 103143)

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[180] Micheau, Franoise. Encyclopedia of the History of Is[197] L. Gardet; J. Jomier. Islam. Encyclopaedia of Islam
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[203] Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378380,624
[185] Makdisi, George (AprilJune 1989). Scholasticism
and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian [204] Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489493
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[207] Ismail Safavi Encyclopdia Iranica
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a quantied theory of error they were well
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[208] Esposito (2010, p. 146)

[209] Graves desecrated in Mizdah. Libyan Herald.
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[187] Al-Khalili, Jim (4 January 2009). The 'rst true scien- [210] Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By
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Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271

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[211] Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, [231] Onishi, Norimitsu (2001-11-01). Rising Muslim power
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[233] Islm. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
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[213] See:
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[214] Rippin (2001, p. 288)
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Goldman, Merle (1986). Religion in Post-Mao

China. Annals of the American Academy of
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[217] Perrin, Andrew (October 10, 2003). Weakness in numbers. TIME. Retrieved 2013-09-24. (subscription required)
[218] Huge rally for Turkish secularsim. BBC News. 201104-29. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
[219] Saleh, Heba (2011-10-15). Tunisia moves against headscarves. BBC News. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
[220] Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Thomson
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Islam Today. Islam: Empire of Faith (2000).

PBS. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Islam, followed by
more than a billion people today, is the worlds third
fastest growing religion.
Lippman, Thomas W. (2008-04-07). No God But
God. U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved
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worlds great monotheistic faiths. It is a unique religion based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions
modifying some and rejecting others.
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of Adherents. Adherents.com. Retrieved 200707-03.

[235] See:
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Shariah. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
Sunnite. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.

[222] Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring?". [236] Sala Islam GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on 2010-1109.
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[223] Kirkpatrick, David D. (2011-12-03). Egypts vote puts [237] See:
emphasis on split over religious rule. New York Times.
Kramer (1987), Syrias Alawis and Shiism pp.237
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[224] Organization of the Islamic Conference. BBC News.
2010-12-26. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
[225] Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast. MSNBC.
2008-10-18. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
[226] Laying down the law: Islams authority decit.
Economist. 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2011-08-15.

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Shia branches
[238] Religions. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence
Agency (CIA). Retrieved 2010-08-25.
[239] Trimingham (1998), p.1
[240] Asghar Ali (3 June 2010). Salasm and Susm - is there
real conict?". Retrieved 18 October 2011.

[227] Slackman, Michael (2008-12-23). Jordanian students

rebel, embracing conservative Islam. New York Times. [241] See:
Retrieved 2011-08-15.
Esposito (2003, p. 302)
[228] Slackman, Michael (2007-01-28). In Egypt, a new battle
begins over the veil. New York Times. Retrieved 201108-15.
[229] Beech, Hannah (2007-02-22). Why Indonesia matters.
TIME. Retrieved 2013-09-24. (subscription required)

Malik (2006, p. 3)
Turner (1998, p. 145)
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of Congress Country Studies. 1997. Retrieved
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[230] 24-hours Islamic International TV channel. Peace TV. [242] The Worlds Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew ReRetrieved 2010-11-22.
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[243] Who Are the Ahmadi?". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 6 October [259] See:
2013.
Esposito (2004, pp. 2,43)
[244]
Breach of Faith. Human Rights Watch. June 2005.
Islamic World. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
p. 8. Retrieved March 29, 2014. Estimates of
around 20 million would be appropriate
Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents. Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
Larry DeVries, Don Baker, and Dan Overmyer.
Asian Religions in British Columbia. University of
Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1662-5. Retrieved March 29, 2014. The community currently
numbers around 15 million spread around the world

Muslims in Europe: Country guide. BBC News

(BBC). 2005-12-23. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
Religion In Britain. National Statistics. Oce for
National Statistics. 2003-02-13. Retrieved 200608-27.

Juan Eduardo Campo. Encyclopedia of Islam. p.

24. ISBN 0-8160-5454-1. Retrieved March 29,
2014. The total size of the Ahmadiyya community [260] The Mosque in America: A National Portrait Council on
in 2001 was estimated to be more than 10 million
American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). April 26, 2001. Retrieved on 2010-08-01.
Ahmadiyya Muslims. pbs.org. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
[261] "'Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth. nytimes.com. 4
A gure of 10-20 million represents approximately
November 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
1% of the Muslim population. See also Ahmadiyya
[262] Esposito (2010, p. 56)
by country.

[245] Robert Brenton Betts. The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islams In- [263] Islam, The New Encyclopdia Britannica (2005)
ternal Divisions and Their Global Consequences. pp. 14
[264] Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1997). Elizabeth Allo Isichei, A
15. Retrieved 7 January 2015.
history of African societies to 1870, page 175. Cambridge
University Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-521-45599-2. Re[246] CIA retrieved 21 Dec 2011
trieved 2010-08-06.
[247] Miller (2009, p. 11)
[265] Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghauset and Ar[248] Ba-Yunus, Ilyas; Kone, Kassim (2006). Muslims in the
chitecture 6501250, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300United States. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 172.
08869-8, p.3
ISBN 0-313-32825-0.
[266] Patheos Library Islam Sacred Time Patheos.com
[249] Whaling, Frank (1987). Religion in todays world: the religious situation of the world from 1945 to the present day. [267] Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
T & T Clark. p. 38. ISBN 0-567-09452-9.
[268] De Haeresibus by John of Damascus. See Migne.
Patrologia Graeca, vol. 94, 1864, cols 763-73. An En[250] Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
glish translation by the Reverend John W Voorhis apOxfordislamicstudies.com. 2008-05-06. Retrieved 2010peared in THE MOSLEM WORLD for October 1954,
05-16.(subscription required)
pp. 392398.
[251] Secrets of Islam. U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 2013-09-24. Information provided by the Interna- [269] Warraq, Ibn (2003). Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out.
Prometheus Books. p. 67. ISBN 1-59102-068-9.
tional Population Center, Department of Geography, San
Diego State University (2005).
[270] Ibn Kammuna, Examination of the Three Faiths, trans.
Moshe Perlmann (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1971), pp.
[252] Miller (2009, pp. 15,17)
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[253] Number of Muslim by country. nationmaster.com. Re[271] Mohammed and Mohammedanism, by Gabriel Oussani,
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Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 16, 2006.
[254] The World Factbook China. CIA World Factbook.
[272] Ibn Warraq, The Quest for Historical Muhammad
Retrieved 2009-06-15.
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[255] China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)".
[273] Bible in Mohammedian Literature., by Kaufmann Kohler
State.gov. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
Duncan B. McDonald, Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved
[256] NW China region eyes global Muslim market. China
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Daily. 2008-07-09. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
[274] Robert Spencer, Islam Unveiled, pp. 22, 63, 2003, En[257] Muslim Media Network. Muslim Media Network.
counter Books, ISBN 1-893554-77-5
2008-03-24. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
[275] http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&
[258] Secrets of Islam, U.S. News & World Report. Informayear=2005&country=6825. See also Timothy Garton
tion provided by the International Population Center, DeAsh (2006-10-05). Islam in Europe. The New York
Review of Books.
partment of Geography, San Diego State University.

26

11

[276] Timothy Garton Ash (2006-10-05). Islam in Europe.

The New York Review of Books.
[277] Tariq Modood (2006-04-06). Multiculturalism, Muslims
and Citizenship: A European Approach (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5.

11.3

Books and journals

Accad, Martin (2003). The Gospels in the Muslim

Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries:
An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and
Christian-Muslim Relations 14 (1).
Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World (2.00 ed.). I. B. Tauris.
ISBN 978-1-86064-257-9.

REFERENCES

Esposito, John (2004). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd

Rev Upd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780-19-518266-8.
Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barrons Educational Series. ISBN
978-0-8120-1853-0.
Farah, Caesar (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barrons Educational Series. ISBN
978-0-7641-2226-2.
Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of
Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-512580-0.
Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq.
OCLC 52901690.

Bennett, Clinton (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a

guide for the uninitiated. Continuum International
Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-82649944-8.

Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Lawrence Davidson

(2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th
ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4275-7.

Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of

Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of
South Carolina press. ISBN 1-57003-471-0.

Grith, Ruth Marie; Barbara Dianne Savage

(2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns
Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-8370-9.

Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The

Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reected in
Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-513398-6.

Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2002). Muslims in the

West: from sojourners to citizens. Oxford University
Press.

Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws

and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional.
ISBN 978-0-8138-1946-4.
Esposito, John (2010). Islam: The Straight Path
(4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-019-539600-3.
Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path
(3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-019-511234-4.
Esposito, John; Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (2000a).
Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513526-1.
Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-5107999.
Esposito, John (2002a). Unholy War: Terror in the
Name of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-516886-0.

Hawting, G. R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam:

The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661750. Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-24073-5.
Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Traord Publishing. ISBN
978-1-55369-842-5.
Hofmann, Murad (2007). Islam and Qur'an. ISBN
978-1-59008-047-4.
Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge
History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-29136-4.
Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis
(1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29137-2.
Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History
of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition.
ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8.

Esposito, John (2002b). What Everyone Needs to

Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-515713-3.

Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping
the People. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-31332472-7.

Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-5125584.

Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and

Revolution. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-81330453-3.

11.3

Books and journals

27

Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies

(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780-521-77933-3.

Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and

Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691-11553-2.

Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0462-0.

Rahman, H. U. (1999). Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE (3rd ed.). Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd.

Lewis, Bernard (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285258-2.

Rippin, Andrew (2001). Muslims: Their Religious

Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN
978-0-415-21781-1.

Lewis, Bernard (1997). The Middle East. Scribner.

ISBN 978-0-684-83280-7.
Lewis, Bernard (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East (2nd ed.). Open
Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9518-2.
Lewis, Bernard (2003). What Went Wrong?: The
Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle
East (Reprint ed.). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-006-051605-5.
Lewis, Bernard (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy
War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New
York. ISBN 978-0-8129-6785-2.
Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to
Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64696-0.
Malik, Jamal; John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary
(2006). Susm in the West. Routledge. ISBN 0415-27408-7.
Menski, Werner F. (2006). Comparative Law in
a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and
Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52185859-3.
Miller, Tracy, ed. (October 2009). Mapping the
Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size
and Distribution of the Worlds Muslim Population
(PDF). Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2013-0924.
Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism.
Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5.
Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). Our Religions:
The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent
Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-067700-7.
Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). Islam: its
history, teaching, and practices. Indiana University
Press.
Patton, Walter M. (April 1900). The Doctrine of
Freedom in the Korn. The American Journal of
Semitic Languages and Literatures (Brill Academic
Publishers) 16 (3): 129. doi:10.1086/369367.
ISBN 90-04-10314-7.

Sachedina, Abdulaziz (1998). The Just Ruler in

Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the
Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University
Press US. ISBN 0-19-511915-0.
Siljander, Mark D. and John David Mann. A Deadly
Misunderstanding: a Congressmans Quest to Bridge
the Muslim-Christian Divide. First ed. New York:
Harper One, 2008. ISBN 978-0-06-143828-8
Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding
of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-515649-2.
Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; Seyyed
Hossein Nasr (translator) (1979). Shi'ite Islam.
Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3.
Teece, Geo (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam.
Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7496-4796-4.
Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Su Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-512058-2.
Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. Routledge
(UK). ISBN 0-415-34106-X.
Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-17458-9.
Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53906-4.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 0-85224-245-X.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1974).
Muhammad:
Prophet and Statesman (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-881078-4.
Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal
Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN
90-04-12066-1.
11.3.1 Encyclopedias
William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World
History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-09743091-0-1.

28

12 FURTHER READING

Gabriel Oussani, ed. (1910). Catholic Encyclopedia.

Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton, ed. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 978-1-59339236-9.

Cragg, Kenneth (1975). The House of Islam, in The

Religious Life of Man Series. Second ed. Belmont,
Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1975. xiii, 145
p. ISBN 0-8221-0139-4

Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc.

Hourani, Albert (1991).

Islam in European
Thought. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199
p. ISBN 0-521-42120-9; alternative ISBN on back
cover, 0-521-42120-0

Erwin Fahlbusch, William Georey Bromiley, ed.

(2001). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill. ISBN 08028-2414-5.

Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan,

Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran
(1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN
978-9960-740-79-9.

John Bowden, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-522393-4.

A. Khanbaghi (2006). The Fire, the Star and the

Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early
Modern Iran. I. B. Tauris.

Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van

Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia
of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN
1573-3912.

Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking

Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN
0-915677-55-5

Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis,
John Obert Voll, ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference
Books. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8.

Kramer (ed.), Martin (1999). The Jewish Discovery

of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University. ISBN 978-965-224-040-8.

Jane Dammen McAulie (ed.). Encyclopaedia of

the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers.
Salamone Frank, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94180-8.
Glasse Cyril, ed. (2003). New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia
of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0759101906.

12

Further reading

Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your

Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis: Bethany House
Publishers. N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and
concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this
religions anities with Christianity and its Sacred
Scriptures, in order to dialogue on the basis of
what both faiths really teach. ISBN 0-87123-5536
Akyol, Mustafa (2011). Islam Without Extremes (1st
ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-39307086-6.
Arberry, A. J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A
Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0684-82507-6.

Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-0403813-2.
Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1.
Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-5102833.
Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed
Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam
Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-071-0.
Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam.
Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144034-5.
Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching,
and Practices (New ed.). Indiana University Press.
ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4.
Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University
of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70281-2.
Tausch, Arno (2009). Muslim Calvinism (1st ed.).
Rozenberg Publishers, Amsterdam. ISBN 978-905170-995-7.
Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study,

29
Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.).
Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-160692-731-1.
Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam:
The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7206-1038-3.

13

External links

Islam at DMOZ
Academic resources
Patheos Library Islam
University of Southern California Compendium of
Muslim Texts
Encyclopedia of Islam (Overview of World Religions)
Ethical Democracy Journal views on Islam, other
ethical systems and democracy
Online resources
Islam, article at Encyclopdia Britannica
Islam, article at Friesian.com
Asabiyya: Re-Interpreting Value Change in Globalized Societies, article at Repec/Ideas, University
of Connecticut and IZA, Bonn, on Islam and global
value change
Islam, article at Citizendium
Directories
Islam (Bookshelf) at Project Gutenberg
Islam from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Islam and Islamic Studies Resources from Dr. Alan
Godlas, Professor, University of Georgia

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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