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ThefollowingarticleappearsinthejournalJOM,
50(1)(1998),pp.1218.

Archaeotechnology

TheRoyalMailShipTitanic:DidaMetallurgical
FailureCauseaNighttoRemember?
KatherineFelkins,H.P.Leighly,Jr.,andA.Jankovic
Ametallurgicalanalysisofsteeltakenfromthehullof
theTitanic'swreckagerevealsthatithadahighductilebrittle
transitiontemperature,makingitunsuitableforserviceatlow
temperaturesatthetimeofthecollision,thetemperatureofthesea
waterwas2C.Theanalysisalsoshows,however,thatthesteel
usedwasprobablythebestplaincarbonshipplateavailableatthe
timeoftheship'sconstruction.

INTRODUCTION
Intheearlypartofthiscentury,theonlymeansoftransportationfor
travelersandmailbetweenEuropeandNorthAmericawasby
passengersteamship.By1907,theCunardSteamshipCompany
introducedthelargestandfasteststeamersintheNorthAtlantic
service:theLusitaniaandtheMauritania.Eachhadagrosstonnage
of31,000tonsandamaximumspeedof26knots.Inthatyear,Lord
WilliamJamesPirrie,managingdirectorandcontrollingchairofthe
IrishshipbuildingcompanyHarlandandWolff,metwithJ.Bruce
Ismay,managingdirectoroftheOceanicSteamNavigation
Company,betterknownastheWhiteStarLine(anametakenfrom
itspennant).Duringthismeeting,plansweremadetoconstructthree
enormousnewWhiteStarlinerstocompetewith
theLusitaniaandMauritaniaontheNorthAtlanticbyestablishinga
threeshipweeklysteamshipserviceforpassengersandmail
betweenSouthampton,England,andNewYorkCity.Thisdecision
requiredtheconstructionofatrioofluxurioussteamships.Thefirst
twobuiltweretheRMSOlympicandtheRMSTitanicathirdship,
theRMSBritannic,wasbuiltlater(thefateofthesisterships
isdescribedinthesidebar).
TheTitanicbeganitsmaidenvoyagetoNewYorkjustbeforenoon
onApril10,1912,fromSouthampton,England.Twodayslaterat
11:40p.m.,Greenlandtime,itstruckanicebergthatwasthreetosix
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
THECONSTRUCTION
THEVOYAGE
THESINKING
THESTEEL
Composition
Metallography
TensileTesting
CharpyImpactTests
ShearFracturePercent
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SupplementalReading
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timeslargerthanitsownmass,damagingthehullsothatthesix
forwardcompartmentswereruptured.Thefloodingofthese
compartmentswassufficienttocausetheshiptosinkwithintwo
hoursand40minutes,withalossofmorethan1,500lives.The
scopeofthetragedy,coupledwithadetailedhistoricalrecord,have
fueledendlessfascinationwiththeshipanddebateoverthereasons
astowhyitdidinfactsink.Afrequentlycitedculpritisthequality
ofthesteelusedintheship'sconstruction.Ametallurgicalanalysis
ofhullsteelrecoveredfromtheship'swreckageprovidesaclearer
viewoftheissue.

References
SIDEBARS
TheLivesoftheSister
Ships
TheTitanicintheArts
TheEthicalandLegal
IssuesinSalvaging
theTitanic

THECONSTRUCTION
ThethreeWhiteStarLinesteamshipswere269.1meterslong,28.2metersmaximumwide,and18
meterstallfromthewaterlinetotheboatdeck(or53metersfromthekeeltothetopofthefunnels),with
agrossweightof46,000tons.Becauseofthesizeoftheseships,muchoftheHarlandand
WolffshipyardinBelfast,Ireland,hadtoberebuiltbeforeconstructioncouldbegintwolargerways
werebuiltinthespaceoriginallyoccupiedbythreesmallerways.Anewgantrysystemwithalarger
loadcarryingcapacitywasdesignedandinstalledtofacilitatetheconstructionofthelargerships.
TheTitanicunderconstructionattheshipyardisshowninFigure1.

Figure1.TheTitanicunderconstructionat
theHarlandandWolffshipyardinIreland.
(PhotocourtesyoftheTitanicHistorical
Society.)

Theshipsweredesignedtoprovideaccommodationssuperiorto
theCunardships,butwithoutgreaterspeed.Thefirstonboard
swimmingpoolswereinstalledaswasagymnasiumthat
includedanelectrichorseandanelectriccamel,asquashcourt,
anumberofrowingmachines,andstationarybicycles,all
supervisedbyastaffofprofessionalinstructors.Thepublic
roomsforthefirstclasspassengerswerelargeandelegantly
furnishedwithwoodpaneling,stainedglasswindows,
comfortableloungefurniture,andexpensivecarpets.Thedecor
ofthefirstclasscabins,inadditiontobeingluxurious,differed
instylefromcabintocabin.AsanextrafeatureontheTitanic,
theCafParisienneofferedsuperbcuisine.

Thedesignedspeedfortheseshipswas2122knots,incontrast
tothefasterCunardships.Toachievethisspeed,eachshiphad
threepropellerseachoutboardpropellerwasdrivenbya
separatefourcylinder,tripleexpansion,reciprocatingsteamengine.2Thecenterpropellerwasdrivenby
alowpressuresteamturbineusingtheexhauststeamfromthetworeciprocatingengines.Thepower
plantwasratedat51,000I.H.P.Toprovidethenecessarysteamforthepowerplant,29boilerswere
available,firedby159furnaces.Inadditiontopropellingtheship,steamwasusedtogenerateelectricity
forvariouspurposes,distillfreshwater,refrigeratetheperishablefood,cook,andheatthelivingspace.
Coalwasburnedasfuelatarateof650tonsperdaywhentheshipwasunderway.Stokersmovedthe
coalfromthebunkersintothefurnacesbyhand.Thebunkersheldenoughcoalforatendayvoyage.
TheremodeledshipyardatHarlandandWolffwas
THELIVESOFTHESISTERSHIPS
largeenoughfortheconstructionoftwolargeships
simultaneously.ThekeeloftheOlympicwaslaid
TheRMSOlympicmademorethan500roundtrips
betweenSouthamptonandNewYorkbeforeitwasretired
December16,1908,whiletheTitanic'skeel
in1935andwasfinallybrokenupin1937.In1919,it
followedonMarch31,1909.TheOlympicwas
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launchedonOctober20,1910,andtheTitanicon
May31,1911.Intheearly20thcentury,shipswere
constructedusingwroughtironrivetstoattach
steelplatestoeachotherortoasteelframe.The
frameitselfwasheldtogetherbysimilarrivets.
Holeswerepunchedatappropriatesitesinthe
steelframemembersandplatesfortheinsertionof
therivets.Eachrivetwasheatedwellintothe
austenitetemperatureregion,insertedinthemated
holesoftherespectiveplatesorframemembers,
andhydraulicallysqueezedtofilltheholesand
formahead.Threemillionrivetswereusedinthe
constructionoftheship.

becamethefirstlargeshiptobeconvertedfromcoaltooil.
OnMay15,1934,astheOlympicapproachedNewYork,it
strucktheNantucketlightshipduringaheavyfog,cutting
itinhalf.Ofthecrew,fourweredrowned,threewerefatally
injured,andthreewererescued.1
Thethirdshipoftheseries,theBritannic,hadashortlife.
Whileitwasbeingconstructed,theTitanicwassunk.
Immediately,thedesignwaschangedtoprovideadouble
hullandthebulkheadswereextendedtotheupperdeck.
BeforetheBritannicwascompleted,WorldWarIbrokeout,
andthevesselwasconvertedintoahospitalship.On
November21,1916,itwasproceedingnorththroughthe
AegeanSeaeastofGreecewhenitstruckamine.Because
theweatherhadbeenwarm,manyoftheportholeshad
beenopened,hencerapidfloodingoftheshipoccurred.
Theshipsankin50minuteswithasmalllossoflifeoneof
theloadedlifeboatswasdrawnintoarotatingpropeller.

TheconstructionoftheTitanicwasdelayeddueto
anaccidentinvolvingtheOlympic.Duringitsfifth
voyage,3theOlympiccollidedwiththeBritish
cruiser,HMSHawke,damagingitshullnearthebowontheport(left)side.ThisoccurredintheSolent
offSouthamptononSeptember20,1911.TheOlympicwasforcedtoreturntoBelfastforrepairs.To
accomplishtherepairsinrecordtimeandtoreturntheshiptoservicepromptly,workmenwerediverted
fromtheTitanictorepairtheOlympic.
OnApril2,1912,theTitanicleftBelfastforSouthamptonanditsseatrialsintheIrishSea.Aftertwo
daysatsea,theTitanic,withitscrewandofficers,arrivedatSouthamptonandtieduptoOceanDockon
April4.Duringthenextseveraldays,theshipwasprovisionedandpreparedforitsmaidenvoyage.

THEVOYAGE
OnthemorningofApril10,1912,thepassengersandremainingcrewmemberscametoOceanDockto
boardtheshipforitsmaidenvoyage.Shortlybeforenoon,theTitaniccastoffandnarrowlyavoided
collidingwithadockedpassengership,theNewYork(whichbrokeitsmooringcablesduetothesurge
ofwaterasthehugeshippassed),beforeproceedingdownSouthamptonWaterintotheSolentandthen
intotheEnglishChannel.AfterastopatCherbourg,France,ontheeveningofApril10thandasecond
stopatQueenstown(nowCobh),Ireland,thenextmorningtotakeonmorepassengersandmail,
theTitanicheadedwestontheGreatCircleRoutetowardtheNantucketlightship68kilometerssouthof
NantucketIslandoffthesoutheastcoastofMassachusetts.TheIrishcoastwasleftbehindaboutduskon
April11.
TableI.ASummaryofDamaged
AreasinHullbyCompartment* 6

Compartment

Computer
Calculations
(m2)

ForePeak
CargoHold1
CargoHold2
CargoHold3
BoilerRoom6
BoilerRoom5

0.056
0.139
0.288
0.307
0.260
0.121

DuringtheearlyafternoonofApril12,theFrenchliner,LaTouraine,
sentadvicebyradiooficeinthesteamshiplanes,butthiswasnot
uncommonduringanAprilcrossing.Thisadvicewassentnearly60
hoursbeforethefatalcollision.Asthevoyagecontinued,thewarnings
oficereceivedbyradiofromothershipsbecamemorefrequent.With
time,thesewarningsgavemoreaccurateinformationonthelocation
oftheicefieldsanditbecameapparentthataverylargeicefieldlayin
theship'scourse.Onthebasisofseveralreportsaftertheaccident,it
wasestimatedthattheicefieldwas120kmlongonanortheast
southwestaxisand20kmwide4thereisevidencethattheTitanicwas
twicedivertedtothesouthinavainefforttoavoidthefields.Theship
continuedataspeedofabout21.5knots.

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OnthemoonlessnightofApril14,theoceanwasverycalmandstill.
At11:40p.m.,Greenlandtime,thelookoutsinthecrow'snestsighted
*Thecompartmentsarelistedin
orderfromthebowtowardthestern. anicebergimmediatelyaheadoftheshipthebridgewasalerted.The
dutyofficerorderedtheshiphardtoportandtheenginesreversed.In
about40seconds,astheTitanicwasbeginningtorespondtothechangeincourse,itcollidedwithan
icebergestimatedtohaveagrossweightof150,000300,000tons.TheicebergstrucktheTitanicnearthe
bowonthestarboard(right)sideabout4mabovethekeel.Duringthenext10seconds,theicebergraked
thestarboardsideoftheship'shullforabout100m,damagingthehullplatesandpoppingrivets,thus
openingthefirstsixofthe16watertightcompartmentsformedbythetransversebulkheads.Inspection
shortlyafterthecollisionbyCaptainEdwardSmithandThomasAndrews,amanagingdirectorandchief
designerforHarlandandWolffandchiefdesigneroftheTitanic,revealedthattheshiphadbeenfatally
damagedandcouldnotsurvivelong.At2:20a.m.,April15,1912,theTitanicsankwiththelossofmore
than1,500lives.
TotalArea

1.171

THESINKING
Initialstudiesofthesinkingproposedthatacontinuousgashinthehull100minlengthwascreatedby
theimpactwiththeiceberg.Morerecentstudiesindicatethatdiscontinuousdamageoccurredalongthe
100mlengthofthehull.Afterthesinking,EdwardWilding,designengineerforHarlandandWolff,
estimatedthatthecollisionhadcreatedopeningsinthehulltotaling1.115m2,basedonthereportsofthe
rateoffloodinggivenbythesurvivors.5Thisdamagetothehullwassufficienttocausetheshiptosink.
RecentcomputercalculationsbyHackettandBedford6usingthesamesurvivors'information,but
allocatingthedamageindividuallytothefirstsixcompartmentsthatwerebreached,isgiveninTableI.
Thisshowsatotaldamageareaof1.171m2,whichisaslightlylargerareathantheestimatebyWilding.
Atthetimeoftheaccident,therewasdisagreementamongthesurvivorsastowhethertheTitanicbroke
intotwopartsasitsankorwhetheritsankintact.OnSeptember1,1985,RobertBallard5found
theTitanicin3,700mofwaterontheoceanfloor.Theshiphadbrokenintotwomajorsections,which
areabout600mapart.Betweenthesetwosectionsisadebrisfieldcontainingbrokenpiecesofsteelhull
andbulkheadplates,rivetsthathadbeenpulledout,diningroomcutleryandchinaware,cabinanddeck
furniture,andotherdebris.
Theonlyitemstosurviveatthesitearethosemadeofmetalsorceramics.Allitemsmadefromorganic
materialshavelongsincebeenconsumedbyscavengers,exceptforitemsmadefromleathersuchas
shoes,suitcases,andmailsackstanningmadeleatherunpalatableforthescavengers.Thecontentsofthe
leathersuitcasesandmailsacks,havingbeenprotected,havebeenretrievedandrestored.Ethicaland
legalissuesassociatedwiththerecoveryofsuchitemsaredescribedinthesidebarauthoredbyC.R.
McGill.
TableII.TheCompositionofSteelsfromtheTitanic,aLockGate,andASTMA36Steel
C

Mn

Si

Cu

MnS:Ratio

TitanicHullPlate

0.21

0.47

0.045

0.069

0.017

0.024

0.013

0.0035

6.8:1

LockGate*

0.25

0.52

0.01

0.03

0.02

0.018

0.0035

17.3:1

ASTMA36

0.20

0.55

0.012

0.037

0.007

0.01

0.079

0.0032

14.9:1

*SteelfromalockgateattheChittendenshiplockbetweenLakeWashingtonandPugetSound,Seattle,Washington.

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THESTEEL
Composition
DuringanexpeditiontothewreckageintheNorthAtlanticonAugust15,
1996,researchersbroughtbacksteelfromthehulloftheshipfor
metallurgicalanalysis.AfterthesteelwasreceivedattheUniversityof
MissouriRolla,thefirststepwastodetermineitscomposition.The
chemicalanalysisofthesteelfromthehullisgiveninTableII.Thefirst
itemnotedistheverylownitrogencontent.Thisindicatesthatthesteel
wasnotmadebytheBessemerprocesssuchsteelwouldhaveahigh
nitrogencontentthatwouldhavemadeitverybrittle,particularlyatlow
temperatures.Intheearly20thcentury,theonlyothermethodformaking
structuralsteelwastheopenhearthprocess.Thefairlyhighoxygenand
lowsiliconcontentmeansthatthesteelhasonlybeenpartiallydeoxidized,
yieldingasemikilledsteel.Thephosphoruscontentisslightlyhigherthan
normal,whilethesulfurcontentisquitehigh,accompaniedbyalow
manganesecontent.ThisyieldedaMn:Sratioof6.8:1averylowratio
bymodernstandards.Thepresenceofrelativelyhighamountsof
Figure2.Anoptical
phosphorous,oxygen,andsulfurhasatendencytoembrittlethesteelat
micrographofsteelforthehull
lowtemperatures.
Davies7hasshownthatatthetimetheTitanicwasconstructedabouttwo
thirdsoftheopenhearthsteelproducedintheUnitedKingdomwasdone
infurnaceshavingacidlinings.Thereisahighprobabilitythatthesteel
usedintheTitanicwasmadeinanacidlinedopenhearthfurnace,which
accountsforthefairlyhighphosphorusandhighsulfurcontent.Thelining
ofthebasicopenhearthfurnacewillreactwithphosphorusandsulfurto
helpremovethesetwoimpuritiesfromthesteel.Itislikelythatallormost
ofthesteelcamefromGlasgow,Scotland.

oftheTitanicin(a
top)longitudinaland(b
bottom)transversedirections,
showingbandingthatresulted
inelongatedpearlitecolonies
andMnSparticles.Etchantis
2%Nital.

IncludedinTableIIarethecompositionsoftwoothersteels:steelusedto
constructlockgatesattheChittendenShipLockbetweenLake
WashingtonandPugetSoundatSeattle,Washington,8andthecomposition
ofamodernsteel,ASTMA36.Theshiplockwasbuiltaround1912,
Figure3.Themicrostructureof
ASTMA36steelshowing
makingthesteelaboutthesameageasthesteelfromtheTitanic.

Metallography

ferriteandpearlite.Themean
graindiameteris26.173m.
Etchantis2%Nital.

Standardmetallographictechniqueswereusedtopreparespecimenstaken
fromthehullplateoftheTitanicforopticalmicroscopicexamination.After
grindingandpolishing,etchingwasdonewith2%Nital.Becauseearlier
workbyBrighamandLafrenire9showedseverebandinginaspecimenof
thesteel,specimenswerecutfromthehullplateinboththetransverseand
longitudinaldirections.Figure2showsthemicrostructureofthesteel.In
Figure4.Ascanningelectron
bothmicrographs,itisapparentthatthesteelisbanded,althoughthe
bandingismoresevereinthelongitudinalsection.Inthissection,thereare micrographoftheetched
surfaceoftheTitanichullsteel
largemassesofMnSparticleselongatedinthedirectionofthebanding.
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Theaveragegraindiameteris60.40mforthelongitudinalmicrostructure
and41.92mforthemicrostructureinthetransversedirection.Inneither
micrographcanthepearliteberesolved.Forcomparison,Figure3isa
micrographofASTMA36steel,whichhasameangraindiameterof
26.173m.

showingpearlitecolonies,
ferritegrains,anelongated
MnSparticle,andnonmetallic
inclusions.Etchantis2%Nital.

Figure4isascanningelectronmicroscopy(SEM)micrographofthe
polishedandetchedsurfaceofsteelfromtheTitanic.Thepearlitecanbe
resolvedinthismicrograph.Thedarkgrayareasareferrite.Theverydark
ellipticallyshapedstructureisaparticleofMnSidentifiedbyenergy
dispersivexrayanalysis(EDAX).Itiselongatedinthedirectionofthe
banding,suggestingthatbandingistheresultofthehotrollingofthesteel. Figure5.Ascanningelectron
Thereissomeevidenceofsmallnonmetallicinclusionsandsomeofthe
micrographofaCharpyimpact
fracturesurfacenewlycreated
ferritegrainboundariesarevisible.

TensileTesting

at0C,showingcleavage
planescontainingledgesand
protrudingMnSparticles.

ThesteelplatefromthehulloftheTitanicwasnominally1.875cmthick,
whilethebulkheadplatehadathicknessof1.25cm.Corrosioninthesalt
waterhadreducedthethicknessofthehullplatesothatitwasnotpossible
tomachinestandardtensilespecimensfromit.Asmallertensilespecimen
withareducedsectionof0.625cmdiameteranda2.5cmgagelengthwas
used.10
ThetensiletestresultsaregiveninTableIII.Thesedataarecompared
withtensiletestdataforanSAE1020steel,whichissimilarin
composition.ThesteelfromtheTitanichastheloweryieldstrength,
probablyduetoalargergrainsize.Theelongationincreasesaswell,again
duetoalargergrainsize.

Figure6.Ascanningelectron
micrographshowingafractured
MnSparticleprotrudingedge
onfromthefracturesurface.13

CharpyImpactTests
Charpyimpacttests12wereperformedoverarangeoftemperaturesfrom55Cto179Conthreeseries
ofstandardCharpyspecimens:aseriesofspecimensmachinedwiththespecimenaxisparalleltothe
longitudinaldirectioninthehullplatefromtheTitanic,aseriesmachinedinthetransversedirection,and
aseriesmadefrommodernASTMA36steel.ATiniusOlsenmodel84universalimpacttesterwasused
todeterminetheimpactenergytofractureforseveralspecimensattheselectedtesttemperatures.A
chillingbathoracirculatingairlaboratoryovenwasusedtopreparethespecimensfortestingatspecific
temperatures.Thespecimenswereallowedtosoakintheappropriateapparatusforatleast20minutesat
theselectedtemperature.Pairsofspecimensweretestedatidenticaltesttemperatures.
Figure5isanSEMmicrographofafreshlyfracturedsurfaceofalongitudinalCharpyspecimentestedat
0C.Thecleavageplanes,(100)inferrite,arequiteapparent.Therearecleavageplanesurfacesat
differentlevelsthataredefinedbystraightlines.Thesestraightlinesarestepsconnectingparallel
cleavageplanestheedgesareparalleltothe[010]direction.Thecrystallographicsurfacesoftherisers
arethe(001)plane.Inaddition,therearecurvedsliplinesonthecleavageplanes.
ParticlesofMnSidentifiedbyEDAXcanbeobserved.SomeoftheMnSparticlesexistasprotrusions
fromthesurface.Theseprotrusionswerepulledoutofthecomplimentaryfracturesurface.Inaddition,
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therearetheintrusionsremainingaftertheMnSparticleshavebeenpulledoutofthisfracturesurface.
Oneofthepearlitecolonieslyinginthefracturesurfaceisorientedsothattheferriteandcementiteplates
havebeenresolved.Figure6showsafracturedlenticularMnSparticlethatprotrudesedgeonfromthe
fracturedsurface.13TherearesliplinesradiatingawayfromtheMnSparticle.
Figure7isaplotoftheimpactenergyversus
temperatureforthethreeseriesofspecimens.
Athighertemperatures,thespecimens
11
Titanic
SAE1020
preparedfromthehullplateinthelongitudinal
directionhavesubstantiallybetterimpact
YieldStrength
193.1MPa
206.9MPa
propertiesthanforthetransversespecimens.
TensileStrength
417.1MPa
379.2MPa
Atlowtemperatures,theimpactenergy
requiredtofracturethelongitudinaland
Elongation
29%
26%
transversespecimensisessentiallythesame.
ReductioninArea
57.1%
50%
Theseverebandingiscertainlythecauseofthe
differencesintheimpactenergytocause
fractureatelevatedtemperatures.ThespecimensmadefromASTMA36steelhavethebestimpact
properties.Theductilebrittletransitiontemperaturedeterminedatanimpactenergyof20joulesis27C
forASTMA36,32CforthelongitudinalspecimensmadefromtheTitanichullplate,and56Cforthe
transversespecimens.Itisapparentthatthesteelusedforthehullwasnotsuitedforserviceatlow
temperatures.Theseawatertemperatureatthetimeofthecollisionwas2C.
TableIII.AComparisonofTensileTestingofTitanicSteeland
SAE1020

ComparingthecompositionoftheTitanicsteelandASTMA36steelshowsthatthemodernsteelhasa
highermanganesecontentandlowersulfurcontent,yieldingahigherMn:Sratiothatreducedtheductile
brittletransitiontemperaturesubstantially.Inaddition,ASTMA36steelhasasubstantiallylower
phosphoruscontent,whichwillalsolowertheductilebrittletransitiontemperature.Jankovic8foundthat
theductilebrittletransitiontemperaturefortheChittendenlockgatesteelwas33C.Thelongitudinal
specimensoftheTitanichullsteelmadeintheUnitedKingdomandthosespecimensfromtheChittenden
locksteelmadeintheUnitedStateshavenearlythesameductilebrittletransitiontemperature.

ShearFracturePercent
Atlowtemperatureswheretheimpactenergy
requiredforfractureisless,afacetedsurfaceof
cleavedplanesofferriteisobserved,indicating
brittlefracture.Atelevatedtemperatures,wherethe
Figure7.Charpyimpact
Figure8.Shearfracture
energytocausefractureisgreater,aductilefracture
energyversustemperature
percentfromCharpyimpact withashearstructureisobserved.Figure8isaplot
forlongitudinaland
testsversustemperaturefor
oftheshearfracturepercentversustemperature.
transverseTitanicspecimens longitudinaland
Thereisafairlystrongsimilaritybetweenthisfigure
andASTMA36steel.
transverseTitanicspecimens
andFigure7,whichshouldbeexpectedasthey
andASTMA36steel.
representthedifferentmeasurementsofthesame
phenomenon.Using50%shearfractureareaasareferencepoint,thiswouldoccurinASTMA36at
3C,whilefortheTitanicsteel,thisvaluewouldoccurat49Cinthelongitudinaldirectionandat59C
inthetransversedirection.Atelevatedtemperatures,theimpactenergyvaluesforthe
longitudinalTitanicsteelissubstantiallygreaterthanthetransversespecimens,asshowninFigure7.The
differencebetweenthelongitudinalandtransverseshearfracturepercentfromtheTitanicismuch
smaller.Thissuggeststhatthebandingisamoreimportantfactorintheresultsfortheimpactenergy
experimentascomparedwithshearfracturepercent.
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CONCLUSIONS
ThesteelusedinconstructingtheRMSTitanicwasprobablythebestplaincarbonshipplateavailablein
theperiodof1909to1911,butitwouldnotbeacceptableatthepresenttimeforanyconstruction
purposesandparticularlynotforshipconstruction.Whetherashipconstructedofmodernsteelwould
havesufferedasmuchdamageastheTitanicinasimilaraccidentseemsproblematic.Navigationalaides
existnowthatdidnotexistin1912hence,icebergswouldbesightedatamuchgreaterdistance,
allowingmoretimeforevasiveaction.IftheTitanichadnotcollidedwiththeiceberg,itcouldhavehada
careerofmorethan20yearsastheOlympichad.Itwasbuiltofsimilarsteel,inthesameshipyard,and
fromthesamedesign.Theonlydifferencewasabigiceberg.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TheauthorsthankG.TullockofRMSTitanic,Inc.,for
supplyingthesteelfromtheTitanicandW.Garzke,Jr.,of
GibbsandCox,forhisassistanceinsecuringthesteel.
ThankstoD.BrownandM.K.Johnsonandtheirassociates
ofLacledeSteelCompanyforthechemicalanalysisofthe
steel.S.MilleroftheElectronMicroscopeLaboratoryand
associateprofessorC.Ramsayarethankedfortheir
assistance.ThankstoT.FoeckeoftheMetallurgy
Division,NationalInstituteofScienceandTechnology,for
providingFigure6.Last,butcertainlynotleast,theauthors
acknowledgetheassistanceofM.Roberson,J.Jones,G.
Papen,andD.MurphyoftheSchoolofMinesand
MetallurgyshopattheUniversityofMissouriRollafor
theirvaluableassistanceinpreparingspecimensand
providingtechnicalsupport.

THETITANICINTHEARTS
Sinceitstragicvoyagein1912,theRMS
Titanichascapturedtheattentionandthe
imaginationoftheworld.Theshocking,
untimelydeathofmorethan1,500people,the
ironyofthe"unsinkable"shipdoingthe
unthinkableonitsmaidenvoyage,andthe
firsthandaccountsoftheapproximately700
survivorshavespurredcountlessdebatesand
discussionsonthereasonsfortheship's
demise.Asthedebatecontinuesinscientific,
historical,andevenlegalcircles,theship,her
crew,andpassengershavebeenmemorialized
timeandagainthroughthearts.

SupplementalReading
W.Lord,ANighttoRemember(NewYork:Holt,
Rinehart,andWinston,1955).
W.Lord,TheNightLivesOn(NewYork:Holt,
Rinehart,andWinston,1986).
J.P.EatonandC.A.Haas,Titanic:Destination
Disaster(NewYork:W.W.NortonandCo.,1987).
J.P.EatonandC.A.Haas,Titanic:Triumphand
Tragedy(NewYork:W.W.NortonandCo.,1988).
G.Marcus,TheMaidenVoyage(NewYork:Viking
Press,1969).

References
1.NewYorkTimes,83(May16,1934),p.1:4,3:1,3:5.
2.OceanLinersofthePast:TheWhiteStarTripleScrew
AtlanticLiners(NewYork:AmeronHouse,1995).
3.T.E.Bonsall,Titanic(Baltimore,MD:Bookman
http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9801/Felkins9801.html#ToC2

TheRMSTitanicleavesportinthe
1997movieTitanic.Anapproximately
5MbQuickTimeclipofthissequence
mirroredfromtheTitanicvideoclips
pageofParamountPicturesisalso
available.(PhotobyMerieW.Wallaceandcourtesy
ofParamountPicturesandTwentiethCenturyFox.)

Numerousaccountsoftheshipandhersisters,
theOlympicandBritannic,havebeen
publishedduringthepast80yearssomehave
beenfactual,othersfictionalizedadaptations.
Oneofthefirstnonnewspaperaccounts,and
oneofthemostpopular,isthebookANightto
Remember,writtenbyWalterLordin1955.
AccordingtoLord,inthefourdecades
followingthesinkingtherewasnoworldwide
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PublishingCo.,1987),p.32.

4.C.Pellogrino,HerName,Titanic(NewYork:Avon
Books,1988),p.124.

5.R.B.BallardwithRickArchbold,TheDiscoveryofthe
Titanic(NewYork:WarnerBooks,1987).

6.C.HackettandJ.G.Bedford,TheSinkingoftheTitanic:
InvestigatedbyModernTechniques(TheNorthernIreland
BranchoftheInstituteofMarineEngineersandtheRoyal
InstitutionofNavalArchitects,March26,1996).

7.R.Davies,HistoricalMetallurgy,29(1995),p.34.

8.A.Jankovic,DidMetallurgySinktheTitanic(Senior
ProjectReport,DepartmentofMetallurgical
Engineering,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,November
1991).

9.R.J.BrighamandY.A.Lafrenire,TitanicSpecimens,92
32(TR)(Ottawa,Canada:MetalsTechnologyLaboratories,
CANMET,1992).

10.StandardTestMethodsandDefinitionsforMechanical
TestingofSteelProducts(Philadelphia,PA:ASTMA370
95a,1995),p.2.

11.MetalsHandbook,1(8)(MetalsPark,Ohio:ASM,
1961),p.188.

12.StandardTestMethodsandDefinitionsforMechanical
TestingofSteelProducts(Philadelphia,PA:ASTMA370
95a,1995),p.7.

13.Figure6providedbyT.Foecke(Gaithersburg,MD:
MetallurgyDivision,NIST).

generalinterestintheshipandnohistorical
accountsofthevoyage.Basedonhistorical
materialsandfirsthandaccountsofsurvivors
andwitnesses,ANighttoRememberis
reportedlythefirstbooktogiveafactual
accountofthenighttheshipsank.Anearly
countlessnumberofbookshavefollowed.
Onfilm,theTitanichasbeenthesubjectfora
numberofdocudramasandearlydisasterfilms.
OneofthefirstwasTitanic,donein1926.
About16yearslater,HerbertSelpindirecteda
Germanfilmonthesubject.Arguablythemost
wellknownfilmontheTitanicisthesame
titledfilmdirectedbyJeanNegulescoin1953.
Afictionalizedaccountofonefamilyon
theTitanic,thefilmwontwoAcademyAwards
thatyearforBestArtDirectionandBest
OriginalScreenplay.Themovie,starring
BarbaraStanwyckandCliftonWebb,setthe
standardforearlydisasterfilmsintheUnited
States.OntheothersideoftheAtlantic,
EnglishfilmmakersadaptedLord'sANightto
Rememberintoafilmofthesamenamein
1958.UnliketheromanticizedU.S.version,
producerWilliamMacQuittyanddirectorEric
Amblercreatedagritty,realisticdocudrama
usingstateoftheartspecialeffects.Foroneof
thefirsttimesinfilmmaking,theactorsworked
onsetsthatweretiltedbyhydraulicjacks,
creatingloud,grindingnoisesthatimitatedthe
soundstheshipwouldhavemadeinsinking.

KatherineFelkinsisastudentattheUniversityofMissouri
Rolla.H.P.Leighly,Jr.,isaprofessorofmetallurgical
engineeringattheUniversityofMissouriRolla.A.Jankovic
isamaterialstestengineer.
Formoreinformation,contactH.P.Leighly,Jr.,
DepartmentofMetallurgicalEngineering,Universityof
MissouriRolla,Rolla,Missouri654090340(573)341
4735fax(573)3416934emailhpl@umr.edu.

THEETHICALANDLEGALISSUESIN
SALVAGINGTHETITANIC
Author'sNote:TheauthorthanksMichaelMcCaughanofthe
UlsterFolkandTransportMuseum,NorthernIreland,forhis
assistanceinthepreparationofthissidebar.
TheTitanichasengagedtheattentionofaraptworldaudiencefor
almostacenturynow.Asthemostfamousandhistoricofall
shipwrecks,itisenshroudedinacloakofmysteryandcontroversy
http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9801/Felkins9801.html#ToC2

LeonardoDeCaprioandKateWinslet
wadethroughthefirstclassdining
salooninascenefromTitanic.An
approximately10MbQuickTimepreview
fromthisfilmmirroredfrom
theTitanicvideoclipspageofParamount
Picturesisalsoavailable.(PhotobyMerieW.
WallaceandcourtesyofParamountPicturesandTwentieth
CenturyFox.)

WhenRobertBallardandanAmericanFrench
searchteamdiscoveredthesiteoftheTitanicin
1985,interestintheshipandherhistory
resurged.Imagesoftheshipontheseafloor
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thetraumaticeffectthatthelossoftheshiphadonthepublicatthe
timeofthedisasterhasnotabated,makingtheTitanicseemalmost
eternal.
Numerousplanstosalvagetheshipanditscargoweredeveloped
overthe73yearsthattheTitaniclayundiscovered4kmbelowthe
oceansurface.Itwasnotuntil1985thatsalvagebecamefeasible,
whenRobertBallardoftheOceanographicInstituteinWoodsHole,
Massachusetts,discoveredtheship'sexactlocationaspartofa
jointAmericanFrenchresearchteam.
Seriousissueswereimmediatelyraisedoverthecontroversial
questionofsalvagerights,themainissuebeingthatthewrecklay
ininternationalwatersthereisnolegalprotectionininternational
watersforwrecksofhistoricalorarchaeologicalsignificance.In
suchcases,wrecksaresubjecttosalvagelaw,whichstipulatesthat
thefirstsalvoronthesitehasexclusiverightstothesite.Thus,
othersalvorsarepreventedfromaccessingthesiteaslongas
expeditionsarebeingplannedandconductedtorecoverartifacts
fromthewreck.
RobertBallardcouldnotlegallyclaimsalvagerightstothewreck,
sincehediscovereditwhileworkingonagovernmentresearch
project.TheFrenchOceanographyInstitute,whichwastheFrench
componentofthejointAmericanFrenchresearchteamandhad
receivedlittleacknowledgementforitscontributioninthe
discoveryofthewreck,hadnosuchconstraints,however.Itwas
sooninvolvedintheformationofthecommercialsalvage
companythatwastobecomeRMSTitanic,Inc.
Morethan1,500peoplerichandpoor,representingmorethan20
countriesperishedinthedisaster.Theshiphadbrokenintotwo
separateparts,withthesternsectionlyingabout804.5mbeyond
thebowportion.Ahugefieldofdebriscoverstheoceanfloor
betweenthetwopieces.RMSTitanic,Inc.,statedearlyonthatthey
onlyintendedtorecordthesiterecover,conserve,preserve,and
tourjustthoseartifactsrecoveredfromthedebrisfieldandkeep
thecollectiontogetherratherthansellittoindividualbuyers
aroundtheworld.Theculminationoftheprojectwouldbea
TitanicMemorialMuseuminwhichalloftheartifactsrecovered
wouldbekept.(Itshouldbenoted,however,thatRMSTitanic,
Inc.,hasrecentlymadeavailableforsaletothegeneral
publicauthenticatedcoalfromtheseabed.)
Reactionwasstrongandimmediate.Individualsandorganizations
fromaroundtheworldvehementlyopposedtheideaofsalvage
workbeingdoneontheTitanic,claimingthatthewreckwasa
gravesiteandshouldbeleftundisturbedasamemorialtothose
whodied.SuchorganizationsastheTitanicHistoricalSociety(the
largestandmostsenioroftheTitanicenthusiastbodies)ofthe
UnitedStatesandtheUlsterTitanicSocietyofNorthernIreland
(wheretheshipwasbuilt)setthemselvesagainstthesalvage
operation.RobertBallard,whostronglybelievesinthesanctityof
thesite,workedtogetaU.S.federallawpassedmakingitillegalto
buyorsellartifactsfromthesiteintheUnitedStates.
Otherindividualsandinstitutionsalliedthemselveswiththe
salvage,providedthatitwasdonewellandingoodtaste.They
http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9801/Felkins9801.html#ToC2

takenbyunderwaterrobotsmorethan70years
afterthedisasterbroughttheTitanicandits
sagabackintointernationalpopculture.
Today,therearevideos,CDROMs,andeven
computergamesavailablethatallowusersto
becomeapassengerontheship.The
emergenceoftheInternethasenabledpeople
fromaroundtheworldtoaccessawealthof
photographs,animatedfilmclips,soundclips,
andhistoricalinformationonthesubjector
joingroupscomposedof
otherTitanicenthusiasts.
PlaysontheTitanicappeareverywherefrom
dinnertheatersthroughouttheUnitedStatesto
theGreatWhiteWayBroadway.In1997,the
BroadwaymusicalTitanicwonaTonyAward
fortheBestMusical,releasedatopsellingcast
album,and,ontheaverage,surpassedticket
salesforanyshowonBroadway.
Themostrecentadditiontothecollection
isTitanic,a1997filmbyTwentiethCentury
FoxandParamountPicturesthatfocusesonthe
lovestoryoftwoyoungpassengers.Released
onDecember19,thefilmreportedlybecame
themostexpensivefilmevermade($200
millionaccordingtosomereports)inits
attempttobeashistoricallyaccurateas
possible.Toassisttheproductioncrew,agroup
ofhistoriansandexpertsontheTitanicwere
broughtaboardasconsultants,includingDon
Lynch,thehistorianfortheTitanicHistorical
Society,andKenMarschall,notedartistofthe
ship.ShipbuildersHarlandandWolffprovided
copiesoftheoriginalblueprintsof
theTitanicandThomasAndrews'own
notebookontheship'sdesignfeaturestothe
productioncrew.Inaddition,themanufacturer
oftheoriginalcarpeting,whichisstillin
business,hadtheoriginalpatternsonfileand
reproducedthedyes.
Tomaketheshipasauthenticaspossible,
directorJamesCameroncharteredaRussian
scientificvesselandmade12divestothe
actualwrecksitetofilmtheinterioroftheship.
Usinganofftheshelf35mmcameramodified
tofitincustommadetitaniumhousings,the
camerabroughtbackreelsoffilmshowingthe
ship'sinterioreverythingfromwindowframes,
lightfixtures,abrassdoorplate,andevena
bronzefireplacebox."Wewereabletocome
backwiththisrichharvestoffilmandvideo
images,"Cameronsaid.'Wesentourremote
vehicleinsideandexploredtheinteriors.We
literallysawthingsthatnoonehasseensince
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wereconcernedthatartifactswouldbesoldanddispersedifa
companyotherthanRMSTitanic,Inc.,werethesalvorsdealing
withthewreckunscrupuloussalvorsinterestedonlyinpure
commercialprofitwouldnotemploythesamesortofpainstaking
recording,recovery,andconservationmethodsthatRMSTitanic,
Inc.,usedtoretrievematerialsrecoveredduringthefourresearch
anddiscoveryexpeditionsconductedbetween1987and1996.
Interestingly,althoughtheUlsterTitanicSocietyopposesthe
salvageofthewreck,thesocietybelievesthataslongassalvage
workcontinues,RMSTitanic,Inc.,isthebestsalvortodothejob.
Inthefaceofseriousinternationaland,attimes,hostilecriticism
fromthepublic,maritimearchaeologists,andmuseum
professionals,theNationalMaritimeMuseumof
GreenwichjoinedRMSTitanic,Inc.,inapartnershiptopresentthe
firstexhibitionofartifactsrecoveredfromthewreck.In199495,
150oftheseveralthousandartifactsrecoveredfromthedebrisfield
weredisplayedinanexhibitiontitled"WreckoftheTitanic."The
exhibitionwasbilledasthe"largesteverpublicdisplay
ofTitanicartifacts"andwasahugesuccessintermsofaudience
attendanceandmediacoverage.Morethan500,000visitorssaw
theshow.
Theexhibitbroughtthemuseumintodirectconflictwiththe
InternationalCongressofMaritimeMuseums(ICMM),however,of
whichitisamember.ThemuseumandICMMdisagreedonthe
subjectofsalvorsandsalvagelaw.TheICMMwasconcernedthat
theexhibitionincludedartifactsrecoveredfromthesitesince
1990,and"relicsraisedillegallyorininappropriatecircumstances
after1990areconsideredoutofboundsforICMMmember
museums."1
RichardOrmondoftheNationalMaritimeMuseumclaimedthat
"theobjectivesoftheexhibitionweretodemonstratethetechnical
achievementoffindingandexploringthesite,toshow
conservationtechniquesandtheextraordinarysurvivalofobjects
ontheseabed,andtoexaminethecontroversyindetail."2The
museumstressedthatnoneoftheartifactsondisplaycamefromthe
hulloftheship,whichwasthetruegravesiteofthevictims.
MichaelMcCaughan,aTitanicexpertfromtheUlsterFolkand
TransportMuseuminNorthernIrelandvisitedtheexhibitionand
feltthatthe"150artifactsweredisplayedsensitivelyinavarietyof
contexts.Fundamentallythiswasnotanexhibitaboutthepast,but
aboutthepresentanditsappropriationofthepast.Theexhibitwas
notarequiemforthedead,nordiditaddressthemetaphorical
meaningofTitanic<.Rather,itwasanenshrinementofthe
triumphsofdeepseaexplorationandtherevivingwondersof
conservationlaboratories."3
Despitethecontroversyandargumentsoverthesalvagework
conductedbyRMSTitanic,Inc.,thereisnodoubtwhatsoeverthat
thecompany'sworkislegal.RMSTitanic,Inc.,wasgrantedsalvor
inpossessionrightstothewreckbyaU.S.federalcourtin1994.
Despiteachallenge,theserightswerereconfirmedin1996,giving
thecompanyexclusiverightstoownartifactsrecoveredfromthe
wreck.The1996judgmenttookintoconsiderationthesite
recordings,artifactconservation,andcommitmentofRMSTitanic,
http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9801/Felkins9801.html#ToC2

1912,sincetheshipwentdown.We've
integratedtheseimagesintothefabricofthe
filmandthatrealityhasaprofoundimpacton
theemotionalpowerofthefilm."
ThecompletesetwasbuiltatFoxBajaStudios
inMexicobeginningonMay30,1996itwas
completed100dayslater.Thesetfeatureda
64.2millionliterexteriorseawatertank(the
largestshootingtankintheworld).Whereas
the1953movieuseda8.5mmodeloftheship,
the1997movierecreatedanearlyfullsize,236
mlongexteriorsetoftheTitanicstanding
nearly14mtallfromthewaterlinetotheboat
deckfloor,withitsfourfunnelstowering
another16m.
Torecreatethesinkingoftheship,several
exteriorandinteriorshootingtankswereused.
(Astillfromthemovieappearsonthecoverof
thisissue.)Thefirstclassdiningsaloonand
threestorygrandstaircasewereconstructedon
ahydraulicplatformatthebottomofthe9m
interiortankdesignedtobeangledand
floodedwith19millionlitersoffiltered
seawaterdrawnfromtheocean.Cameracranes
andjackswereplacedabovetheshipforthe
finalfilmingstages,whentheshipwas
separatedintotwopieces.Thefronthalfwas
sunkin12mofwaterusinghydraulics.
Preliminaryreviewsofthemovieatthetime
thisissuegoestopressinearlyDecember(prior
tothemovie'srelease)havebeenverygood,
andthemoviehasalreadymadeseveraltopten
listsfor1997,includingonebyRolling
Stonemagazine.TheHollywoodReportersays,
"Titanic'svisualandspecialeffectstranscend
stateoftheartworkmanship.Pencil[Gloria]
Stuartinforalikelybestsupportingactress
nominationthiswinter.AlsoontheOscarfront,
clearthedeckformultipletechnical
nominations.Theironmonsterisaheart
stopper."
ItisdoubtfulthattheTitanicwillbethelast
filmmadeaboutthisillfatedship.Throughthe
years,thesagaoftheTitanichastakenonalife
ofitsown.Assongs,poems,historical
accounts,andnovelscontinuetobecreated,
thestoryhasmergedintomodernurban
folklore.
"ThetragedyoftheTitanichasassumedan
almostmythicqualityinourcollective
imagination,"Cameronsaid."Titanicisnot
justacautionarytaleamyth,aparable,a
metaphorfortheillsofmankind.Itisalsoa
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Inc.,tokeeptheartifactcollectiontogetherforpublicdisplay.
References
1.G.Henderson,"UnderwaterArchaeologyandtheTitanic:The
ICMMView,"TheIXthInternationalCongressofMaritime
Museums:Proceedings(U.K.:NationalMaritimeMuseum,1996),
pp.6468.
2.R.Ormond,"TitanicandUnderwaterArchaeology:TheNational
MaritimeMuseumView,"TheIXthInternationalCongressof
MaritimeMuseums:Proceedings(U.K.:NationalMaritime
Museum,1996),pp.5963.
3.M.McCaughan,"ExhibitReviewoftheNationalMaritime
Museum,ReadingtheRelics:TitanicCultureandtheWreckof
theTitanicExhibit,"MaterialHistoryReview,43(1996),pp.68
72.

storyoffaith,courage,sacrifice,andaboveall
else,love."
TammyM.Beazley
JOM

CarmelR.McGill,
Consultant

CopyrightheldbyTheMinerals,Metals&MaterialsSociety,1998
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