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LightemittingdiodeWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Lightemittingdiode
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Alightemittingdiode(LED)isatwoleadsemiconductorlight
source.Itisapnjunctiondiode,whichemitslightwhen
activated.[4]Whenasuitablevoltageisappliedtotheleads,
electronsareabletorecombinewithelectronholeswithinthe
device,releasingenergyintheformofphotons.Thiseffectiscalled
electroluminescence,andthecolorofthelight(correspondingto
theenergyofthephoton)isdeterminedbytheenergybandgapof
thesemiconductor.

Lightemittingdiode

AnLEDisoftensmallinarea(lessthan1mm2)andintegrated
opticalcomponentsmaybeusedtoshapeitsradiationpattern.[5]
Appearingaspracticalelectroniccomponentsin1962,[6]theearliest
LEDsemittedlowintensityinfraredlight.InfraredLEDsarestill
frequentlyusedastransmittingelementsinremotecontrolcircuits,
suchasthoseinremotecontrolsforawidevarietyofconsumer
electronics.ThefirstvisiblelightLEDswerealsooflowintensity,
andlimitedtored.ModernLEDsareavailableacrossthevisible,
ultraviolet,andinfraredwavelengths,withveryhighbrightness.
EarlyLEDswereoftenusedasindicatorlampsforelectronic
devices,replacingsmallincandescentbulbs.Theyweresoon
packagedintonumericreadoutsintheformofsevensegment
displays,andwerecommonlyseenindigitalclocks.

Blue,green,andredLEDsin5mmdiffusedcases
Type

Passive,optoelectronic

Workingprinciple

Electroluminescence

Invented

OlegLosev(1927)[1]
JamesR.Biard(1961)[2]
NickHolonyak(1962)[3]

Firstproduction

October1962

Pinconfiguration

Anodeandcathode

Electronicsymbol

RecentdevelopmentsinLEDspermitthemtobeusedin
environmentalandtasklighting.LEDshavemanyadvantagesover
incandescentlightsourcesincludinglowerenergyconsumption,longer
lifetime,improvedphysicalrobustness,smallersize,andfasterswitching.
Lightemittingdiodesarenowusedinapplicationsasdiverseasaviation
lighting,automotiveheadlamps,advertising,generallighting,trafficsignals,
cameraflashesandlightedwallpaper.Asof2015,LEDspowerfulenoughfor
roomlightingremainsomewhatmoreexpensive,andrequiremoreprecise
currentandheatmanagement,thancompactfluorescentlampsourcesof
comparableoutput.
LEDshaveallowednewtext,videodisplays,andsensorstobedeveloped,
whiletheirhighswitchingratesarealsousedinadvancedcommunications
technology.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Discoveriesandearlydevices
1.2 Initialcommercialdevelopment
1.3 BlueLED
1.4 WhiteLEDsandtheIlluminationbreakthrough
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightemitting_diode

PartsofanLED.Althoughunlabeled,
theflatbottomsurfacesoftheanvil
andpostembeddedinsidetheepoxy
actasanchors,topreventthe
conductorsfrombeingforcefully
pulledoutfrommechanicalstrainor
vibration.
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LightemittingdiodeWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

2 Workingprinciple
3 Technology
3.1 Physics
3.2 Refractiveindex
3.2.1 Transitioncoatings
3.3 Efficiencyandoperationalparameters
3.3.1 Efficiencydroop
3.3.1.1 Possiblesolutions
3.4 Lifetimeandfailure
4 Colorsandmaterials
4.1 Blueandultraviolet
4.2 RGB
4.3 White
4.3.1 RGBsystems
4.3.2 PhosphorbasedLEDs
4.3.3 OtherwhiteLEDs
4.4 Organiclightemittingdiodes(OLEDs)
4.5 QuantumdotLEDs
5 Types
5.1 Miniature
5.2 Highpower
5.3 ACdriven
5.4 Applicationspecificvariations
5.4.1 Flashing
5.4.2 Bicolor
5.4.3 Tricolor
5.4.4 RGB
5.4.5 Decorativemulticolor
5.4.6 Alphanumeric
5.4.7 DigitalRGB
5.4.8 Filament
6 Considerationsforuse
6.1 Powersources
6.2 Electricalpolarity
6.3 Safetyandhealth
6.4 Advantages
6.5 Disadvantages
7 Applications
7.1 Indicatorsandsigns
7.2 Lighting
7.3 Datacommunicationandothersignaling
7.4 Sustainablelighting
7.4.1 Energyconsumption
7.5 Lightsourcesformachinevisionsystems
7.6 Otherapplications
8 Seealso
9 References
10 Furtherreading
11 Externallinks

AbulbshapedmodernretrofitLED
lampwithaluminiumheatsink,a
lightdiffusingdomeandE27screw
base,usingabuiltinpowersupply
workingonmainsvoltage

History
Discoveriesandearlydevices
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LightemittingdiodeWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Electroluminescenceasaphenomenonwasdiscoveredin1907bytheBritish
experimenterH.J.RoundofMarconiLabs,usingacrystalofsiliconcarbide
andacat'swhiskerdetector.[7][8]SovietinventorOlegLosevreportedcreation
ofthefirstLEDin1927.[9]HisresearchwasdistributedinSoviet,Germanand
Britishscientificjournals,butnopracticalusewasmadeofthediscoveryfor
severaldecades.[10][11]KurtLehovec,CarlAccardoandEdwardJamgochian,
explainedthesefirstlightemittingdiodesin1951usinganapparatus
employingSiCcrystalswithacurrentsourceofbatteryorpulsegeneratorand
withacomparisontoavariant,pure,crystalin1953.[12][13]

Greenelectroluminescencefroma
pointcontactonacrystalofSiC
recreatesRound'soriginalexperiment
from1907.

RubinBraunstein[14]oftheRadioCorporationofAmericareportedoninfrared
emissionfromgalliumarsenide(GaAs)andothersemiconductoralloysin
1955.[15]Braunsteinobservedinfraredemissiongeneratedbysimplediode
structuresusinggalliumantimonide(GaSb),GaAs,indiumphosphide(InP),andsilicongermanium(SiGe)alloysat
roomtemperatureandat77Kelvin.

In1957,Braunsteinfurtherdemonstratedthattherudimentarydevicescouldbeusedfornonradiocommunication
acrossashortdistance.AsnotedbyKroemer[16]Braunstein"..hadsetupasimpleopticalcommunicationslink:Music
emergingfromarecordplayerwasusedviasuitableelectronicstomodulatetheforwardcurrentofaGaAsdiode.The
emittedlightwasdetectedbyaPbSdiodesomedistanceaway.Thissignalwasfedintoanaudioamplifier,andplayed
backbyaloudspeaker.Interceptingthebeamstoppedthemusic.Wehadagreatdealoffunplayingwiththissetup."
ThissetuppresagedtheuseofLEDsforopticalcommunicationapplications.
InSeptember1961,whileworkingatTexasInstrumentsinDallas,Texas,JamesR.
BiardandGaryPittmandiscoverednearinfrared(900nm)lightemissionfroma
tunneldiodetheyhadconstructedonaGaAssubstrate.[6]ByOctober1961,theyhad
demonstratedefficientlightemissionandsignalcouplingbetweenaGaAspnjunction
lightemitterandanelectricallyisolatedsemiconductorphotodetector.[17]OnAugust
8,1962,BiardandPittmanfiledapatenttitled"SemiconductorRadiantDiode"based
ontheirfindings,whichdescribedazincdiffusedpnjunctionLEDwithaspaced
cathodecontacttoallowforefficientemissionofinfraredlightunderforwardbias.
Afterestablishingthepriorityoftheirworkbasedonengineeringnotebookspredating
submissionsfromG.E.Labs,RCAResearchLabs,IBMResearchLabs,BellLabs,and
LincolnLabatMIT,theU.S.patentofficeissuedthetwoinventorsthepatentforthe
GaAsinfrared(IR)lightemittingdiode(U.S.PatentUS3293513
(http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3293513.pdf)),thefirstpracticalLED.[6]
Immediatelyafterfilingthepatent,TexasInstruments(TI)beganaprojectto
manufactureinfrareddiodes.InOctober1962,TIannouncedthefirstLEDcommercial
product(theSNX100),whichemployedapureGaAscrystaltoemita890nmlight
output.[6]InOctober1963,TIannouncedthefirstcommercialhemisphericalLED,the
SNX110.[18]

Diagramofalightemitting
diodeconstructedonazinc
diffusedareaofgallium
arsenidesemiinsulating
substrate

Thefirstvisiblespectrum(red)LEDwasdevelopedin1962byNickHolonyak,Jr.,whileworkingatGeneralElectric
Company.HolonyakfirstreportedhisLEDinthejournalAppliedPhysicsLettersontheDecember1,1962.[19][20]M.
GeorgeCraford,[21]aformergraduatestudentofHolonyak,inventedthefirstyellowLEDandimprovedthe
brightnessofredandredorangeLEDsbyafactoroftenin1972.[22]In1976,T.P.Pearsallcreatedthefirsthigh
brightness,highefficiencyLEDsforopticalfibertelecommunicationsbyinventingnewsemiconductormaterials
specificallyadaptedtoopticalfibertransmissionwavelengths.[23]

Initialcommercialdevelopment
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ThefirstcommercialLEDswerecommonlyusedasreplacementsforincandescentandneonindicatorlamps,andin
sevensegmentdisplays,[24]firstinexpensiveequipmentsuchaslaboratoryandelectronicstestequipment,thenlater
insuchappliancesasTVs,radios,telephones,calculators,aswellaswatches(seelistofsignaluses).Until1968,
visibleandinfraredLEDswereextremelycostly,intheorderofUS$200perunit,andsohadlittlepracticaluse.[25]
TheMonsantoCompanywasthefirstorganizationtomassproducevisibleLEDs,usinggalliumarsenidephosphide
(GaAsP)in1968toproduceredLEDssuitableforindicators.[25]HewlettPackard(HP)introducedLEDsin1968,
initiallyusingGaAsPsuppliedbyMonsanto.TheseredLEDswerebrightenoughonlyforuseasindicators,asthe
lightoutputwasnotenoughtoilluminateanarea.Readoutsincalculatorsweresosmallthatplasticlenseswerebuilt
overeachdigittomakethemlegible.Later,othercolorsbecamewidelyavailableandappearedinappliancesand
equipment.Inthe1970scommerciallysuccessfulLEDdevicesatlessthanfivecentseachwereproducedbyFairchild
Optoelectronics.Thesedevicesemployedcompoundsemiconductorchipsfabricatedwiththeplanarprocessinvented
byDr.JeanHoerniatFairchildSemiconductor.[26][27]Thecombinationofplanarprocessingforchipfabricationand
innovativepackagingmethodsenabledtheteamatFairchildledbyoptoelectronicspioneerThomasBrandttoachieve
theneededcostreductions.[28]ThesemethodscontinuetobeusedbyLEDproducers.[29]
MostLEDsweremadeintheverycommon5mmT1and3mmT1
packages,butwithrisingpoweroutput,ithasgrownincreasinglynecessaryto
shedexcessheattomaintainreliability,[30]somorecomplexpackageshave
beenadaptedforefficientheatdissipation.Packagesforstateofthearthigh
powerLEDsbearlittleresemblancetoearlyLEDs.

BlueLED

LEDdisplayofaTI30scientific
calculator(ca.1978),whichuses
plasticlensestoincreasethevisible
digitsize

BlueLEDswerefirstdevelopedbyRCAin1972.[31]SiCtypeswerefirst
commerciallysoldintheUnitedStatesbyCreein1989.[32]However,neitheroftheseinitialblueLEDswerevery
bright.
ThefirsthighbrightnessblueLEDwasdemonstratedbyShujiNakamuraofNichiaCorporationin1994andwas
basedonInGaN.[33][34]Inparallel,IsamuAkasakiandHiroshiAmanoinNagoyawereworkingondevelopingthe
importantGaNnucleationonsapphiresubstratesandthedemonstrationofptypedopingofGaN.Nakamura,Akasaki
andAmanowereawardedthe2014Nobelprizeinphysicsfortheirwork.[35]In1995,AlbertoBarbieriattheCardiff
UniversityLaboratory(GB)investigatedtheefficiencyandreliabilityofhighbrightnessLEDsanddemonstrateda
"transparentcontact"LEDusingindiumtinoxide(ITO)on(AlGaInP/GaAs).
In2001[36]and2002,[37]processesforgrowinggalliumnitride(GaN)LEDsonsiliconweresuccessfully
demonstrated.InJanuary2012,OsramdemonstratedhighpowerInGaNLEDsgrownonsiliconsubstrates
commercially.[38]

WhiteLEDsandtheIlluminationbreakthrough
TheattainmentofhighefficiencyinblueLEDswasquicklyfollowedbythedevelopmentofthefirstwhiteLED.In
thisdeviceaY3Al5O12:Ce(knownas"YAG")phosphorcoatingontheemitterabsorbssomeoftheblueemissionand
producesyellowlightthroughfluorescence.Thecombinationofthatyellowwithremainingbluelightappearswhite
totheeye.Howeverusingdifferentphosphors(fluorescentmaterials)italsobecamepossibletoinsteadproducegreen
andredlightthroughfluorescence.Theresultingmixtureofred,greenandblueisnotonlyperceivedbyhumansas
whitelightbutissuperiorforilluminationintermsofcolorrendering,whereasonecannotappreciatethecolorofred
orgreenobjectsilluminatedonlybytheyellow(andremainingblue)wavelengthsfromtheYAGphosphor.

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ThefirstwhiteLEDswereexpensiveandinefficient.However,
thelightoutputofLEDshasincreasedexponentially,witha
doublingoccurringapproximatelyevery36monthssincethe
1960s(similartoMoore'slaw).Thistrendisgenerally
attributedtotheparalleldevelopmentofothersemiconductor
technologiesandadvancesinopticsandmaterialsscience,and
hasbeencalledHaitz'slawafterDr.RolandHaitz.[39]
Thelightoutputandefficiencyofblueandnearultraviolet
LEDsroseasthecostofreliabledevicesfell:thisledtotheuse
of(relatively)highpowerwhitelightLEDsforthepurposeof
illuminationwhicharereplacingincandescentandfluorescent
lighting.[40][41]
WhiteLEDscannowproduceover300lumensperwattof
electricitywhilelastingupto100,000hours.[42]Comparedto
incandescentbulbs,thisamountsnotonlytoahugeincreasein
electricalefficiency,butasimilarorbetterproratedcostforthe
bulbs.

IllustrationofHaitz'slaw,showingimprovementin
lightoutputperLEDovertime,withalogarithmic
scaleontheverticalaxis

Workingprinciple
APNjunctioncanconvertabsorbedlightenergyintoa
proportionalelectriccurrent.Thesameprocessisreversedhere
(i.e.thePNjunctionemitslightwhenelectricalenergyisapplied
toit).Thisphenomenonisgenerallycalledelectroluminescence,
whichcanbedefinedastheemissionoflightfromasemi
conductorundertheinfluenceofanelectricfield.Thecharge
carriersrecombineinaforwardbiasedPNjunctionasthe
electronscrossfromtheNregionandrecombinewiththeholes
existinginthePregion.Freeelectronsareintheconductionband
ofenergylevels,whileholesareinthevalenceenergyband.Thus
theenergyleveloftheholeswillbelesserthantheenergylevels
oftheelectrons.Someportionoftheenergymustbedissipatedin
ordertorecombinetheelectronsandtheholes.Thisenergyis
emittedintheformofheatandlight.

TheinnerworkingsofanLED,showingcircuit
(top)andbanddiagram(bottom)

Theelectronsdissipateenergyintheformofheatforsiliconand
germaniumdiodesbutingalliumarsenidephosphide(GaAsP)andgalliumphosphide(GaP)semiconductors,the
electronsdissipateenergybyemittingphotons.Ifthesemiconductoristranslucent,thejunctionbecomesthesourceof
lightasitisemitted,thusbecomingalightemittingdiode,butwhenthejunctionisreversebiasednolightwillbe
producedbytheLEDand,onthecontrary,thedevicemayalsobedamaged.

Technology
Physics
TheLEDconsistsofachipofsemiconductingmaterialdopedwithimpuritiestocreateapnjunction.Asinother
diodes,currentflowseasilyfromthepside,oranode,tothenside,orcathode,butnotinthereversedirection.
Chargecarrierselectronsandholesflowintothejunctionfromelectrodeswithdifferentvoltages.Whenan
electronmeetsahole,itfallsintoalowerenergylevelandreleasesenergyintheformofaphoton.
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