Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
through Mnemonics
Mariko Anno
Asian Theatre Journal, Volume 27, Number 1, Spring 2010, pp. 130-148
(Article)
Published by University of Hawai'i Press
DOI: 10.1353/atj.2010.0009
The nkan (n flute) is traditionally taught in a mode of oral transmission that involves
memorization of shga (mnemonics) . Shga help bring a n play to fruition by keeping
the timing and allowing improvisation. This case study discusses the teaching of Iss
Yukihiro, an Iss school performer, arguing that nkan transmission is changing in
contemporary practice by certain masters.
Mariko Anno is a PhD candidate in Musicology at the Tokyo University of the Arts
(Tokyo Geijutsu Daigaku), and earned her DMA in Flute Performance and Literature
with a minor in Ethnomusicology from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Her research focuses on the musical aspects of n, with an emphasis on the role of the
nkan in traditional and Japanese contemporary n and English n. She is a certified Alexander Technique teacher. Her research was supported by the Murata Science
Foundation.
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Figure 2. The bamboo tube called a nodo (throat) gives the nkan a distinctive
sound. (Photo: M. Anno)
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Shga
As mentioned earlier, the nkan is taught using shga, which are
also known as kuchi-shga, literally translated as songs to be chanted.
Thus, without a proper master, it is extremely difficult to learn or begin
to understand shga, which are made of combinations of chanted kana
( Japanese syllables) that make up the nkans basic musical vocabulary.
To the untrained eye (or ear), shga may seem like a bunch of nonsense syllables, but to the trained eye (or ear) they reveal sounds and
melodies with a specific order, as David W. Hughes has shown in his
research (2000: 93120). Moreover, shga are used by instructors in correcting or leading the student while he or she plays the instrument.
To demonstrate how shga are chanted, I have taken one example from the ground pattern of the dance, Ch no Mai (Medium
Tempo Dance). This dance is the first piece of music one learns on the
nkan. It contains the basic and essential materials necessary for developing ones skills and is a commonly used dance for several different
characters.
This ground pattern, which is also called ji, is a cyclic pattern
reoccurring in all dances. It consists of a four-phrase cycle: ryo (low),
ch (middle), kan (high), and kan no ch (high middle), as seen in
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Nkan Repertoire
In the present day, when learning the Iss school nkan repertoire, a student employs two shga volumes: Iss-ry shga-sh ( J)
(Iss School Shga Book, First Volume), (Iss Matarokur 1936a), and
Iss-ry shga-sh (Ge) (Iss School Shga Book, Second Volume), (Iss
Matarokur 1936b). They consist of the essential dance repertoire of
the n plays, using only shga, which are made of twenty syllables in
Figure 3. Shga of the Ch no Mai, the ryo-ch-kan structure (Iss Matarokur 1936a: 1, publishing permission given
by Iss Eiji.)
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Until this lesson, I had perceived the nkan more as a solo instrument, mainly owing to the influences and activities of my master, but
also because the nkan is thought to be both a rhythmic instrument
and the sole melodic instrument in the n hayashi musical ensemble.
Thus, I was not aware of the other instruments around me. Therefore,
learning of the various aspects of n, such as the literary, musical, and
performative aspects is vital, as they bring significance and life to the
story and stock musical patterns that seem redundant in plays, and to
the ensembleship that takes place between the instrumentalists and
dancers.
Another important aspect of shga is that they are the glue
that hold the ensemble together. Especially in the dance section, the
dancer(s), chorus, and instrumentalists listen to the nkan and chant
the shga inside themselves subvocally, similarly to their lessons with
their masters. Hence, in this comprehensive art form, the n performers are aware of each others movements, text, musical patterns as they
receive lessons on all of the aspects of n to a certain extent. Especially
in the oroshi section of dances, which comes after each dan (section),
the tempo slows down and the instrumentalists play phrases that are
unique to each dance and section. Timing is vital, and each individual
dancer or musician must learn the mnemonics and know the musical
patterns of the instrumentsand not only their area of specialty.
This cohesiveness found between the actors and musicians is
possible, even without a director or conductor, because of the overall
background and knowledge of the ngakushi (professional n actors).
Hence, they are able to have only one mshiawase (rehearsal) before
the actual performance, usually without costumes. They do not go over
the entire n play, but only certain sections that the shite or others may
find necessary. Also, for the dances, it is not necessary to rehearse the
entire piece as instructions can be given verbally with the use of shga,
indicating specific sections and details.
Professional n performers are content with one rehearsal, as
many of them have performed the n plays numerous times, or have
seen the plays multiple times performed by other professionals. Moreover, they have trained with their masters countless times so that their
parts are ingrained within them, and the foundation of their knowledge has been built during youth, when they begin training.
There are times where certain sections are rehearsed for timing
and with props. However, many n actors say that they enjoy the spontaneity. According to an interview with Matsui Akira, a Kita school shitekata (main actor), he prefers not to rehearse the n play too much as it
starts to lose its energy and improvisational aspects (Matsui 2009). It
is the unexpectedness that many n actors seem to enjoy. Thus, as it
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can be seen, shga not only play a vital role in learning the nkan, but
also in keeping the ensemble together.
Richard Emmert, an American n scholar and certified Kita
school n instructor living in Japan, who is also the director of Theatre
Nohgaku (an English n performance troupe), stated in an e-mail message to me regarding the role of shga:
The singing of shga is of course important for nkan players, but actually once they learn to play the piece, it is not really so important for
keeping the piece memorized in their minds. Many amateur players
of nkan can play a piece without being able to sing the shga to that
piece. For professional players however, singing of shga can be used
to check timing with the drummers backstage at a performance just
before going on stage when no one will be actually using an instrument to go over this timing . . . .
It is perhaps more important as a useful tool or memory aid when
the flute itself is not being used rather than as a memory aid so the
players themselves can remember the piece. And that is the case for
most of the time when dancers or drummers are learning their parts
for a dance Thus, it seems to me that the singing of shga is actually
more important for dancers and drummers because it allows them to
practice without a flute player or recording. And then during an actual
performance, by hearing the shga in their minds as the flute player
plays, they are also able to maintain their proper timing with the flute
and thus the entire ensemble. (Emmert 2009)
Overall, shga are more essential for the dancers and drummers in performances than for the nkan. Hence, this allows for the nkan player
to improvise more freely rather than strictly adhering to the written
notation. This concept of improvisation is explained more clearly in
the following case study on Iss Yukihiro.
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Transmission
First, I will explain the traditionally known method of oral transmission of the nkan to gain a better understanding of the learning process. The nkan is taught one-on-one with the master sitting in front of
the disciple. David W. Hughes (2000), an ethnomusicologist, describes
his nkan lessons with the late Fujita Daigor (1915 2008), a Human
National Treasure who passed away last year. The lessons described
here reflect the traditional way of teaching nkan.
Hughes explains that in his first lesson, even though he had
brought a n flute with him and showed it to Fujita, Fujita just looked
at it, commented on it, and returned it to him. Then, they chanted the
ground pattern of Ch no Mai (as in Fig. 3), for the remainder of
the lesson.
In the second lesson, after Fujita was certain that Hughes had
memorized the four lines, he handed Hughes a folded Japanese fan.
Fujita, too, had a similar fan and asked Hughes to imitate his finger
movements and sing the mnemonics. At the third lesson, Hughes practiced the fingerings on the actual instrument, instead of the fan, and
sang the mnemonics. Finally during the fourth lesson, Hughes was permitted to play his nkan. He also mentions that during these weeks, his
teacher never once picked up his instrument, nor presented any type
of written notation.
About this experience, Hughes states: Playing the flute for that
first time, thinking the mnemonics as I did so, the melody seemed to
come out naturally . . . . The fingers knew where to go, and the syllables
continued to course through my mind. The pitches and intervals were
doubtless different, since we had never sung at any specific pitch. . . .
But I felt a very close identity between what we had sung and what I was
now playing (Hughes 2000: 9596). This extended period of training,
which precedes playing the instrument, is a common experience among
nkan students, who have studied from masters other than Iss.1
I have been a disciple of Isss since 2005, but my training experiences have differed significantly from the way nkan is traditionally
taught. I have never felt a very close identity between shga and the
melody played as Hughes did, which is mainly because of how shga are
used in Isss teaching. I have never learned or chanted shga in my lessons with him. Furthermore, he does not normally chant shga to teach
me the music, unless I request him to do so.
It takes an average of three lessons for Iss to teach me a new
piece. In the first lesson in which a new piece is introduced, Iss plays
the entire piece on the nkan including embellishments. I record the
lesson. In the days between the first and second lesson, I listen to the
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recording over and over again, until I can distinguish the shga syllables from his embellishments. I identify his marked breaths, ends of
phrases, accents, inflections, and musical nuances, which are usually
taught by the master through the chanting of shga, as Morita Toki
has demonstrated in her research (2006). Then, I listen to recordings
that include the other instruments of the hayashi ensemble to gain an
understanding of what other instruments are playing, especially during
parts where intricate ensembleship is necessary.
At the second lesson, I play the entire piece by memory, including sashi-yubi (embellishments) and other ornaments that I figure out
on my own. While playing the piece, Iss at times sings the shga to
slow down or pick up the tempo, correct my playing, and prompt me
where I had forgotten the musical line. After I finish playing the entire
piece, he corrects my playing by directing me to sections using shga,
demonstrating it not by oral recitation of the syllables, but by playing
the phrase on the nkan.
During the second lesson, I ask Iss to show me his fingering for
the embellishments that I was not able to figure out on my own. This
is because he creates new nkan techniques that include elaborate and
modern flute techniques. He slowly plays the passage and shows me the
fingerings until I understand them. Then, at the following lesson, I play
the entire piece with the ornaments. It is also important to note that
Iss discouraged me from playing ornaments during the first couple of
months until he thought I had a firm grounding in nkan.
Isss method of teaching allowed me to learn the major nkan
pieces within a short period of time and play the instrument more
quickly, rather than memorizing shga. At one of my lessons, I had asked
him why he does not teach me shga as he does with some of his other
disciples. He replied that since I am able to learn and figure out the
fingers, notes, passages, and embellishments by listening to the music,
due to my musical background and knowledge of transverse flutes, he
did not find it necessary to take the time to teach me the shga.
However, the disadvantage of this teaching method is that enormous effort was and continues to be necessary on my part, because I
am forced to memorize the shga on my own without any idea how to
sing them properly. I must imagine them from my lesson recordings.
For example, when I watch students learn the dance Ch no Mai in
their shimai (dance) or ko-tsuzumi lessons, I hear myself following the
music with my fingers, singing the nkan melody in my head, but not
the shga. Thus, this shows that I had memorized the nkan repertoire
mostly by ear, and my fingers remember the movements on the nkan.
This transmission process may be considered as aural (perceived by the ear) transmission of the nkan repertoire, as opposed to
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ent intervals between the notes, but not necessarily in relation to their
nkan pitches. Still others, like Iss, match their sung shga pitches with
those played by their nkan.
The similarities of these transcriptions are not by chance; Iss
uses the nkans timbre, color, and sound, such as the brightness or
darkness of the instrument, to produce images most appropriate for
the scene in the n plays and enhance the ambiance on stage. This can
be demonstrated by analyzing his performances in traditional n plays.
For example, on 27 April 2006,3 Iss played a su-bayashi (instruments-only musical ensemble) of Shishi (Lion Dance) from the n
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play Shakky (Stone Bridge). This su-bayashi, played by the four instruments, is dance music for the shishi, which is an auspicious, mythical
Chinese animal or lion that reigns over all creatures (Gond 2003:
130). In this animated and energetic dance, Isss use of embellishments and various other traditional and nontraditional techniques such
as meri-kari (adjustment of the pitch by rolling the mouth hole in and
out, changing the angle of the air hitting the mouth hole) and fukikomi
(an instantaneous burst of fast, strong air blown through the instrument, causing a shakuhachi -like white noise) were widespread. Also
evident were techniques usually seen in modern flute playing, such as
circular breathing, cross-fingerings, and half-holing. In addition, new
nkan techniques created by Iss himself were frequently used to bend
the pitches of the nkan, which he calls sliding benders and pitch
benders. Moreover, his high notes were most piercing, since he played
a high-pitched nkan to reflect the excitement of the dance.
On the same day, the n play Teika was staged. Teika is a thirdcategory play, full of weight and seriousness. It is a love story between
Fujiwara no Teika (Sadaie) and Shikishi Naishin n. After their deaths,
Teika becomes the vines encircling Shikishis tomb, and her ghost continues to burn with passion for him. To express and support the story of
this n play, Iss played a somber and darker colored nkan to portray
the gravity of the plot, with little use of embellishments.
The description of the nkan sounds are not representative of
the tonal scales produced by the instrument, but of the color of the
sounds produced, such as brightness or darkness. These differ according to each nkan because of the construction of the mouthpiece, body,
and other varying factors.
In this way, Isss sensitivity to the sound and colors of the nkan,
enhanced by his background in traditional and nontraditional Japanese music, is evident in his singing of the shga. I would argue that
Isss background in Western music and experience playing in ensemble contexts with other melodic instruments (where more precise intonation is a necessity) explains why there is such a close match of each
pitch in his singing of the shga and his playing of the same passages on
the nkan. It is rare to find a fue-kata (flutist) whose singing and performance matches so closely.
The second point illustrated in Issos transcriptions is the addition of sashi-yubi embellishments on musical lines is prominent in the
performance transcription. This sort of embellishment is a common
performance technique of the nkan, with detailed finger movements
and semi-improvisatory embellishments (Gam 1989: 116). This ornamental technique, more intricate than the ryteki court flute, gives variations to the sound by (1) covering half the finger hole (or half-holing);
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(2) altering the angle of the lips (or air) on one note and changing the
pitch; (3) instantly closing and opening an uncovered hole; and (4)
instantly opening and closing a covered hole, also known as utsu (to
hit) (Yokomichi 1989: 324). All of the subtleties of these performance
techniques cannot be accurately transcribed on paper but need to be
heard aurally.
Without going into further detailed musical analysis, it can be
concluded that Isss personal style and personal choices are apparent
through his characteristic use of sashi-yubi to heighten the emotional
state on stage. As mentioned earlier, Isss excessive use of sashi-yubi
during the performance of Shishi to sustain the lively mood of the play,
as well as his minimal use of sashi-yubi to portray the gravity of the scene
in Teika, was effective.
Nkan players have individual styles of embellishments. By using
these ornaments, the nkan player displays his or her interpretation of
the n play, heightens the emotions on stage by coloring the scene, and
shows creativity through the use of various nkan techniques and use of
nkan timbre and color. These embellishments are personal and distinguish one player from another. The master does usually not teach them
to the disciple; instead, the disciple must steal them through careful
observation and listening to the master.
This type of coloring or creating the scene by the nkan has been
seen since Zeamis time. According to Zeamis Shudsho (Writings on
the Way of Learning), the flutist plays melodies by paralleling the singers pitches and movements while coloring the scenes (Takakuwa 2003:
50-51; Omote and Kato 1974: 237). Therefore, the nkan player supports and enhances the movements on stage, which influencesone
would surmisethe performance and ambiance on stage. This continues to be true today, and when the shite-kata is able to find a nkan
player who can complement his or her movements, dance, and mode
of expression, an artistically strong and emotionally sensitive stage is
produced for the performers and audience.
The flute is an extension of the voice, as my K school ko-tsuzumi
master, Sowa Masahiro (b. 1948), explains in relation to hina-matsuri
dolls (Sowa 2007). Hina-matsuri, which is translated as the Doll Festival, or Girls Day, is held annually on the third of March, to pray for
the girls growth and happiness. A platform is covered with red cloth
called hina-msen, and the first tier is occupied by the emperor and
empress dolls. Two tiers down from them are the five musician dolls
known as the gonin-bayashi (five musicians). Beginning from the right,
the musicians are the utai (chant[er]), fue (flute), ko-tsuzumi, -tsuzumi, and taiko drums. The ensemble is very similar both in terms of
instrumentation and in arrangement to the ngaku-bayashi n musical
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ensemble. According to Sowa, this order is very important, for the utai
(chant[er]) sings using his body, specifically his voice, which comes out
of his mouth. Next, the fue uses his mouth and fingers to play the instrument, but the main source for the sound production is still from the
mouth. To the left of the fue is the ko-tsuzumi drum, which is placed on
the right shoulder, held by the left hand, and struck with the right hand.
Thus, the sound is produced farther away from the mouth and body.
The -tsuzumi drum is placed near the left hip, held by the left hand,
and struck with the right hand. Finally, the taiko is placed on a stand and
played with two sticks called bachi, without direct contact by the player.
As the instrumentalists are seated farther away from the singer,
the techniques used to produce sound likewise move farther away from
the voice and body. Thus, Sowa hypothesizes that the fue, situated next
to the utai, is probably most like the human voice. Its main source of
sound production is from the mouth, and a throat (nodo) was possibly
inserted to give it a more humanlike quality. Thus, the nkan often parallels the function of the utai when creating and coloring the scene.
Conclusion
It is through oral transmission that these nonsense syllables
take life and convey the musical interpretation and other complex
nuances to the disciples. By means of shga, many unwritten and unspoken musical aspects are revealed, opening a new world of music in playing the nkan. However, in Isss aural transmission, he instills within
the students the sounds of the nkan, and uses shga to correct and
instruct the students, and does not use them as a basis of his teaching.
If transmitted orally, they can reveal secret techniques of the master, such as embellishments, and interpretation of the text and movements on stage. However, Isss transmission is at times unique, when
he considers the background and musicality of the disciples, allowing
some of his disciples to access his techniques and musical interpretation through his creative teaching style.
Isss teaching style allows some students to excel quickly, but
without a firm foundation in shga, they may depend heavily on their
ears and finger memory in performances as well as technology (recording) to learn. This type of teaching is facilitated by the use of modern technology and available audio and visual compendia. Hence, it is
important to realize that Isss performance and teaching have shaped
and will continue to affect his disciples playing and understanding of
shga, which may impact and change the future performances of n.
Nkan teaching, as well as all aspects of n, is a living art form and continues to change with the times.
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