special topic

Chapter 1

Fermat point
3. The two lines intersect at the Fermat point.
An alternate method is the following:
1. On each of two arbitrarily chosen sides, construct
an isosceles triangle, with base the side in question,
30-degree angles at the base, and the third vertex
of each isosceles triangle lying outside the original
triangle.
2. For each isosceles triangle draw a circle, in each case
with center on the new vertex of the isosceles triangle and with radius equal to each of the two new
sides of that isosceles triangle.
3. The intersection inside the original triangle between
the two circles is the Fermat point.
When a triangle has an angle greater than 120, the Fermat point is sited at the obtuse-angled vertex.
In what follows Case 1 means the triangle has an angle
exceeding 120. Case 2 means no angle of the triangle
exceeds 120.

Fig 1. Construction of the rst isogonic center, X(13). When no

angle of the triangle exceeds 120, this point is the Fermat point.

In geometry, the Fermat point of a triangle, also called

the Torricelli point or Fermat-Torricelli point, is a
point such that the total distance from the three vertices 1.2 Location of X(13)
of the triangle to the point is the minimum possible.[1] It
is so named because this problem is rst raised by Fermat Here is a proof using properties of concyclic points to
in a private letter to Evangelista Torricelli, who solved it. show that the three red lines in Fig 1 are concurrent and
The Fermat point gives a solution to the geometric median cut one another at angles of 60.
and Steiner tree problems for three points.

The triangles RAC and BAQ are congruent because the

second is a 60 rotation of the rst about A. Hence ARF
= ABF and AQF = ACF. By converse of angle in
the same segment, ARBF and AFCQ are both concyclic.
1.1 Construction
Thus AFB = AFC = BFC = 120. Because BFC
The Fermat point of a triangle with largest angle at most and BPC add up to 180, BPCF is also concyclic. Hence
120 is simply its rst isogonic center or X(13), which BFP = BCP = 60. Because BFP + BFA = 180,
AFP is a straight line.
is constructed as follows:
Q.E.D.
1. Construct an equilateral triangle on each of two arbitrarily chosen sides of the given triangle.

This proof only applies in Case 2 since if BAC > 120

A lies inside the circumcircle of BPC which switches the
2. Draw a line from each new vertex to the opposite relative positions of A and F. However it is easily modied
vertex of the original triangle.
to cover Case 1. Then AFB = AFC = 60 hence BFC
2

1.3. LOCATION OF THE FERMAT POINT

Fig 2. Geometry of the rst isogonic center.

= AFB = AFC = 120 which means BPCF is concyclic

so BFP = BCP = 60 = BFA. Therefore A lies on FP.
Clearly any 3 lines perpendicular to the red ones in Fig 1,
in particular those joining the centres of the circles, must
also cut at angles of 60 and thereby form an equilateral
triangle. This curiosity is known as Napoleons Theorem.

1.3 Location of the Fermat point

1.3.1

Traditional geometry

Given any Euclidean triangle ABC and an arbitrary point

P let d(P) = PA+PB+PC. The aim of this section is to
identify a point P0 such that d(P0 ) < d(P) for all P P0 .
If such a point exists then it will be the Fermat point. In
what follows will denote the points inside the triangle
and will be taken to include its boundary .
A key result that will be used is the dogleg rule which
asserts that if a triangle and a polygon have one side in
common and the rest of the triangle lies inside the polygon
then the triangle has a shorter perimeter than the polygon.
[If AB is the common side extend AC to cut the polygon
at X. Then by the triangle inequality the polygon perimeter > AB + AX + XB = AB + AC + CX + XB AB +
AC + BC.]
Let P be any point outside . Associate each vertex with
its remote zone; that is, the half-plane beyond the (extended) opposite side. These 3 zones cover the entire
plane except for itself and P clearly lies in either one or
two of them. If P is in two (say the B and C zones intersection) then setting P' = A implies d(P') = d(A) < d(P)
by the dogleg rule. Alternatively if P is in only one zone,

Fig 3. Geometry of the Fermat point

say the A-zone, then d(P') < d(P) where P' is the intersection of AP and BC. So for every point P outside
there exists a point P' in such that d(P') < d(P).
Case 1. The triangle has an angle 120.
Without loss of generality suppose that the angle at A is
120. Construct the equilateral triangle AFB and for
any point P in (except A itself) construct Q so that the
triangle AQP is equilateral and has the orientation shown.
Then the triangle ABP is a 60 rotation of the triangle
AFQ about A so these two triangles are congruent and
it follows that d(P) = CP+PQ+QF which is simply the
length of the path CPQF. As P is constrained to lie within

CHAPTER 1. FERMAT POINT

ABC, by the dogleg rule the length of this path exceeds

AC+AF = d(A). Therefore d(A) < d(P) for all P , P
A. Now allow P to range outside . From above a point
P' exists such that d(P') < d(P) and as d(A) d (P')
it follows that d(A) < d(P) for all P outside . Thus d(A)
< d(P) for all P A which means that A is the Fermat
point of . In other words the Fermat point lies at the
obtuse angled vertex.

minimum, is to use one of the optimization (mathematics) methods. In particular, method of the Lagrange multipliers and the law of cosines.

We draw lines from the point within the triangle to its

vertices and call them X, Y and Z. Also, let the lengths
of these lines be x, y, and z, respectively. Let the angle
between X and Y be , Y and Z be . Then the angle
between X and Z is (2 ). Using the method of
Case 2. The triangle has no angle 120.
Lagrange multipliers we have to nd the minimum of the
Construct the equilateral triangle BCD and let P be any Lagrangian L, which is expressed as:
point inside and construct the equilateral triangle CPQ.
L = x + y + z + 1 (x2 + y2 2xy cos() a2 )
Then CQD is a 60 rotation of CPB about C so d(P) =
+ 2 (y2 + z2 2yz cos() b2 ) + 3 (z2 + x2
PA+PB+PC = AP+PQ+QD which is simply the length
2zx cos( + ) c2 )
of the path APQD. Let P0 be the point where AD and
CF intersect. This point is commonly called the rst isowhere a, b and c are the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
gonic center. By the angular restriction P0 lies inside
moreover BCF is a 60 rotation of BDA about B so Q0 Equating each of the ve partial derivatives L/x, L/y,
must lie somewhere on AD. Since CDB = 60 it follows L/z, L/, L/ to zero and eliminating 1 , 2 , 3
that Q0 lies between P0 and D which means AP0 Q0 D is eventually gives sin() = sin() and sin( + ) = sin()
a straight line so d(P0 ) = AD. Moreover if P P0 then so = = 120. However the elimination is a long tedious
either P or Q won't lie on AD which means d(P0 ) = AD < business and the end result only covers Case 2.
d(P). Now allow P to range outside . From above a point
P' exists such that d(P') < d(P) and as d(P0 ) d(P') it
follows that d(P0 ) < d(P) for all P outside . That means 1.4 Properties
P0 is the Fermat point of . In other words the Fermat
point is coincident with the rst isogonic center.

1.3.2

Vector analysis

Let O, A, B, C, X be any ve points in a plane. Denote

the vectors OA, OB, OC, OX by a, b, c, x respectively,
and let i, j, k be the unit vectors from O along a, b, c.
Now |a| = a i = (a x) i + x i |a x| + x i and similarly |b| |b x| + x j and |c| |c x| + x k.
Adding gives |a| + |b| + |c| |a x| + |b x| + |c x| +
x (i + j + k).
If a, b, c meet at O at angles of 120 then i + j + k = 0
so |a| + |b| + |c| |a x| + |b x| + |c x| for all x.
In other words OA + OB + OC XA + XB + XC and hence
The two isogonic centers are the intersections of three vesicae pisO is the Fermat point of ABC.
This argument fails when the triangle has an angle C > cis whose paired vertices are the vertices of the triangle
120 because there is no point O where a, b, c meet at an When the largest angle of the triangle is not larger
gles of 120. Nevertheless it is easily xed by redening
than 120, X(13) is the Fermat point.
k = (i + j) and placing O at C so that c = 0. Note that
|k| 1 because the angle between the unit vectors i and j
The angles subtended by the sides of the triangle at
is C which exceeds 120. Since |0| |0 x| + x k the
X(13) are all equal to 120 (Case 2), or 60, 60,
third inequality still holds, the other two inequalities are
120 (Case 1).
unchanged. The proof now continues as above (adding
the three inequalities and using i + j + k = 0) to reach
The circumcircles of the three constructed equilatthe same conclusion that O (or in this case C) must be the
eral triangles are concurrent at X(13).
Fermat point of ABC.
Trilinear coordinates for the rst isogonic center,
X(13):

1.3.3

Lagrangian multipliers

Another approach to nd a point within the triangle, from

where sum of the distances to the vertices of triangle is

csc(A + /3) : csc(B + /3) : csc(C + /3), or,

equivalently,
sec(A /6) : sec(B /6) : sec(C /6).[2]

1.6. HISTORY

Trilinear coordinates for the second isogonic center,

X(14):
csc(A /3) : csc(B /3) : csc(C /3), or,
equivalently,
sec(A + /6) : sec(B + /6) : sec(C + /6).[3]
Trilinear coordinates for the Fermat point:
1 u + uvw sec(A /6) : 1 v + uvw sec(B
/6) : 1 w + uvw sec(C /6)
where u, v, w respectively denote the Boolean
variables (A<120), (B<120), (C<120).
The isogonal conjugate of X(13) is the rst isodynamic point, X(15):
sin(A + /3) : sin(B + /3) : sin(C + /3).[4]
The isogonal conjugate of X(14) is the second isodynamic point, X(16):
sin(A /3) : sin(B /3) : sin(C /3).

1.6 History
This question was proposed by Fermat, as a challenge to
Evangelista Torricelli. He solved the problem in a similar
way to Fermats, albeit using intersection of the circumcircles of the three regular triangles instead. His pupil,
Viviani, published the solution in 1659.[8]

1.7 See also

Geometric median or FermatWeber point, the
point minimizing the sum of distances to more than
three given points.
Lesters theorem
Triangle center
Napoleon points
Weber problem

[5]

The following triangles are equilateral:

antipedal triangle of X(13)
antipedal triangle of X(14)
pedal triangle of X(15)

1.8 References
[1] Cut The Knot - The Fermat Point and Generalizations
[2] Entry X(13) in the Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers

pedal triangle of X(16)

[3] Entry X(14) in the Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers

circumcevian triangle of X(15)

[4] Entry X(15) in the Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers

circumcevian triangle of X(16)

[5] Entry X(16) in the Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers

The lines X(13)X(15) and X(14)X(16) are parallel

to the Euler line. The three lines meet at the Euler
innity point, X(30).
The points X(13), X(14), the circumcenter, and the
nine-point center lie on a Lester circle.
The line X(13)X(14) meets the Euler line at midpoint of X(2) and X(4).[6]
The Fermat point lies in the open orthocentroidal
disk punctured at its own center, and could be any
point therein.[7]

1.5 Aliases
The isogonic centers X(13) and X(14) are also known
as the rst Fermat point and the second Fermat point
respectively. Alternatives are the positive Fermat point
and the negative Fermat point. However these dierent names can be confusing and are perhaps best avoided.
The problem is that much of the literature blurs the distinction between the Fermat point and the rst Fermat
point whereas it is only in Case 2 above that they are actually the same.

[6] Kimberling, Clark. Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers.

[7] Christopher J. Bradley and Geo C. Smith, The locations of triangle centers, Forum Geometricorum 6 (2006),
57-70. http://forumgeom.fau.edu/FG2006volume6/
FG200607index.html
[8] Weisstein, Eric W., Fermat Points, MathWorld.

1.9 External links

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed.
(2001), FermatTorricelli problem, Encyclopedia of Mathematics,
Springer, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
Fermat Point by Chris Boucher, The Wolfram
Demonstrations Project.
Fermat-Torricelli generalization at Dynamic Geometry Sketches Interactive sketch generalizes the
Fermat-Torricelli point.
A practical example of the Fermat point

Chapter 2

Nagel point
2.1 Relation to other triangle centers
The Nagel point is the isotomic conjugate of the
Gergonne point. The Nagel point, the centroid, and the
incenter are collinear on a line called the Nagel line.
The incenter is the Nagel point of the medial triangle;[1][2] equivalently, the Nagel point is the incenter of
the anticomplementary triangle.

2.2 Trilinear coordinates

The trilinear coordinates of the Nagel point are[3] as

csc2 (A/2) : csc2 (B/2) : csc2 (C/2)

The Nagel point (blue, N) of a triangle (black). The red triangle

is the extouch triangle, and the orange circles are the excircles

or, equivalently, in terms of the side lengths a = |BC|, b =

|CA|, and c = |AB|,
b+ca c+ab a+bc
:
:
.
a
b
c

2.3 See also

In geometry, the Nagel point is a triangle center, one of

the points associated with a given triangle whose denition does not depend on the placement or scale of the
triangle. Given a triangle ABC, let TA, TB, and TC be
the extouch points in which the A-excircle meets line BC,
the B-excircle meets line CA, and C-excircle meets line
AB, respectively. The lines ATA, BTB, CTC concur in
the Nagel point N of triangle ABC. The Nagel point is
named after Christian Heinrich von Nagel, a nineteenthcentury German mathematician, who wrote about it in
1836.

Mandart inellipse
Trisected perimeter point

2.4 References
[1] Anonymous (1896). Geometry: 69-72. American
Mathematical Monthly 3 (12): 329. JSTOR 2970994.
|chapter= ignored (help)

Another construction of the point TA is to start at A

and trace around triangle ABC half its perimeter, and
similarly for TB and TC. Because of this construction,
the Nagel point is sometimes also called the bisected
perimeter point, and the segments ATA, BTB, CTC are
called the triangles splitters.

[2] Why is the Incenter the Nagel Point of the Medial Triangle?". Polymathematics.
[3] Gallatly, William (1913). The Modern Geometry of the
Triangle (2nd ed.). London: Hodgson. p. 20.

2.5. EXTERNAL LINKS

Baptist, Peter (1987). Historische Anmerkungen zu Gergonne- und Nagel-Punkt. Sudhos
Archiv fr Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften 71 (2): 230233. MR 0936136.

2.5 External links

Nagel Point from Cut-the-knot
Nagel Point, Clark Kimberling
Weisstein, Eric W., Nagel Point, MathWorld.
Spieker Conic and generalization of Nagel line at
Dynamic Geometry Sketches Generalizes Spieker
circle and associated Nagel line.

Chapter 3

Brocard points

cot = cot + cot + cot .

C

There is also a second Brocard point, Q, in triangle ABC

such that line segments AQ, BQ, and CQ form equal angles with sides b, c, and a respectively. In other words,
the equations QCB = QBA = QAC apply. Remarkably, this second Brocard point has the same Brocard angle as the rst Brocard point. In other words
angle P BC = P CA = P AB is the same as
QCB = QBA = QAC.

P
A

The two Brocard points are closely related to one another;

In fact, the dierence between the rst and the second depends on the order in which the angles of triangle ABC are
taken. So for example, the rst Brocard point of triangle
ABC is the same as the second Brocard point of triangle
ACB.
The two Brocard points of a triangle ABC are isogonal
conjugates of each other.
The Brocard point of a triangle, constructed at the intersection
point of three circles.

3.2 Construction

In geometry, Brocard points are special points within a

triangle. They are named after Henri Brocard (1845
1922), a French mathematician.

The most elegant construction of the Brocard points goes

as follows. In the following example the rst Brocard
point is presented, but the construction for the second
Brocard point is very similar.

3.1 Denition

Form a circle through points A and B, tangent to edge

BC of the triangle (the center of this circle is at the point
where the perpendicular bisector of AB meets the line
through point B that is perpendicular to BC). Symmetrically, form a circle through points B and C, tangent to
edge AC, and a circle through points A and C, tangent
to edge AB. These three circles have a common point,
the rst Brocard point of triangle ABC. See also Tangent
lines to circles.

In a triangle ABC with sides a, b, and c, where the vertices

are labeled A, B and C in anticlockwise order, there is
exactly one point P such that the line segments AP, BP,
and CP form the same angle, , with the respective sides
c, a, and b, namely that

P AB = P BC = P CA.

Point P is called the rst Brocard point of the triangle The three circles just constructed are also designated as
ABC, and the angle is called the Brocard angle of the epicycles of triangle ABC. The second Brocard point is
constructed in similar fashion.
triangle. The following applies to this angle:
8

3.7. EXTERNAL LINKS

3.3 Trilinears and the Brocard

midpoint

9
Bicentric Pairs of Points and Related Triangle Centers
Bicentric Pairs of Points

Homogeneous trilinear coordinates for the rst and second Brocard points are c/b : a/c : b/a, and b/c : c/a
: a/b, respectively. The Brocard points are an example
of a bicentric pair of points, but they are not triangle
centers because neither Brocard point is invariant under
similarity transformations: reecting a scalene triangle, a
special case of a similarity, turns one Brocard point into
the other. However, the unordered pair formed by both
points is invariant under similarities. The midpoint of the
two Brocard points, called the Brocard midpoint, has
trilinears
sin(A + ) : sin(B + ) : sin(C + )[1]
and is a triangle center. The third Brocard point, given
in trilinear coordinates as a3 : b3 : c3 , or, equivalently,
by
csc(A ) : csc(B ) : csc(C ),[2]
is the Brocard midpoint of the anticomplementary triangle and is also the isotomic conjugate of the symmedian
point.

3.4 See also

Triangle center

3.5 Notes
[1] Entry X(39) in the Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers
[2] Entry X(76) in the Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers

3.6 References
Akopyan, A. V.; Zaslavsky, A. A. (2007), Geometry
of Conics, Mathematical World 26, American Mathematical Society, pp. 4852, ISBN 978-0-82184323-9.
Honsberger, Ross (1995), Chapter 10. The Brocard Points, Episodes in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Euclidean Geometry, Washington, D.C.:
The Mathematical Association of America.

3.7 External links

Third Brocard Point at MathWorld

Bicentric Points at MathWorld

Chapter 4

Pole and polar

Polar line redirects here. For the railway line, see Polar conic section, its polar is the tangent line to the conic secLine.
tion at that point.
In geometry, the pole and polar are respectively a point For a given circle, reciprocation in a circle means the
transformation of each point in the plane into its polar
line and each line in the plane into its pole.

4.1 Properties
Poles and polars have several useful properties:
If a point P lies on a line l, then the pole L of the
line l lies on the polar p of point P.
If a point P moves along a line l, its polar p rotates
about the pole L of the line l.

If two tangent lines can be drawn from a pole to the

conic section, then its polar passes through both tangent points.

If a point lies on the conic section, its polar is the

tangent through this point to the conic section.
If a point P lies on its own polar line, then P is on
the conic section.
Each line has, with respect to a non-degenerated
conic section, exactly one pole.

4.2 Special case of circles

See also: inversive geometry
The polar line q to a point Q with respect to a circle of radius
r centered on the point O. The point P is the inversion point of
Q; the polar is the line through P that is perpendicular to the line
containing O, P and Q.

The pole of a line L in a circle C is a point P that is the

inversion in C of the point Q on L that is closest to the
center of the circle. Conversely, the polar line (or polar)
of a point P in a circle C is the line L such that its closest
and a line that have a unique reciprocal relationship with point Q to the center of the circle is the inversion of P in
respect to a given conic section. If the point lies on the C.
10

4.4. GENERAL CONIC SECTIONS

11

q
a

B
O

Q
L

If a point A lies on the polar line q of another point Q, then Q

lies on the polar line a of A. More generally, the polars of all the
points on the line q must pass through its pole Q.

Illustration of the duality between points and lines, and the double
meaning of incidence. If two lines a and k pass through a single
point Q, then the polar q of Q joins the poles A and K of the lines
a and k, respectively.

P
The relationship between poles and polars is reciprocal.
Thus, if a point Q is on the polar line A of a point P, then
the point P must lie on the polar line B of the point Q.
The two polar lines A and B need not be parallel.
There is another description of the polar line of a point
P in the case that it lies outside the circle C. In this case,
there are two lines through P which are tangent to the
circle, and the polar of P is the line joining the two points
of tangency (not shown here). This shows that pole and
polar line are concepts in the projective geometry of the
plane and generalize with any nonsingular conic in the
place of the circle C.

l
L
p

Line p is the polar line to point P, l to L and m to M

4.3 Reciprocation and projective

duality

ellipse, hyperbola and parabola. This generalization is

possible because conic sections result from a reciprocation of a circle in another circle, and the properties inThe concepts of a pole and its polar line were advanced
volved, such as incidence and the cross-ratio, are prein projective geometry. For instance, the polar line can
served under all projective transformations.
be viewed as the set of projective harmonic conjugates
of a given point, the pole, with respect to a conic. The
operation of replacing every point by its polar and vice 4.4.1 Calculating the polar of a point
versa is sometimes known as reciprocation.

4.4 General conic sections

A general conic section may be written as a seconddegree equation in the Cartesian coordinates (x, y) of the
plane

The concepts of pole, polar and reciprocation can be generalized from circles to other conic sections which are the Axx x2 + 2Axy xy + Ayy y 2 + 2Bx x + 2By y + C = 0

12

CHAPTER 4. POLE AND POLAR

4.5 Properties

Poles and polars have several useful properties.

If a point P lies on a line l, then the pole L of the line l
lies on the polar p of point P.

If a point P moves along a line l, its polar p rotates about

the pole L of the line l.

If two tangent lines can be drawn from a pole to the conic

section, then its polar passes through both tangent points.
If a point lies on the conic section, its polar is the tangent
through this point to the conic section.
If a point P lies on its own polar line, then P is on the
conic section.
Each line has, with respect to a non-degenerated conic
section, exactly one pole.

p is the polar line to point P ; m is the polar line to M

where Axx, Axy, Ayy, Bx, By, and C are the constants 4.6 Applications
dening the equation. For such a conic section, the polar
line to a given pole point (, ) is dened by the equation Poles and polars were dened by Joseph Diaz Gergonne
and play an important role in his solution of the problem
of Apollonius.[1]
In planar dynamics a pole is a center of rotation, the polar
is the force line of action and the conic is the mass-inertia
where D, E and F are likewise constants that depend on matrix.[2] The pole-polar relationship is used to dene the
center of percussion of a planar rigid body. If the pole is
the pole coordinates (, )
the hinge point, then the polar is the percussion line of
action as described in planar screw theory.
Dx + Ey + F = 0

D = Axx + Axy + Bx
E = Axy + Ayy + By

4.7 See also

Dual polygon

F = Bx + By + C

Dual polyhedron

4.4.2

Calculating the pole of a line

The pole of the line Dx + Ey + F = 0 , relative to the

non-degenerated conic section

Projective geometry
Projective harmonic conjugates
Polar curve

Axx x2 + 2Axy xy + Ayy y 2 + 2Bx x + 2By y + C = 0

can be calculated in two steps.
First, calculate the numbers x, y and z from

x
Axx
y = Axy
z
Bx

Axy
Ayy
By

1
Bx
D
By E
C
F

Now, the pole is the point with coordinates ( xz , yz )

4.8 Bibliography
Johnson RA (1960). Advanced Euclidean Geometry: An Elementary treatise on the geometry of the
Triangle and the Circle. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 100105.
Coxeter HSM, Greitzer SL (1967). Geometry Revisited. Washington: MAA. pp. 132136, 150. ISBN
978-0-88385-619-2.

4.10. EXTERNAL LINKS

13

Gray J J (2007). Worlds Out of Nothing: A Course in

the history of Geometry in the 19th century. London:
Springer Verlag. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-84628-632-2.
Korn GA, Korn TM (1961). Mathematical Handbook for Scientists and Engineers. New York:
McGraw-Hill. pp. pp4345. LCCN 59014456.
The paperback version published by Dover Publications has the ISBN 978-0-486-41147-7.
Wells D (1991). The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Geometry. New York: Penguin
Books. pp. 190191. ISBN 0-14-011813-6.

4.9 References
[1] Apollonius Problem: A Study of Solutions and Their
Connections (PDF). Retrieved 2013-06-04.
[2] John Alexiou Thesis, Chapter 5, pp. 80108

4.10 External links

Interactive animation with multiple poles and polars
at Cut-the-Knot
Interactive animation with one pole and its polar
Weisstein, Eric W., Polar, MathWorld.
Weisstein, Eric W., Reciprocation, MathWorld.
Weisstein, Eric W., Inversion pole, MathWorld.
Weisstein,
Eric
MathWorld.

W.,

Tutorial at Math-abundance

Reciprocal

curve,

Chapter 5

Radical axis
This article is about the radical axis used in geometry. The radical axis is always a straight line and always
For the animation studio, see Radical Axis (studio).
perpendicular to the line connecting the centers of the
The radical axis (or power line) of two circles is the circles, albeit closer to the circumference of the larger
circle. If the circles intersect, the radical axis is the line
passing through the intersection points; similarly, if the
circles are tangent, the radical axis is simply the common
tangent. In general, two disjoint, non-concentric circles
can be aligned with the circles of bipolar coordinates; in
that case, the radical axis is simply the y-axis; every circle
on that axis that passes through the two foci intersect the
two circles orthogonally. Thus, two radii of such a circle
are tangent to both circles, satisfying the denition of the
radical axis. The collection of all circles with the same
radical axis and with centers on the same line is known
as a pencil of coaxal circles.

5.1 Denition and general properties

Figure 1. Illustration of the radical axis (red line) of two given
circles (solid black). For any point P (blue) on the radical axis,
a unique circle (dashed) can be drawn that is centered on that
point and intersects both given circles at right angles, i.e., orthogonally. The point P has an equal power with respect to both given
circles, because the tangents from P (blue lines) are radii of the
orthogonal circle and thus have equal length.

locus of points at which tangents drawn to both circles

have the same length. For any point P on the radical axis,
there is a unique circle centered on P that intersects both
circles at right angles (orthogonally); conversely, the center of any circle that cuts both circles orthogonally must
lie on the radical axis. In technical language, each point
P on the radical axis has the same power with respect to
both circles[1]

R2 = d21 r12 = d22 r22

where r1 and r2 are the radii of the two circles, d1 and d2
are distances from P to the centers of the two circles, and If the two circles intersect, the radical axis is the secant line corR is the radius of the unique orthogonal circle centered responding to their common chord.
on P.
14

5.3. GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION

15

Figure 2: The radical center (orange point) is the center of the

unique circle (also orange) that intersects three given circles at
right angles.

both circles A and B in two points. The two lines passing through each pair of intersection points are the radical
5.2 Radical center of three circles axes of A and C and of B and C. These two lines intersect
in a point J that is the radical center of all three circles, as
described above; therefore, this point also lies on the radConsider three circles A, B and C, no two of which are ical axis of A and B. Repeating this process with another
concentric. The radical axis theorem states that the such circle D provides a second point K. The radical axis
three radical axes (for each pair of circles) intersect in is the line passing through both J and K.
one point called the radical center, or are parallel.[2] In
technical language, the three radical axes are concurrent
Q
(share a common point); if they are parallel, they concur
P

at a point of innity.

A simple proof is as follows.[3] The radical axis of circles

A and B is dened as the line along which the tangents
to those circles are equal in length a=b. Similarly, the
tangents to circles B and C must be equal in length on
their radical axis. By the transitivity of equality, all three
tangents are equal a=b=c at the intersection point r of
those two radical axes. Hence, the radical axis for circles
A and C must pass through the same point r, since a=c
there. This common intersection point r is the radical
center.

EP

EC

E
d
d

EP

EQ

ED

ED

EQ
EC
There is a unique circle with its center at the radical cendEP * dEQ =dEC * dED = dES * dET
ter that is orthogonal to all three circles. This follows,
also by transitivity, because each radical axis, being the
locus of centers of circles that cut each pair of given circles orthogonally, requires all three circles to have equal Figure 3: Lines through corresponding antihomologous points inradius at the intersection of all three axes.
tersect on the radical axis of the two given circles (green and blue,

5.3 Geometric construction

centered on points C and D, respectively). The points P and Q

are antihomologous, as are S and T. These four points lie on a
circle that intersects the two given circles.

A special case of this approach, seen in Figure 3, is carThe radical axis of two circles A and B can be constructed ried out with antihomologous points from an internal or
by drawing a line through any two of its points. Such a external center of similarity. Consider two rays emanatpoint can be found by drawing a circle C that intersects ing from an external homothetic center E. Let the antiho-

16

CHAPTER 5. RADICAL AXIS

mologous pairs of intersection points of these rays with

the two given circles be denoted as P and Q, and S and
T, respectively. These four points lie on a common circle
that intersects the two given circles in two points each.[4]
Hence, the two lines joining P and S, and Q and T intersect at the radical center of the three circles, which
lies on the radical axis of the given circles.[5] Similarly,
the line joining two antihomologous points on separate
circles and their tangents form an isosceles triangle, with
both tangents being of equal length.[6] Therefore, such
tangents meet on the radical axis.[5]

x21 x22 = r12 r22

Dividing both sides by D = x1 +x2 yields the equation

x1 x2 =

Adding this equation to x1 +x2 = D yields a formula for x1

2x1 = D +

5.4 Algebraic construction

r12 r22
D

r12 r22
D

Subtracting the same equation yields the corresponding

formula for x2

2x2 = D

U
A

r12 r22
D

5.5 Determinant calculation

K

C
W

Figure 4: Finding the radical axis algebraically. L is the distance

from J to K, whereas x1 and x2 are the distances from K to B
and from K to V, respectively. The variables d1 and d2 represent
the distances from J to B and from J to V, respectively.

Referring to Figure 4, the radical axis (red) is perpendicular to the blue line segment joining the centers B and V
of the two given circles, intersecting that line segment at a
point K between the two circles. Therefore, it suces to
nd the distance x1 or x2 from K to B or V, respectively,
where x1 +x2 equals D, the distance between B and V.

If the circles are represented in trilinear coordinates in

the usual way, then their radical center is conveniently
given as a certain determinant. Specically, let X = x : y
: z denote a variable point in the plane of a triangle ABC
with sidelengths a = |BC|, b = |CA|, c = |AB|, and represent
the circles as follows:
(dx + ey + fz)(ax + by + cz) + g(ayz + bzx +
cxy) = 0
(hx + iy + jz)(ax + by + cz) + k(ayz + bzx +
cxy) = 0
(lx + my + nz)(ax + by + cz) + p(ayz + bzx +
cxy) = 0

Then the radical center is the point

Consider a point J on the radical axis, and let its distances
to B and V be denoted as d1 and d2 , respectively. Since

J must have the same power with respect to both circles,

g k p
g k p
g
it follows that
det e i m : det f j n : det d
f j n
d h l
e
d21 r12 = d22 r22
where r1 and r2 are the radii of the two given circles. By
the Pythagorean theorem, the distances d1 and d2 can be
expressed in terms of x1 , x2 and L, the distance from J to
K

5.6 Notes
[1] Johnson (1960), pp. 3132.
[2] Johnson (1960), pp. 3233.
[3] Johnson (1960), p. 32.

L2 + x21 r12 = L2 + x22 r22

By cancelling L2 on both sides of the equation, the equation can be written

[4] Johnson (1960), pp. 2021.

[5] Johnson (1960), p. 41.
[6] Johnson (1960), p. 21.

k p
h l .
i m

5.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

17

5.7 References
Johnson RA (1960). Advanced Euclidean Geometry: An elementary treatise on the geometry of the
triangle and the circle (reprint of 1929 edition by
Houghton Miin ed.). New York: Dover Publications. pp. 3143. ISBN 978-0-486-46237-0.

5.8 Further reading

Ogilvy, C. S. (1990). Excursions in Geometry.
Dover. pp. 1723. ISBN 0-486-26530-7.
Coxeter HSM, Greitzer SL (1967). Geometry Revisited. Washington: MAA. pp. 3136, 160161.
ISBN 978-0-88385-619-2.
Clark Kimberling, Triangle Centers and Central
Triangles, Congressus Numerantium 129 (1998) i
xxv, 1295.

5.9 External links

Weisstein, Eric W., Radical line, MathWorld.
Weisstein,
Eric
MathWorld.

W.,

Animation at Cut-the-knot

Chordal

theorem,

18

CHAPTER 5. RADICAL AXIS

5.10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

5.10.1

Text

Fermat point Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat_point?oldid=665306780 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Jitse Niesen, Altenmann, Gandalf61, Filemon, Tosha, Giftlite, Lemontea, Oleg Alexandrov, HannsEwald, Mathbot, Maxal, YurikBot, MadMax, Yahya AbdalAziz, Thiseye, Reyk, Bluezy, SmackBot, Melchoir, Chris the speller, Kostmo, Wolever, Thijs!bot, Mhaitham.shammaa, Spencer, Dryke,
MER-C, David Eppstein, Zolden, R'n'B, Ttwo, Krishnachandranvn, Policron, Pleasantville, Amikake3, MRFS, Rei-bot, Clark Kimberling,
AlleborgoBot, Sh2662, SieBot, BotMultichill, This, that and the other, Rumping, Mild Bill Hiccup, Gciriani, Kyslyi, Gnowor, Addbot,
Tcharvin, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Kiranashtekar, Geometryfan, Se0808, HRoestBot, Duoduoduo, EmausBot, Dewritech, Perfectionatic, Mkagenius, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Widr, Yuen.teddy, ChrisGualtieri, Francis Seelig, Profeshermyguad, Eightcirclestheorem, Loraof
and Anonymous: 38
Nagel point Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagel_point?oldid=674975595 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Tosha, Ary29, Mathbot,
SmackBot, Melchoir, MightyWarrior, Flowerpotman, Keyi, Mhaitham.shammaa, David Eppstein, Krishnachandranvn, Aburov, Clark Kimberling, Inductiveload, SieBot, Alexbot, Kyslyi, Addbot, MrOllie, Yobot, Citation bot, Geometryfan, FrescoBot, Citation bot 1, Duoduoduo,
ClueBot NG, Pasinw007zaa, Circlesareround, CitationCleanerBot, BattyBot, Khazar2, and Anonymous: 4
Brocard points Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brocard_points?oldid=622809255 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Gandalf61,
Giftlite, Smjg, Joseph Myers, Discospinster, BlastOButter42, Oleg Alexandrov, SmackBot, Melchoir, ChazYork, Thijs!bot,
Mhaitham.shammaa, Sluzzelin, Richard Bartholomew, David Eppstein, Krishnachandranvn, Clark Kimberling, Randomblue, Alexbot,
Kiensvay, Addbot, AndersBot, PV=nRT, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Groovenstein, Jbogaarts, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 9
Pole and polar Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_and_polar?oldid=674245382 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Docu, Rgdboer,
Ketiltrout, Siddhant, SmackBot, RDBury, Nbarth, Ohconfucius, WillowW, David Eppstein, Infovarius, TomyDuby, LokiClock, TXiKiBoT,
Geometry guy, Kmhkmh, SieBot, Addbot, AgadaUrbanit, Zorrobot, Joule36e5, Citation bot, Xqbot, DSisyphBot, FrescoBot, Jonesey95,
EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Bamyers99, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jhncls, WillemienH, Loraof and Anonymous: 8
Radical axis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_axis?oldid=612983257 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Jitse Niesen, Robbot,
Keenan Pepper, Oleg Alexandrov, Rjwilmsi, King of Hearts, Paul White, SmackBot, Mecrazywong, Debaser583, WillowW, Thijs!bot,
David Eppstein, TXiKiBoT, Clark Kimberling, Jtico, Mild Bill Hiccup, Addbot, Rubinbot, Citation bot, RibotBOT, Citation bot 1, Tal
physdancer, Rausch, Bernard Teo, Anita5192, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 4

5.10.2

Images

File:Brocard_point.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Brocard_point.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: David Eppstein
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Conjugate_points_and_lines.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Conjugate_points_and_lines.svg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: WillowW
File:Extouch_Triangle_and_Nagel_Point.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Extouch_Triangle_and_
Nagel_Point.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Self-Made using Inkscape. Original artist: Inductiveload
File:Fermat_Point.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Fermat_Point.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: The source is licensed under the same license as the image. ; Feel free to edit, x, or improve it! Original artist: Lemontea
File:Fermat_Point_Proof.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Fermat_Point_Proof.svg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No
machine-readable author provided. Lemontea~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Fermat_Point_Scope.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Fermat_Point_Scope.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: MRFS
File:Incidence_poles_polars.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Incidence_poles_polars.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: WillowW
File:Isogonic_centres_and_vesicae_piscis.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Isogonic_centres_and_
vesicae_piscis.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rumping
File:Pole_and_polar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Pole_and_polar.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: WillowW
File:Pool_poollijn.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Pool_poollijn.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Jhncls
File:Pool_poollijn_eig.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Pool_poollijn_eig.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jhncls
File:Radical_axis_algebraic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Radical_axis_algebraic.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: WillowW
File:Radical_axis_construction.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Radical_axis_construction.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: WillowW
File:Radical_axis_intersecting_circles.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Radical_axis_intersecting_
circles.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: WillowW
File:Radical_axis_orthogonal_circles.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Radical_axis_orthogonal_
circles.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: WillowW

5.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

19

File:Radical_center.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Radical_center.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0

Contributors: Own work Original artist: WillowW
File:Two_circles_antihomothetic_points.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Two_circles_
antihomothetic_points.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: WillowW

5.10.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0