Steel Manf Roadmap 2001

Steel Industry
Technology Roadmap
December 2001
Acknowledgements
The Roadmap update was led by AISIs Strategic Planning for Research and Development committee under
the chairmanship of Mark Atkinson (2000) and Robert Kolarik (2001).
Special Thanks to:
Debo Aichbhaumik
Mark Atkinson
Lori Brown
Michael Byrne
Nick Cerwin
Isaac Chan
Alan Cramb
Tom Danjczek
Raymond Fryan
Robert E. Greuter
William Heenan
Ralph Hayden
Jeremy A. T. Jones
Lawrence Kavanagh
Volodymyr Kochura
Robert Kolarik
Peter Koros
B. V. Lakshminarayana
Dave Lockmeyer
Dennis McCutcheon
Eugene Mizikar
William Obenchain
Ian OReilly
Edward Patula
Peter Salmon Cox
Richard Shultz
Rodney Simpson
Howard Snyder
Bruce Steiner
The AISI Committee on Manufacturing Technology
The AISI Committee on Environment
This roadmap was prepared with the help of Diane McBee and Nancy Margolis of Energetics, Incorporated
with support from the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Industrial Technologies. Cover Photos courtesy
of Inland Steel; photographer Ed Nagel, Chicago.
Steel Technology Roadmap
Contents
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Process Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Cokemaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Cokemaking R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Ironmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Blast Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.2 Direct Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.3 Iron Smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.4 Ironmaking Research and Development Needs and Opportunties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Blast Furnace R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Direct Reduction R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Iron Smelting R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Steelmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 BOF Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.2 Other Related Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.3 BOF Steelmaking Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
BOF Furnace R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Other BOF R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Steelmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.1 Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.2 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.3 EAF Steelmaking Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
EAF Raw Materials R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
EAF Energy R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5 Ladle Refining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5.1 Ladle Refining Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Ladle Refining R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.1 Generic Casting Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.2 Slab, Billet, and Bloom Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.3 Strip Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.4 Casting Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
General Casting R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Slab, Billet, and Bloom Casting R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Strip Casting R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.7 Rolling and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.7.1 Rolling and Finishing-General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.7.2 Rolling and Finishing Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.7.3 Rolling and Finishing Rod and Bar Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.7.4 Rolling and Finishing Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Rolling and Finishing R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
ii
2.8
Refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.1 Refractory Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Refractory SEN R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Refractory - Dewatering of Monolithics R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Refractory - Castable Development R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Refractory Recycling R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Refractory Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
48
49
50
50
51
51
3 Iron Unit Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1 By-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Ironmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 Steelmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 Rolling and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.4 Other By-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.5 By-products Research and Development Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron & Steel Making Slags R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron & Steel Making Dusts and Sludges R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rolling and Finishing R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Obsolete Scrap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Municipal Waste Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Automotive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.5 Other Durables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.6 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.7 Obsolete Scrap Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Automotive & Scrap Appliances R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Containers and Construction R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
56
58
60
68
72
73
73
74
75
76
76
76
77
78
80
80
80
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81
4 Environmental Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 Cokemaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Cokemaking Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Cokemaking Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3 Cokemaking By-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4 Hazardous Cokemaking Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.5 Cokemaking Environmental Trends and Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.6 New and Emerging Cokemaking Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.7 Cokemaking Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cokemaking R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Ironmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Ironmaking Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Ironmaking Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Ironmaking By-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4 Hazardous Ironmaking Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5 Ironmaking Environmental Trends and Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.6 New and Emerging Ironmaking Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.7 Ironmaking Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ironmaking R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
84
84
85
86
86
86
87
87
87
87
87
89
89
90
90
91
91
91
iii
4.3
Steelmaking - Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

4.3.1 BOF Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3.2 BOF Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.3.3 BOF By-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3.4 Hazardous BOF Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3.5 BOF Steelmaking Environmental Trends and Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3.6 New and Emerging BOF Steelmaking Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.3.7 BOF Steelmaking Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
BOF R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4 Steelmaking - Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.4.1 EAF Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.4.2 EAF Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.4.3 EAF By-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.4.4 Hazardous EAF Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.4.5 EAF Steelmaking Environmental Trends and Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.4.6 New and Emerging EAF Steelmaking Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.4.7 EAF Steelmaking Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
EAF R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.5 Refining and Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.5.1 Refining and Casting Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.5.2 Refining and Casting Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.5.3 Refining and Casting By-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.5.4 Hazardous Refining and Casting Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.5.5 Refining and Casting Environmental Trends and Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.5.6 New and Emerging Refining and Casting Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5.7 Refining and Casting Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Refining and Casting R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.6 Forming and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.6.1 Forming and Finishing Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.6.2 Forming and Finishing Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.6.3 Forming and Finishing By-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.6.4 Hazardous Forming and Finishing Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.6.5 Forming and Finishing Trends and Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.7 Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.7.1 Coating Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.7.2 Coating Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.7.3 Coating By-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.7.4 Hazardous Coating Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.7.5 Coating Environmental Trends and Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.7.6 New and Emerging Coating Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.7.7 Coating Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Coating R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.8 Refractory Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.8.1 Refractory Environmental Trends and Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.8.2 New and Emerging Refractory Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.8.3 Refractory Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Refractory Recycling R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
iv
4.9
Nitrogen Oxides and Steelmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.1 NOx Environmental Trends and Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.2 NOx Technological Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.3 New and Emerging NOx Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.4 NOx Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NOx R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
118
118
119
119
120
120
5 Product Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1 Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Steel Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2 Gauge Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3 Lighter-Gauge TMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.4 Plating, Coating, and Surface Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.5 Product Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.6 Container Products Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Containers R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Light Gauge TMP Containers R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Container Plating and Coating R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Container Product Application R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Light-Gauge Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2 Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.3 Construction Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Construction Products R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pipe R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tanks and Pressure Vessels R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Construction Equipment & Machinery R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Building & Bridges R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Automotive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 Sheet Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2 Bar Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.3 Automotive Research and Development Needs and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Automotive Steel Sheet R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Automotive Steel Sheet: Cost Reduction R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Automotive Steel Sheet: Weight Reduction R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Automotive Bar Steel R&D Needs Summary Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
121
122
122
123
124
124
126
127
127
127
128
128
128
128
132
136
137
138
138
139
140
141
144
148
149
149
149
150
151
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
List of Figures
Chapter 2
Figure 2-1: Overview of Steelmaking Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 2-2: EAF Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Figure 2-3: EAF Energy Input/Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Figure 2-4: Current and Potential Future Casting Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Chapter 3
Figure 3-1: Comparison of U.S. Recycling Rate of Steel and Other Materials, 1999-2000 . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3-2: Status of Iron Unit Recycling, U.S. 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3-3: Recycling Iron Units by Source, U.S. 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3-4: By-Product Iron Units, U.S. 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3-5: Major By-Products: Generation Rates, Chemistries, & Barriers to Recycling . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3-6: Ironmaking Iron Units, U.S. 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3-7: Steelmaking Iron Units, U.S. 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3-8: Rolling and Finishing Iron Units, U.S. 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3-9: Obsolete Scrap Iron Units, U.S. 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3-10: Appliance Scrap Iron Units, U.S. 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3-11: Iron Units by Vehicle Type, U.S. 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3-12: Iron Units by Vehicle Component, U.S. 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3-13: Container Scrap Iron Units, U.S. 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
55
55
56
57
58
60
69
76
76
77
78
79
Chapter 4
Figure 4-1: Cokemaking Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 4-2: Sintering Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 4-3: Blast Furnace Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 4-4: BOF Steelmaking Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 4-5: EAF Steelmaking Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 4-6: Refining and Casting Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 4-7: Forming and Finishing Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Figure 4-8: Coating Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Chapter 5
Figure 5-1: Materials Content of the Average Family Car, 1978-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Figure 5-2: Steels and Aluminum Used in the Average Family Car, 1978 - 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figure 5-3: Objective of Power Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
vi
List of Tables
Executive Summary
Table ES-1: Energy Consumption Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table ES-2: Timeline for Process Development Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table ES-3: Timeline for Iron Unit Recycling Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table ES-4: Timeline for Environmental Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xii
xiii
xiv
xv
Chapter 1
Table 1-1: Energy Consumption Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 1-2: Future Steel Production Forecast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 1-3: Timeline for Process Development Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 1-4: Timeline for Iron Unit Recycling Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 1-5: Timeline for Environmental Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
2
3
4
6
Chapter 2
Table 2-1: Current and Future Projection of Blast Furnace Ironmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Table 2-2: Major Direct Reduction Processes and their Current Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Table 2-3: Process Characteristics and Status for Direct Smelting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Chapter 3
Table 3-1: Slags, Dusts, Sludges and Scale Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Chapter 4
Table 4-1: Comparative Chemical Composition of Dust from Electric Arc Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Table 4-2: Quantity and Value of US Refractory Production, 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Chapter 5
Table 5-1: Manufacturing Costs of Steel and Aluminum Auto Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
vii
Acronyms
AC
AISI
ASTM
BAT
BCT
BPT
BB
BF
BOF
CAD
CAFE
CAM
CFCs
CMP
DC
DOC
DOE
DRI
EAF
EG
ELG
EPA
EPRI
FRP
HAP
HBI
HPS
HTMR
IISI
IR
KVA
LAER
MACT
NT
NTHM
OEMs
PNGV
RCRA
RHF
RKF
SEN
SMA
SRI
TFS
TMP
TRIP
Alternating current
American Iron and Steel Institute
American Society for Testing and Materials
Best Achievable Technology
Best Conventional Technology
Best Practical Technology
Basic box
Blast furnace
Basic oxygen furnace
Computer-aided design
Corporate Average Fuel Economy
Computer-aided manufacturing
Chlorinated Fluorocarbons
Center for Materials Production (EPRI)
Direct current
Dilute oxygen combustion
Department of Energy
Direct reduced iron
Electric arc furnace
Electrogalvanized
Effluent Limitations Guidelines
Environmental Protection Agency
Electric Power Research Institute
Fiberglass-reinforced plastic
Hazardous air pollutants
Hot briquetted iron
High-performance steels
High-temperature metals recovery
International Iron and Steel Institute
Infrared
Kilovolt-ampere
Lowest Achievable Emission Rate
Maximum Achievable Control Technology
Net Tons
Net Tons of hot metal
Original equipment manufacturers
Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Rotary Hearth Furnace
Rotary Kiln Furnace
Submerged entry nozzle
Steel Manufacturers Association
Steel Recycling Institute
Tin-free steel
Tin mill products
Transformation-induced plasticity
viii
TSS
ULC
ULSAB
VOC
Total Suspended Solids

Ultra-low carbon
Ultra-light steel auto body
Volatile organic compound
ix
Intentionally Blank
Introduction
In 1995, the United States steel industry reached consensus on broad goals for the future and published its vision
in Steel: A National Resource for the Future. In 1998, the industry mapped out the technology path to achieving
that vision in the Steel Industry Technology Roadmap. This landmark document describes the industrys
priorities, key milestones, and performance targets for collaborative R&D. Technology roadmaps are dynamic
documents; regular updating is essential to reflect important changes in the industry and the world in which it
operates. This document represents the first major update of the roadmap in response to technological advances,
changes in the global market, and new technical insights.
The Technology Roadmap is organized into four sections, each focusing on a critical industry area. These areas
include: process development, iron unit recycling, environmental leadership, and product properties.
Steel Industry Energy Targets

The North American steel industry is already quite mature and energy efficient, and tremendous energy
improvements, like those seen in the 1980s and 90s, will be difficult to achieve in the future. In order to select
the most promising areas for R&D, leading technical experts were commissioned to study the fundamental
processes of steel making and processing to identify theoretical and practical energy minima. For each major
product processing route, those studies were then used to develop the energy consumption targets for 2010 and
2020 as shown in Table 1-1. Table 1-2 shows projected steel industry production in 2020.
Opportunities for energy savings involve the application of technology to measure, control, and improve
processes. Some will produce nearer net-shape product to maximize yield; others will yield products with
optimum as-processed microstructure and properties to avoid traditional post-processing heat treatments. Still
other opportunities will relate to the capture and re-use of the energy lost in current processes. Some
opportunities, related primarily to cost and the environment, involve the production and recycling of iron units.
This Roadmap outlines a broad spectrum of R&D opportunities leading to the steel mill of the future. That mill
will be comprised of efficient processes that approach minimum fundamental energy consumption limits. By
achieving some of the key initiatives, the steel industry will meet the targets set for the years 2010 and 2020.
Chapter 1: Introduction
Process Development
Research priorities and technical barriers to success are identified for each of the major steelmaking processes
from cokemaking through rolling and finishing. Where appropriate, targets and timelines for critical
technologies have been established.
Charting a course for future process development is particularly complicated for the steel industry of the early
twenty-first century. The two different methods for producing steel - integrated (ore-based) and electric arc
furnace (scrap-based) - are converging in response to the changing cost balance of raw materials, scrap and
energy. Technical developments are needed to create a furnace design that will maximize the use of energy
inputs, optimize productivity, and allow flexibility in charge materials and fuels.
Further challenges include the global restructuring of the industry, the current high cost of energy, and the
availability of raw materials in low-cost labor regions of the world. Integrated steelmaking technologies, i.e.
coke ovens and blast furnaces, are vulnerable because of their environmental issues and high investment cost.
Reduced access to capital has made it difficult for many steelmakers to reinvest in these facilities.
Approximately 20 blast furnaces in North America are in need of a major rebuild in the short or mid term,
requiring a minimum investment in excess of $50 million each. Some of these blast furnaces will be retired, and
because of the expense, it is unlikely that any new blast furnaces will be constructed.
While North America, and the United States in particular, seems to be an obvious location for new coal-based
ironmaking technologies to replace blast furnaces, no such revolutionary technology is likely to emerge in the
short or mid term because no integrated steelmakers are currently pursuing this route. To take hold in the United
States, these processes will have to compete economically with electric furnaces charged with a combination of
scrap, DRI, and/or pig iron.
An exciting new technology under development for steel casting and finishing is direct strip casting. The
technology eliminates rolling and reheating and has already proven itself on the small scale by producing certain
flat-rolled products. This potentially revolutionary technology could greatly reduce the barriers to entry and
economies of scale to find an important niche in steel production. It could also open new markets for steel by
making possible new steel grades and fine-grain structures.
Although energy efficiency gains from alternative iron making and smelting technologies will provide only
minimal, if any, improvements over the continuously evolving blast furnace, their development will likely still
occur because of environmental pressures and reduced capital availability.
Table 1-3 indicates the technology needs for process development. They should be read as "The steel industry
is in need of technology developments to..." Clearly, the cost of acquisition and implementation must be
economically justifiable. The desirable timeframe for achieving the highest priority items is indicated at the
right.
* The items in the table should be read as the steel industry is in need of technology developments to... The cost of
acquiring and implementing any new technology must be economically justifiable for it to achieve widespread adoption
in the industry.
Iron Unit Recycling

Steel is the most recycled material on earth. While this recycling record has made steel the environmentally
preferred material, more must be accomplished to identify and implement cost-effective methods for retaining
all possible iron units within the production-use-recycle life cycle. Successful management will reduce the need
to generate virgin iron units to replace lost units and will reduce the growing costs and environmental impacts
of by-product treatment and disposal.
Several technical hurdles must be overcome to further increase the recycling rate. In scrap recycling, sources
of iron units are limited to obsolete consumer goods and construction materials. Better separation techniques
offer the greatest opportunity to capture those iron units.
Increased recycling of by-product wastes requires significant advances in technology and presents one of the the
largest opportunities for furtheriron unit recovery. The high-iron by-products, such as dusts, sludges, and scales,
have an attractive recycling path into the blast furnace or the BOF/EAF. Current technologies offer limited
ability to use fine materials in large quantities, however, and R&D is needed to develop agglomerates with the
required strength and properties. The alternate approach of sintering will be used when improved processing
and end product quality outweigh the capital and operating costs.
Although uses for low-iron bearing wastes, such as slags, are well developed, they represent most of the iron
units lost in the product life cycle. The suitability of slags for those applications is decreasing as compositional
issues mount. Such technical issues will have to be solved to retain those uses, or find ways to recapture the iron
units.
Table 1-4 indicates the technology needs in the area of iron unit management and a desirable timeline for
achieving the highest priority items.
* The items in the table should be read as the steel industry is in need of technology developments
to... The cost of acquiring and implementing any new technology must be economically justifiable for it
to achieve widespread adoption in the industry.
Environmental Leadership
The North American steel industry is committed to the protection of human health and the environment. It
promotes responsible corporate and public policies that conserve energy and natural resources while sustaining
a sound economic environment for growth.
In response to the national public call for clean air, clean water, and the responsible management of hazardous
waste, the steel industry has met the challenge of complying with national health-based standards, investing more
than $7 billion in environmental controls over the past 30 years. In a typical year, iron and steel plants dedicate
roughly 15% of capital investments to environmental projects. The steel industrys commitment to
environmental programs has yielded significant progress. Many materials that would have been disposed of as
solid or hazardous wastes in previous years are now routinely recycled within steel plants.
Since the early 1970s, the industrys discharge of air and water pollutants has been reduced by well over 90%.
As a result, the quality of air in Americas steelmaking cities and the quality of bodies of water near U.S. steel
plants have improved greatly in recent decades. Today, over 95% of the water used for steel processing is
recycled.
Recycled steel accounts for about two-thirds of the steel produced in the United States, and programs are
promoting even greater recycling of iron units. Progress is also being made in recycling spent refractories to
reuse as much as possible and avoid landfilling.
Despite significant progress, steel-relatedenvironmental issues will continue to be the focus of policy debates,
legislation, and regulation. Further improvements in pollution prevention technologies are needed for iron and
steel mills to reduce costs, improve profitability, and facilitate compliance with changing federal regulations.
As stated in the industrys vision for the future, its environmental goal is to achieve further reductions in air
and water emissions and generation of hazardous waste, and to develop processes designed to avoid pollution
rather than control and treat it. It is the steel industrys intention to integrate sound environmental policies,
programs, and practices into each business unit as an essential element of management and to work cooperatively
with communities to enhance environmental performance.
At the same time, the industry is committed to remaining a viable, competitive force in the international
marketplace. It will continue to strive for the development of sound, cost-effective environmental laws and
regulations, emphasizing the need for effective and realistic risk assessment and cost-benefit analysis as an
important part of setting environmental priorities, practices, and standards.
Table 1-5 indicates the industry's technology needs related to the environment and a timeline for achieving the
goals.
* The items in the table should be read as the steel industry is in need of technology developments to... The cost of
acquiring and implementing any new technology must be economically justifiable for it to achieve widespread adoption in the
industry.
Process Development
Steelmaking is a dynamic, ever-changing industry. The manufacture of steel involves many processes that
consume raw or recycled materials from around the world, producing thousands of products and by-products (see
Figure 2-1). Over the past 150 years, steelmaking processes have improved dramatically. Some processes, such
as the Bessemer process, flourished initially but were then replaced completely. Other processes, such as the
blast furnace, electric arc furnace, and hot strip mill, have evolved continuously over the decades and are likely
to remain a part of steelmaking in the future. Currently, the two major steelmaking routes use either the basic
oxygen furnace (BOF) or the electric arc furnace (EAF) or some combination of the two.
Advances in steelmaking, including the EAF and BOF processes, have historically evolved in response to factors
such as industrial expansion, world wars, technological innovation, competition and sheer creativity. Global
competition requires that North American steelmakers be low cost providers to the market, and it is this rule of
economic survival that will drive innovation. The plan for that innovation is outlined in the Technology
Roadmap. This chapter describes, process by process, the technical advances required for competitive advantage.
2.1 Cokemaking
Metallurgical coke is an important part of the integrated iron and steelmaking process because it provides the
carbon and heat required to chemically reduce iron ore in blast furnaces to molten pig iron (hot
metal). Because of its strength, coke also supports the column of materials in the blast furnace, and its shape
provides permeability for gases to penetrate the material bed.
Despite the importance of metallurgical coke, naturally aging coke plants, tightening environmental regulations
(which create higher production costs), and shutdowns threaten to reduce production capacity in North America.
This gap between demand and reduced capacity is projected to exceed more than 12 million tons annually over
the next 20 years, according to studies by World Steel Dynamics and CRU International.
Chapter 2: Process Development
Figure 2-1. Overview of Steelmaking Processes
This gap also presents a challenge for coke manufacturers to explore new and emerging technologies that
improve environmental controls at existing facilities and lend themselves to application at new ones. The need
to improve controls will become more urgent as the demand for steel grows at an anticipated 2% annually over
the next 10 years.
Metallurgical coke is usually produced by baking coal (coking) in a battery of large coke ovens, multiple vertical
chambers separated by heating flues. A blend of metallurgical coals is charged into ports (holes) on the top of
the ovens and is then heated at high temperature in the absence of air (to prevent combustion).
After hours of static heating at a high temperature during which the coal passes through a plastic stage, the
volatiles are driven from the coal to form coke. When coking is completed, a pusher machine on one end of an
oven removes the oven door and rams the hot coke out of an opened door at the other end and into a mobile
container car. The hot coke is then quenched, either dry or with water.
As the coal turns into coke, the volatile content is recovered in the by-product plant where it is made into a
variety of chemicals including tar, light oil, ammonia, and others. Until the 1950s, the value of these byproducts exceeded that of the coke. However, the advent of petroleum refining has driven the price of these
chemicals to such low levels that today the coke oven by-product plant is merely a very costly pollution control
device.
Trends and Drivers. The entire cokemaking process, which has changed very little over its more than 100-year
history, is subject to strict environmental regulations. These regulations and changes in steelmaking force higher
production costs or shutdowns, pressuring the steel industry to improve the cokemaking process. Aging
facilities, primarily in developed countries, also need to be replaced, and combined with tightening of
environmental regulations, these factors are reducing the amount of coke produced. Studies by World Steel
Dynamics and CRU International forecast a worldwide shortage of metallurgical coke by the year 2005. For
example, the United States and Canada currently produce 22 million short tons of metallurgical coke each year.
Normal aging of facilities will require the replacement of at least 12 million tons over the next 20 years.
Technological Challenges. Cokemaking is subject to government regulations to control emissions during
charging, coking, discharging (pushing), and quenching. The primary concern over emissions focuses on the
doors at either end of the ovens and on the oven charging ports atop the battery because improperly sealed doors
and charging port lids allow gases to escape.
By-product processing presents additional environmental control issues for cokemakers. Throughout the
cokemaking process, organic compounds are recovered as gas, tar, oil, and other liquid products for reuse or
conversion into by-products for sale or internal use. Some of the recovered compounds, characterized as
carcinogenic, are also classified as health hazards and therefore require special processing. In addition, the value
of cokemaking by-products has decreased significantly and are generally uneconomical to recover.
New and Emerging Technologies. The need to improve environmental controls for existing cokemaking
facilities and to find more cost-effective methods of producing high quality metallurgical coke has prompted
several new and emerging technologies.
New technologies include the following:

The European Jumbo Coking Reactor has reconfigured batteries for larger individual batch process
ovens. Recent studies have indicated that capital costs for the technology, also referred to as the Single
Chamber System, were significantly greater than conventional technology, and therefore, interest in
utilizing the technology is minimal.
Non-recovery cokemaking is a proven technology derived from the Jewell-Thompson beehive oven
design. Beehive ovens operate under negative pressure, eliminating by-products by incinerating the offgases. The technology also includes waste heat boilers, which transfer heat from the waste products of
combustion to high-pressure steam for plant use and for conversion into electricity.
The Coal Technology Corporation is using a formcoke process that produces coke briquettes from noncoking coals and waste coals. The process is currently referred to as the Antaeus Continuous Coke
process, named for the Australian company which purchased the patent rights.
The Japanese SCOPE21 project, still in its early stages of development, is using a formcoke process that
combines briquetted formcoke and improvements in existing batteries. With this technology,
cokemaking is performed in three sections: coal pretreatment, carbonization, and coke upgrading. The
project is being developed as part of an eight-year research program.
Emerging technologies include the following:
The Ukrainian State Research Institute for Carbochemistry is testing a continuous cokemaking process
using a vertical shaft structure and a piston to push metallurgical coke blends through the heated zones.
A pilot unit is said to exist at Kharkov.
A Calderon Cokemaking Technology under development in the United States involves continuously
producing coke from metallurgical coal and cleaning and cracking of the gases under completely sealed
conditions. The cleaned gases are used as a syngas.
Particulates are emitted during the charging and

discharging process of conventional coke oven
batteries as well as in coke cooling and
preparation of the blast furnace charge. Cost
effective coke quenching and dust collection
systems are required.
Cokemaking
<
<
<
R & D Needs
Research and Development Needs and

Opportunities. The process of converting coal to
coke produces by-product gases and liquids.
These materials must be contained and handled in
an environmentally safe manner. For those that
contain valuable constituents, the components
must be separated and safely processed and/or
sold.
10
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Sealed, continuous coking process

Cost-effective coke quenching and dust collection
systems
New cokemaking processes to produce valuable,
environmentally friendly by-products
Ways to extend life of existing coke plants.
Improved process control
Ability to use noncoking coals and low value
carbonaceous material
Improved refractory repair technology
Particulate and sulfur control
Methods to produce stronger coke
Upgraded value of coke oven by-products
Improved form coke manufacturing processes
Development of comprehensive economic
models incorporating coal and batter operating
parameters
New cokemaking processes are needed to shift the by-product compositions to more valuable products. The offgas from a coke plant could be used to produce direct reduced iron or serve as a feedstock for chemical processes.
Also, technologies for extending the lives of existing coke plants should be developed.
On-line data collection is required to optimize process sequencing for highest energy efficiency and lowest cost
coke production. The operation of conventional by-product plants or syngas-producing plants could be improved
with the implementation of modern distributed control systems. However, research is needed to develop plant
simulations and sophisticated control algorithms.
The industry needs take advantage of the availability of low value carbonaceous materials. The better utilization
of contracting coals will lead to lesser wall pressure resulting increased oven life and higher productivity. The
practice of using of low value carbon materials such as petroleum coke, coke breeze, coal fines, coal tar, and
noncoking coals should be adopted to lower the operating costs.
Comprehensive economic models need to be developed encompassing coal quality and coke oven operating
parameters and maximizing the use of low value carbon materials.
2.2 Ironmaking
Ironmaking involves the separation of iron from iron ore. Ironmaking is not only the first step in steelmaking
but also the most capital- and energy-intensive process in the production of steel. There are three basic methods
of producing iron: the blast furnace method, direct reduction, and iron smelting.
The blast furnace produced the vast majority of iron in the United States in 1999. The only exceptions were three
Midrex Direct Reduction plants: Georgetown Steel, Corus Mobile, and American Iron Reduction, which together
produced about 1.7 tons of iron in 1999, approximately 3% of the total iron produced in the United States.
In the next 15 to 20 years there will be a shift away from the blast furnace to new and developing technologies.
In the year 2015, the blast furnace will continue to be the major process used to produce iron in the United States,
but the blast furnace will be significantly improved in terms of fuel rate, fuel source, and productivity.
Direct reduction, including both gas- and coal-based processes, will likely grow to include 10 to 15% of the total
iron production in the United States. Direct reduction products will be primarily used as a scrap substitute in the
EAF, while some forms may be used in the BOF and blast furnace. Direct smelting processes could also
represent a significant portion of production. These processes will replace older blast furnaces, add incremental
hot metal to integrated plants, or possibly produce iron for use in an EAF. Recycled iron units such as blast
furnace and steelmaking dusts will supply a significant amount of iron, possibly 1 to 2% through processing via
direct reduction or smelting operations. Chapter 3 deals with recycled iron units in more detail.
Ironmaking may also be replaced by importing slabs and coils or expanded use of the EAF and thin slab casting
to produce flat rolled products. However, improved manufacturing techniques may continue to decrease the
amount of prompt steel scrap resulting in a further increase in residual content. Therefore the use of DRI and
pig iron in the EAF is likely to rise.
11
2.2.1
Blast Furnace
Currently, the approximate 55 million tons of blast furnace hot metal produced in the United States annually
requires about 23 million tons of coke.
Trends and Drivers. By 2015, it is anticipated that many of the smaller, older furnaces will be shut down while
productivity in the larger furnaces increases. Most likely, no new blast furnaces will be built in the United States.
It has been estimated that by 2015 blast furnace production will decrease to 42 to 46 million tons, which will
require only 14 to 18 million tons of coke (Fruehan 1996). Iron from scrap, direct reduced iron, and smelter
metal will make up the remainder of the required iron units. Coal, oxygen, and, in some cases, natural gas
injection will increase, possibly supplying up to 50% of total furnace requirements. Specific productivity in the
blast furnace should also increase. The current and projected future performance of the blast furnace is given
in Table 2-1.
The major drivers for technological developments related to the blast furnace are to reduce its reliance on coke
and to extend campaign life to reduce capital costs of repairs. These goals will be achieved through increased
coal and natural gas injection. The other major concern related to the coke plant/blast furnace is the high capital
cost. However, since few if any will be built, the cost issue must eventually be solved with a more radical process
such as direct smelting. Other developments related to the blast furnace, such as gas recirculation and the oxygen
blast furnace, are not high priority.
a
Productivity with up to 5-10% reduced iron or scrap. Higher productions are possible with higher rates of scrap or DRI.
Source: Stubbles, 2000
12
The blast furnaces remaining in operation will need to improve their efficiency. One of the key factors to an
energy-efficient blast furnace operation is maintaining stability, which in turn is affected by consistent taphole
performance. Consistent performance of the taphole clay is required for stable taphole operation, and key to
maintaining the clay performance is its resistance to erosion and curing properties.
Technological Challenges. Technical barriers to replacing more coke with injected coal are:
The practical limit and limiting process for coal injection are not known precisely. The major challenge in
injecting more coal lies in the strength of the pellets. Pellets will be reduced with a gas of higher reducing
power, higher heating rate, and longer residence time. The specifications of iron ore quality must be reevaluated for the new practice. Furthermore, any new DRI product for the blast furnace must have
sufficient physical strength for the same reasons.
Since less coke is charged into the furnace, coke must be stronger. There is concern as to whether current
coke production methods can economically yield a coke of sufficient strength.
The lack of an economical process to produce partially reduced (50 to 75%) pellets or sinter is a barrier to
significantly increasing productivity.
Technology developments have outpaced modeling capabilities. There is no comprehensive blast furnace
model (including fluid flow and kinetics) or accompanying lower-cost sensors.
There is a lack of effective uses of process gas and sequestration of CO2.
New and Emerging Technologies. New and emerging blast furnace technologies include the injection of coal
and natural gas to displace coke, improved refractories, and new control technologies. The Japanese may have
developed a blast furnace model that includes fluid flow and kinetics. It may also be possible to develop other
attractive fuels, for example wood wastes or plastics.
2.2.2
Direct Reduction
For the purposes of this roadmap, direct reduction is defined as a process used to make solid iron products from
ore or pellets using natural gas or a coal-based reductant. Direct reduction processes can be divided into four
basic categories, provided in Table 2-2 along with some examples of each. Also given in Table 2-2 is the year
2000 annual production of each listed process and comments concerning the status of each.
Several of these direct reduction processes have been commercially available for over a decade and have been
optimized to a reasonable degree. The Midrex and HyL processes produce over 85% of direct reduced iron
worldwide (total world production was 47.6 million tons in 2000). However, these processes use pellets or lump
ore, have relatively high capital costs, and require relatively large production units (1 million tons per year) to
be economical. Incremental improvements are expected to be made.
Fluid bed, fines based processes are an additional technology, but except for FIOR, have yet to be proven long
term. Higher productivity and lower energy consumption are desirable, but difficult to achieve, as the processes
must operate at relatively low temperatures to prevent sticking.
Rotary Hearth Furnace (RHF), Rotary Kiln Furnace (RKF), and the Circofer fluid bed processes offer a coalbased option for reduced iron units. These processes are drawing more attention as the increased cost of natural
gas has made the gas-based processes unattractive in North America.
13
Trends and Drivers. There is a pressing need for virgin iron units as North American (N.A.) EAF capacity
continues to become a larger share of total N.A. steel production. However, recent and catastrophic increases
in natural gas prices have shut down all U.S. gas-based DRI plants. As a result, gas-based DRI processes are
not expected to be profitable in the United States anytime in the near term, dimming the prospect of additional
U.S.-based DRI capacity. Most likely, near-term U.S.-based DRI activity will center on captive coal-based RHF
units by either recycling waste oxides or combining recycling with smelting to produce liquid iron for the EAF.
The potential exists to develop a process that produces low-cost, partially reduced material (50 to 70% reduced
versus 85 to 95% for conventional processes) for use as a blast furnace feed. The trend toward implementation
of large, gas-based furnace processes and improvement of fluid-bed processes will continue offshore. In N.A.,
there is need for continued improvement in the economics and efficiency of coal-based technologies.
Technological Challenges. The gas-based shaft furnace processes are commercially available and further
improvements will be incremental. Barriers for fluid-bed processes are primarily related to productivity and
equipment, while those for the coal-based processes are related to the undesirable extra gangue and sulfur
associated with the coal reductant and the poor physical quality of the reduced iron product. Specific challenges
include:
Productivity of fluid-bed processes is not high enough. Better understanding of rate controlling steps and
optimization of process variables, including temperature and pressure, are needed. The influence of feed
material size consistency on the various processes, including iron carbide, is not fully defined.
There are engineering problems associated with the design of fluid-bed processes, including heat exchangers,
gas distribution systems, and reliability of compressors and valves.
Multi-stage reactors are used to improve energy efficiency in fluid bed processes. In systems with highly
reducing gases containing CO and H2, metal dusting occurs, causing metal failure. Generally small amounts
of H2S are used to control this phenomenon; however, neither the mechanism of metal dusting nor its control
are well understood.
The products produced by the rotary hearth processes FASTMET, INMETCO, and IDI contain large
quantities of gangue and sulfur which are associated with the coal reductant. The methods presently used
for de-ashing and desulfurizing coal prior to making the composite pellet for reduction are inadequate
because they are either too costly or they degrade the coal's properties. Improved methods for separation
of the hot reduced iron from the sulfur and gangue are also needed.
New and Emerging Technologies. Table 2-2 lists the status of selected direct reduction technologies.
14
Key:
RHF - Rotary Hearth Furnace
RKF - Rotary Kiln Furnace
* Note: The INMETCO and IDI processes include a smelting step and could also be classified under new smelting technology.
Source:
Midrex Technologies, Inc. 2000 World Direct Reduction Annual Statistics
2.2.3
Iron Smelting
The objective of iron smelting is to develop processes that produce liquid iron directly from coal and ore fines
or concentrate. Liquid iron is preferred to solid iron because there is no gangue and molten iron retains its
sensible heat. Coal is the fuel of choice, as opposed to natural gas, because of its abundance and lower cost. Use
of coal directly also would eliminate the need for blast furnace coke, a costly commodity in increasingly short
supply. The ability to use ore fines or concentrate could eliminate agglomeration costs. These new processes
should have a high smelting intensity or productivity. High productivity, combined with elimination of
cokemaking and ore agglomeration, will significantly reduce the system capital cost.
The COREX process, which is commercially available, does use coal directly, but is still capital-intensive,
requiring pellets or lump ore and producing excess energy that must be used for the process to be economical.
The new processes that appear to possess most of the required attributes are the iron bath smelting processes,
which have been under development over the past decade or so. These include the AISI Direct Steelmaking, the
15
Japanese DIOS (Direct Iron Ore Smelting), the Australian HIsmelt, the Russian ROMELT, the Hoogovens CCF
(Cyclone Converter Furnace) processes, the Italian CleanSmelt process (cyclone/smelter combination), and the
Brazilian TECNORED. These processes have been reviewed in numerous publications, and the basic
phenomena are fairly well known. Table 2-3 summarizes the characteristics and status of selected direct smelting
processes.
Trends and Drivers. The drivers for these new technologies are reduction in capital costs, elimination of
cokemaking, reduction in agglomeration requirements, and flexibility in location and economic size. Aside from
the already commercial COREX process, the remaining iron smelting processes have only reached the pilot or
demonstration stage. Commercialization is still 3 to 10 years away.
Successful pilot trials of several processes have led to recent plans for demonstration plants using the HIsmelt
and TECNORED concepts that can operate with or without prereduction. Other concepts favorably viewed
include cyclone technology for prereduction combined with smelting technology similar to either the AISI or
DIOS processes. These concepts use fines and coal directly, have a single step to prereduce and preheat the ore,
and are energy efficient at reasonable levels of post combustion.
Technological Challenges. Before the successful commercialization of any iron smelting processes can occur,
several technical barriers must be overcome:
As smelter metal can contain two to three times as much sulfur as blast furnace hot metal, improved
methods for desulfurizing smelter metal are needed.
Efficient prereduction processes for fines and concentrates have not been demonstrated. Both the
cyclone and fluid bed technologies have promise, but have not been fully proven in direct coupling with
the smelting processes.
16
Process control technology must be developed for maintaining critical levels of char in the slag for
optimum reduction rates and for slag foaming control without decreasing post combustion.
Smelter off-gas should be used as much as possible, preferably within the process but perhaps as a fuel
for input in another process.
There are also several environmental issues that must be addressed. These are discussed in Chapter 4.
New and Emerging Technologies. Direct iron smelting represents an entirely new generation of ironmaking
technology. Selected processes are listed in Table 2-3.
2.2.4
Ironmaking Research and Development

Needs and Opportunities
Blast Furnace
<
<
R & D Needs
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Investigation of factors limiting coal injection and

methods of overcoming these limitations
Coal-oxygen injection systems that obtain more
complete coal combustion
Process to economically produce partially
reduced pellets or sinter
Comprehensive model of the blast furnace
Improved taphole clays and taphole/refractory
systems
Iron ore pellets for furnaces with high levels of
coal injection
Sequestration of CO2
Improved use of blast furnace off-gas
Use of substitute fuels, e.g. tars, light oil, wood
wastes, plastics
Coke rate reduction (per NTHM) through
injection of alternative fuels
Research of hot O2, which may increase the
injection rate/NTHM
Evaluation of the mini-blast furnaces ability to
viably resolve the coke strength issues
Determination of how much scrap or DRI units
can be charged to increase productivity
Along with continuing research of the direct

smelting technologies listed in Table 2-3, R&D
needs have been identified for the blast furnace,
direct reduction, and iron smelting as follows:
Blast Furnace
As listed in the text box, blast furnace R&D
needs are primarily based on incremental
improvements around current operating practices.
One key need for improving this process is the
development of a comprehensive model of the
blast furnace, including fluid flow and kinetics
and low-cost sensors to measure gas
composition, temperature, and bed permeability.
Such a model could help steelmakers optimize
in-plant coke oven and blast furnace off-gas
utilization, as well as evaluate recent tuyere
injection developments
Another blast furnace need is for improved raw material development. This includes new types of iron ore
pellets more suitable for blast furnaces with high levels of coal injection. In addition, a process is needed to
economically produce partially reduced pellets or sinter of sufficiently high physical strength.
17
Direct Reduction
Direct reduction development needs are focused
on improved understanding of the process.
Determination of the rate-controlling step and the
effect of operating variables on the rate of
reduction and carburization relevant to fluid-bed
processes is needed to increase productivity.
Fluid flow and kinetics in fluid-bed reactors
should also be investigated to improve
productivity and energy efficiency. Finally, the
phenomena of metal dusting and how to reduce
it as it applies to direct reduction processes needs
further investigation.
R & D Needs
Direct Reduction
<
<
<
<
<
Coal based direct reduction process that has

lower gangue and sulfur
Investigation of fluid flow and kinetics in fluid-bed
reactors
Understanding of fluid bed processing steps and
variables
Improved types of iron ore pellets and methods
to reduce sticking
Investigation of and how to reduce metal dusting
Iron Smelting
Iron Smelting
R & D Needs
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Understanding of and methods to increase post

combustion and heat transfer
Improved metal containing systems for smelters
Control models for smelting systems
Efficient methods of adding coal and pre-reduced
fines or concentrate
Low cost methods of desulfurizing smelter metal
Demonstration of cyclone technology
Investigation of coal and waste oxide injection
into the smelter or production of agglomerates
for smelting
Investigation of microwave reduction technology
Development of a cleaner coal or coal substitute
Control models and methodology improvements

are needed to advance iron smelting techniques.
One need is improved metal containing systems
for smelters, including new refractory and
energy-efficient water cooling systems. Control
models need to be developed for reduction, char
control, foaming, and post combustion/heat
transfer for smelting systems. Efficient methods
of adding coal and pre-reduced fines or
concentrate while maximizing the performance
of the smelter also need further work.
Other iron smelting needs include improved

understanding of synergies between processes.
For example, submerged arc furnace
technologies need to be further developed to take
advantage of the characteristics of reduced iron feed from RHFs. Also, opportunities exist to combine EAF and
submerged arc furnace technologies in developing a unique smelting furnace to most efficiently melt and refine
the RHF product.
2.3 Basic Oxygen Furnace Steelmaking

BOF steelmaking accounts for just under 60% of the liquid steel output in North America. While this figure may
decline with the growth of EAF use, the BOF will continue to be a major source of steel for many years. BOFs
include conventional top-blown furnaces, Q-BOP (bottom blown) furnaces, and various mixed blowing
configurations and inert gas bottom stirring modifications.
Because significantly higher new blast furnace capacity is not expected, steel plants must find ways to meet
demand by extending liquid pig iron production. One way to extend production is to optimize both blast
furnaces and BOFs, but technological challenges exist. Steelmakers are applying or experimenting with new and
emerging technologies that, with more R & D, could overcome challenges.
18
2.3.1
BOF Furnace
The predominant advantages of the BOF are very high production rates and low-residual-element, low-nitrogen
liquid steel tapping. The BOF is fed liquid pig iron, almost always from blast furnaces, in amounts ranging from
65 to 90% of the total metallic charge. The average pig iron is approximately 74% of the charge; the balance
is recycled scrap.
Efforts to improve BOF productivity and annual production capacity in recent years have included various
automation technologies to optimize the blast furnace and the BOF relationship, better use of secondary refining
processes (driven both by productivity and by new steel grades), and improved coordination with downstream
facilities.
Trends and Drivers. Advances in slag splashing that extend refractory life and use of post-combustion lances
have improved furnace availability. Relines are down to one per year per furnace or less; lining life is in the
range of 10,000 to 25,000 heats. Use of the post-combustion lance has reduced the time and effort involved in
controlling BOF mouth and lance skulls (a build-up of steel that occurs with use).
Increasing demand for ultra-low-carbon (ULC) steels has made secondary processes more important. Lower
interstitial element content in flat-rolled steel is a major worldwide trend. Many shops have focused on
coordination among the BOF, ladle treatment station, ladle refining arc furnace, steel desulfurization, and
degasser to achieve temperature and chemistry control and timely delivery to the caster. Some shops have found
that optimizing secondary processes helps productivity by allowing the BOF to aim for a wider target.
It may be possible to make ULC steel in the EAF route and much cheaper if tank degassing can be employed.
Tank degassing has been used by several plants to make ULC, but the cycle times are too long. Techniques to
improve the kinetics, cycle times, or logistics could reduce cost dramatically.
Another trend is hot metal desulfurization, usually done in the BOF transfer ladle. When 100% desulfurization
can be attained, the blast furnace can operate at higher hot-metal sulfur and lower fuel rates, which may reduce
hot metal costs.
Meanwhile, steelmakers constantly experiment with BOF oxygen lance configurations, oxygen batching and flux
additions practice to achieve better slag making and chemistry, better control of refractory wear, and higher
production rates. There is a gradual trend toward softer blowing, or blowing at a lower velocity, with more
oxygen nozzles (holes in the lance).
Technological Challenges. Slag splashing has increased furnace life to well beyond the life of the lower hoods.
To cope with this incompatibility, shops must consider new maintenance schedules for hoods, environmental
control equipment, and new hood materials.
Environmental standards are getting tougher, requiring better air-cleaning technologies for fugitive emission
control and in-shop work environments. Current environmental control equipment may not be adequate to meet
future standards.
Furnace vessel shell distortion and destruction during a long campaign must be overcome. Slag carryover from
furnace to ladle, a key to clean steel, should be controlled using electromagnetic sensors and other techniques.
This will improve the control and consistency of secondary treatment.
19
Many shops are beginning to feel the pinch of lower phosphorus specifications. Reducing the recycle of BOF
slag to sinter plants and blast furnace to reduce steel phosphorus has its benefits and its problems. While lowering
the recycle reduces steel phosphorus, it also increases the amount of slag for landfills as well as hot metal costs
by increasing the cost of replacing blast furnace charge materials. Using separate dephosphorization stations,
as in some Japanese shops, increases the liquid steel costs and adds another major source of emissions.
Refining of hot metal with a low manganese-silicon ratio reduces recycle of BOF slag to the blast furnace and
sinter plants, which produces a low manganese content in the hot metal. This impacts slag formation in the BOF
vessel in addition to BOF operating issues.
New and Emerging Technologies. Work is being conducted to improve chemistry, temperature, and process
control in the BOF. The use of in-blow sensors with possible feedback control is being developed to improve
carbon and temperature control to measure lance height and detect the advent of slopping. Improving techniques
of adding alloys, usually with the aid of secondary processing, will increase control over chemistry levels to meet
new grade demands and allow consolidation of grades. Upgrading computer and expert systems will also help
operators achieve consistent process control.
Using inert gas bottom stirring achieves better iron yields and alloy recovery through reduction of furnace slag
iron oxide, but maintaining effective stirring continues to be a major inconvenience in many shops that have tried
the technique.
Many shops need techniques that enable the aggressive use of post-combustion lances or supplemental fuels to
extend the use of hot metal. These techniques will increase their capacity without requiring investment in new
hot metal capacity . These techniques would also minimize production loss during periods of blast furnace
relines.
2.3.2
Other Related Technologies
Other technologies that support oxygen steelmaking also require development. These include scrap preparation
and handling, fluxes and methods of additions, recycling of waste oxides, and process sensors with feedback
capability (for example, light meter, lasers, infrared temperature detectors).
Trends and Drivers. Scrap handling is unique in each plant. Use of home scrap usually requires preparation
before recharging into the BOF. Use of outside or purchased scrap is subject to the same demands and problems
experienced by EAF operators. In addition, the trend in scrap prices (especially for premium scrap) in recent
years has been upward due to competitive buying pressures from EAF shops.
Some integrated plants are experimenting with lower-grade, higher-residual (and thus cheaper) scrap because
it can be diluted by low-residual hot metal.
Flux quality, size, and method of introduction are becoming more important because of increased demands on
slagmaking, both for refractory maintenance and for control of sulfur and phosphorus. Investigations of flux
batching and related oxygen lance schedules are contributing to ongoing improvements in charge recipe
calculations and the consistency of slagmaking.
Increasingly, recycling in-plant waste oxides in the BOF is addressing environmental pressures and presenting
opportunities for low-cost sources of iron and/or coolants in the furnaces.
20
The use of industrial gases is also increasing. Many shops have nitrogen circuits tied into the main lance circuit
for slag splashing as well as for bottom stirring. Nitrogen gas can be used for nitrogen chemical control when
required on certain grades to replace expensive nitrided ferro-manganese.
Technological Challenges. BOF steelmaking improvements must overcome many technological challenges.
One area that requires technological development is scrap systems. Scrap delivery and analysis systems are
complicated, unreliable, and inefficient. Without better systems, the amount of scrap used and effect on quality
is limited.
Also challenging BOF steelmaking is the difficulty of maintaining reliable sensors and automated systems. The
lack of fully developed, reliable automatic flux batching systems, particularly bin level detectors for dusty
environments, limits slag making consistency. Also, the hostility of the BOF environment for lasers and other
sensors makes it difficult to find suitable protection and locations for these sensors. Without speedy,
comprehensive optical sensors, scanning and reviewing historical data on the condition of furnaces and ladles
is difficult.
Another technological challenge that must be overcome is slag analysis. A speedy, reliable slag oxide analysis
technique is not available, particularly for iron oxides or for controlling lance height, making slag, and
calculating alloy efficiencies. In addition, slag analysis is expensive and slow and involves sampling separation
problems related to the use of iron versus iron oxides.
How to utilize the high levels (up to 85%) of uncombusted carbon monoxide leaving the BOF vessel is another
difficult technological challenge.
New and Emerging Technologies. Recent and developing BOF process improvements primarily affect scrap
and process sensors. Additionally, development is ongoing in burners and nozzles for the BOF process. This
work could improve post-combustion performance.
Preheating techniques and quality improvements lead the emerging scrap technologies. A number of
investigations are looking for economical ways to remove residual elements from scrap to replace expensive but
successful techniques, such as detinned bundles. Also, effective scrap preheating techniques are being
developed. Smelt-refining processes and EAFs have developed submerged dust injection and scrap preheating
technologies, but their application to BOF steelmaking remains unexplored.
Light meters, lasers and infrared cameras and sensors are being studied to control carbon, temperature, slopping,
waste gas composition, and lance height above the bath. Improved sensors, instrumentation, computer power,
and process models are used to provide data that enable an operator to consistently optimize production
processes. Industry-sponsored work (though AISI and DOE) on various sensors in BOFs that apply laser
measurement and in-lance cameras are presently undergoing commercialization tests.
21
2.3.3
BOF Steelmaking Research and Development

Despite all the ongoing research to improve BOF

performance, numerous other research
opportunities exist.
BOF Furnace
<
Process sensors. Develop various user-friendly,

robust process sensors with feedback capability to
detect bath carbon, temperature, and the advent of
slopping, waste gas composition, dusty bin levels,
and furnace shell temperatures. The temperature
sensor should be able to measure continuously
during the final minutes of the blow. Sensors for
quick analysis of turndown manganese, sulfur,
and other elements are also needed.
<
<
R & D Needs
Long-life refractories. Investigate ways to

increase use of long-life refractories to improve
stirring elements for furnaces or ladles and use in
BOF tap holes. Also, the hood life should be
extended to equal that of the refractory lining.
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Robust process sensors for the BOF to measure

process variables
Reliable sensors to detect lance-to-steel bath
distance
Clear understanding of the hydrodynamics of the
oxygen lances
Improved laser scanning system to characterize
the condition of the furnace and ladles
Improved flux raw materials analysis and size,
and reliable computer controlled batching
Improved, easy-to-maintain hoods
Economical and environmentally friendly methods
of removing or controlling phosphorus
Inexpensive and fast slag sample preparation and
composition analyzer
Longer-life, easily replaced stirring elements
Environmental controls for primary and
secondary control systems
Improved understanding of micro-alloying
element recovery through the process
Lances. Develop a reliable sensor to detect lanceto-steel bath distance to control the path of the
process, particularly slag making and possibly
slopping. Heat-to-heat feedback or real time feedback of lance height will improve the consistency of the process
reaction path. Also, a clear understanding of the hydrodynamics of the oxygen lances and its effect on splash
generation and decarburization kinetics needs to be developed.
Laser scanning for refractories. A comprehensive laser scanning system is needed that is fast, robust, and userfriendly for characterizing the condition of the furnace and ladles. This technology could also provide refractory
condition feedback and lance height control by integrating the volume of the furnace.
Flux and oxygen batching. Improved flux raw materials analysis and size and reliable computer controlled
batching are needed for better slag making consistency. This research also applies to developing better oxygen
batching methods for early slag making.
BOF hoods. Improved, easy-to-maintain hoods, possibly in conjunction with protective coating techniques
and/or constant temperature/pressure control techniques need to be researched.
Dephosphorization. Economical and environmentally friendly methods of removing or controlling phosphorus
need to be developed. Alternatively, find other viable uses for BOF slag rather than recycling to the sinter plant.
This will reduce the input phosphorus load from the hot metal.
Slag oxide analysis. Inexpensive and faster slag-sample preparation and a composition analyzer would improve
slag analysis.
Stirring elements. Longer lasting and more easily replaced stirring elements could make maintenance and bottom
stirring easier.
22
Environmental controls. Primary and secondary environmental control systems need to be developed and
upgraded to Best Available Technology (BAT) in all areas of emission concern. Constant technical review is
necessary to meet environmental standards of the future.
Other BOF Steelmaking Needs

<
R & D Needs
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Method to use DC/EAF in a BOF vessel to

preheat scrap
Comparison of process parameters vs. results of
models for fluxing and oxygen blowing
Predictive maintenance procedures for drive
bearings
Process to decrease the percent of hot metal
through the use of external energy units
Refining technology for low Mn/Si ratio metal
Submerged dust injection for recycling
Integrated melter guidance system
Scrap preheating techniques for stretching hot
metal
Maintenance techniques to take advantage of
increased BOF lining life from slag splashing
Model to optimize blast furnace and BOF
operations
Charge control model for better end-point
control
Other BOF steelmaking R&D needs include

using models, maintenance procedures and new
technologies to improve performance. One
essential requirement is the development of scrap
preheating techniques for stretching hot metal.
Also needed is an integrated melter guidance
system to take advantage of multiple sensors,
instrumentation, and models. Production pacing
models are needed for BOFs trying to supply
steel for multiple casters. These models should
consider steel ladle requirements and what-if
production alternatives.
Research into processes to remove residual
elements, such as tin, copper, antimony, and
others during the steelmaking process is needed.
Maintenance techniques for mechanical and
ancillary systems need to be developed to take
advantage of increased BOF lining life from slag
splashing. Regarding ULC steel production,
better understanding of vacuum kinetics and precasting chemistry is required for improvement.
2.4 Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking

In the 1960s the "mini-mill" began to revolutionize the steel industry. The mini-mill is based on the dual concepts
of recycling abundant, inexpensive steel scrap through a small, low capital steel mill consisting primarily of an
electric arc furnace and a continuous caster. The process grew from obscurity until today nearly half of all steel
in the United States is produced in EAFs. In the 1960s and 70s EAFs produced long products and growth was
primarily at the expense of the open hearth. But with the advent of thin slab casting its growth has continued
into the flat roll market at the expense of the BOF. Today there are approximately 100 mini-mills in the U.S.
capable of producing 50 million or more tons per year.
New technology has vastly increased EAF productivity. Originally production ranged from 10-30 tons/hour but
today there are numerous furnaces producing in excess of 100 tons per hour. The "mini-mill" has grown from
a plant producing 250,000 tons per year to plants producing in excess of 2 million tons per year. Once relegated
to producing inexpensive concrete reinforcing bar, today mini-mills can produce over 80% of all steel products.
Although EAF productivity has significantly increased, steelmakers must still optimize the EAF with the
finishing operations so their production rates and sequencing are the same.
Figure 2-2 shows some of the new technologies that have propelled this growth and indicates the reduction in
tap-to-tap times, electrical energy and electrode consumption.
23
Figure 2-2. EAF Evolution
Figure 2-3. EAF Energy Input/Output
24
EAF energy consumption is generally reported in kWh per liquid ton. The electrical energy is only about 65%
of the total energy input. The other 35% comes from chemical energy generated by the exothermic oxidation
of carbon and iron and by oxy-fuel or natural gas burners. Schematically, the energy balance for an EAF is
shown in Figure 2-3. The tapped steel and slag require a specific amount of energy (approximately 70% of the
input), regardless of heat time; heat losses to waste gas, cooling water, and radiation, which are all directly
related to heat time and directly account for the remaining 30%.
Consequently, there has been a relentless drive to shear minutes from the process by maximizing the rate of
energy input when the power is on and to minimize the power-off time. As a result, the terms Power Utilization
and Time Utilization have been coined. The former is the average power input/maximum power input when
power is on. The latter is the percent of tap-to-tap time when the power is on. All EAF developments are
directed at maximizing the product of Power Utilization and Time Utilization.
2.4.1
Raw Materials
Raw materials and operating practices affect EAF efficiency and yield. The traditional EAF charge has been
100% cold scrap. Even in 1995, less than 1 million out of the 40 million tons of metallics charged to domestic
EAFs was direct reduced iron (DRI), hot briquette iron (HBI), or iron carbide.
The iron unit situation is critical for several reasons:
The product mix served by EAFs is moving more towards value-added steels, which are specified with low
metallic residuals and low nitrogen levels (automotive flat rolled, cold heading-rolled and wire).
The availability of scrap needed to meet these requirements is limited to prompt scrap, which is decreasing
as more and more near-net-shape metalworking operations appear.
Yield and energy consumption are both strongly dependent on the quality and physical characteristics of
the iron units available.
The following topics are of central importance to raw material issues: supply of manufactured iron unit (which
includes DRI, HBI, carbide, and pig iron), upgrading of purchased scrap, and the physical nature of purchased
scrap. These topics are discussed in more detail below. Process yield is not discussed because process yield has
been determined to be a function of charged metallics quality, rather than of the process itself, and intrinsic iron
losses are not likely to be further reduced.
Trends and Drivers. Manufactured iron unit supply is a major concern. As the new greenfield mills increase
their output, demand for prime scrap will begin to outstrip supply. Pig iron is an excellent charge material for
an EAF because of its high density, low melting point, carbon contribution ability, and low metallic residuals.
However, the availability is low as integrated producers consume nearly all they produce.
Upgrading of purchased scrap has been another way to increase raw material quality by controlling residuals,
including S, P, Sn, and Cu. Several chemical approaches to remove the copper that is physically associated with
junked cars (shredded scrap, #2 bundles) have been developed. However, physical separation (shaking, magnets)
seems preferable to any of the chemical methods, all of which either create environmental problems (coping with
H2S, chlorine) or require auxiliary operations (molten aluminum bath). Phosphorus in DRI is tied up as an oxide
and thus enters the slag, probably remaining there since normal distribution ratios for phosphorus in melting are
well below equilibrium ( i.e., phosphorus in pig iron will enter the steel, not the slag, and must be oxidized out
like phosphorus from scrap).
25
Sizing of scrap is important to maximizing bucket density and minimizing energy losses. Proper scrap sizing
limits the number of required recharges, thereby saving energy lost during roof swings, and minimizes refractory
damage due to impact of heavy pieces at charge and flare from uneven charges.
The physical preparation of scrap is important for efficient preheating and fast melting. Furnace designs are not
being tailored to optimize scrap handling, so a physically homogeneous charge is desirable. To this extent,
manufactured iron units are ideal. Iron carbide can and possibly must be injected, and rates of several hundred
pounds per minute have been achieved. Although overall quantities may be limited as injection cannot be used
throughout the entire process, alternate iron forms that can be used in the conventional scrap buckets will enable
regular use in current shops.
New and Emerging Technologies. The Iron Dynamics plant, in production early in 2001, is based on RHF and
SAF technology and is the newest entry into the North American manufactured iron arena. It produces liquid
pig iron for consumption in an EAF. Other RHF/SAF processes and advanced iron smelting processes are being
considered by both EAF and integrated steelmakers to provide needed virgin iron units for their operations.
Continued development and installation of these processes will help relieve pressure on future prime scrap
supplies and lessen domestic dependence on imported cold pig iron.
For chemical upgrading, a pilot plant for removing zinc from prime flat-rolled automotive sheet is in operation
in Chicago. The process in use is based on a caustic solution of zinc coating followed by electrolytic recovery
to remove the zinc. The economics of this operation seem favorable at this point, but are still questionable as
long as zinc prices hold around $.50 / pound.
An economic cryogenic technology to break up scrap has not yet been developed. The use of hollow electrodes
to feed small-sized iron units has been explored in ferro-alloy operations, but electrode current-carrying capacity
is then reduced.
2.4.2
Energy
Productivity is a function of the net rate of energy input. Efforts are ongoing to maximize the energy delivery
rate and its effective use to achieve reduced heat times. Electrical energy is dominant on the input side and often
cheaper than chemical energy when consumables are considered. Conservation of energy by minimizing heat
time is critical because of the large heat loss per minute during the EAF process and significantly increased heat
loss during the final stages of heat.
The limitations of the conventional EAF have been identified and are forcing the builders of greenfield
furnaces and those operating less efficient EAFs to consider new and advanced designs. The new generation of
EAFs covers a multitude of configurations. Another key issue in EAF efficiency is the ability to pace and
balance EAF production with the other parts of the steelmaking process.
The following topics related to energy are discussed: chemical/electrical energy input ratios, AC/DC power, and
energy load.
Trends and Drivers. There is increased emphasis on chemical energy input, which is generally concurrent with
electrical energy input and thus supplements it to reduce heat time. The post combustion of CO and H2 gases
leaving the furnace is an important issue. Ideally, the gases should be burned in the furnace with the resulting
heat load applied to the slag/metal system. The oxidation of CO while the scrap is still solid and relatively cold
provides a better opportunity to capture the heat. The level of CO and H2 leaving the furnace through the off-gas
duct provides some measure of the effectiveness of post combustion and are key process parameters for an online energy balance model for furnace practice optimization.
26
The introduction of direct current (DC) furnaces and the projected savings in electrode consumption has
reinvigorated the EAF industry. Current carrying capacity depends on electrode diameter, and as furnaces have
increased in size (greater than 150 tons), diameter has become a potential limiting factor. Large electrodes
(greater than 32 inches) sell for a premium which may offset the electrode savings. One solution is dual- or
multiple-electrode DC furnaces. At the same time, AC power circuits have been improved to compete with the
electrical efficiency of DC power supplies.
Energy load can be reduced by reducing tap temperatures. A 100 F reduction in tap temperature is worth 10
kWh/ton. At the front end of the process, preheating of iron units (including scrap, alloys, and fluxes) can reduce
energy requirements. This approach has been known for years, but both the economics and logistics defeated
the simple approach (for example, heating the scrap in the bucket).
Technological Challenges. Bottom problems with DC furnaces are no longer a major deterrent to installing
such furnaces, but bottom configurations could restrict bottom injection technology.
Capture of heat from the waste gas has been fraught with environmental and other problems, including difficult
logistics, damaged buckets, and limited benefits. The typical savings is 25 kWh/ton, representing a poor return
on investment.
New and Emerging Technologies. New and emerging technologies are mainly in the area of reducing energy
load. One way to reduce load is to design the furnace to capture the waste gas heat in a scrap-filled shaft atop
the roof. However, the hot waste gas is supplemented by natural gas burners in the shaft when using this method.
The scrap must be extremely hot to conserve that much electrical energy and therefore must be oxidized since
the shaft atmosphere is oxidizing.
A second answer is to build twin furnace shells and pass hot waste gas to one vessel while a heat is being melted
in the other. Burners can also be used. Additionally, continuous scrap feeding systems that eliminate top
charging and its energy losses have been developed. All these processes also may reduce the EAF dust load on
the baghouse by filtering some of the dust. This dust is returned to the furnace, and no data exist to show the
net effect of dust reduction per ton or the problem of ZnO build-up.
2.4.3
EAF Steelmaking Research and Development

Major research needs in the area of EAF steelmaking include raw material and energy issues.
Raw Materials
R&D opportunities regarding raw materials include needs of characterization and understanding. The heat
transfer coefficients for different scrap types and mixes, including hot metal as a charge, need to be determined.
Also, methods need to be developed to reduce nitrogen and hydrogen pick-up from carbon sources and ferro
alloys added to furnaces and ladles.
27
Modeling of the EAF process with variable air

infiltration, flexible charges, and variable degrees of
post-combustion is needed to benchmark the
optimum process and improve EAF design. This
modeling could also help steelmakers minimize air
infiltration to provide for continuous charging of
DRI and batch charging of hot metal and scrap.
These and other raw material R&D needs are
summarized in the text box.
EAF Raw Materials

<
<
R & D Needs
An understanding must be developed of how

preheating feed materials affects the process
conditions, for example, the degree of oxidation.
Also, how the feed material size and shape affects
melting time and yield needs to be researched.
Further research is needed on the effects of injecting
DRI fines on yield, tap-to-tap time, and final
chemistry.
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Determination of heat transfer coefficients

for different scrap types and mixes
Defined role of section size, melt carbon,
time, and temperature in dissolving scrap
Economics evaluation of cryogenics in scrap
sizing and separation of non-ferrous metals
Reduced nitrogen and hydrogen pick-up from
carbon sources and ferro alloys
EAF modeling to enable continuous charging
of DRI and batch charging of scrap and hot
metal
Technique to inject EAF dust so only Zn is
recycled
Defined limitations of hollow electrodes for
feeding materials
Practical coatings to minimize electrode
oxidation
Extended life of expendable injection pipes
Energy
One main area for EAF energy research is artificial intelligence (such as neural networks). The complexity of
the EAF process is such that artificial intelligence techniques need to be applied to optimize and control the
electrical input, especially with the high-voltage, high-impedance UHP furnaces and chemical energy sources.
The field results of installing a neural network system on a working furnace were positive in terms of kWh/ ton,
but also showed that maximizing power input at all times during melt-down was not necessarily the optimum
approach.
EAFs have not taken full advantage of existing solid fuel injection technology. One AC shop in Italy is
employing solid fuel injection, significantly reducing electrical energy consumption. This shop has 100-ton
twin-shell furnaces equipped with tuyeres for coal and oxygen injection and plugs for argon.
Another EAF development need is the
continuation of time utilization improvement.
Time utilization maximization is approached in
conventional shops by minimization of tapping
and turn around procedures, the use of robotic
analytical units even on the floor, and disciplined
electrode changing practices. The typical poweroff time can be as low as 15 minutes. With new
furnace designs, time utilization is improved
through scrap preparation and the use of a high
percentage of continuously charged iron units.
R & D Needs
EAF Energy Needs

<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Superconducting electrodes
Limitations of secondary voltages determined
Higher-power induction melting
Economic microwave applications
Instant steel bath and off-gas chemistry and
volume analysis to enable feedback control
Improved flicker control
Artificial intelligence techniques for EAFs
Solid Fuel Injection
Maximized Time Utilization
28
2.5 Ladle Refining

Ladle refining refers to the metallurgical processes that occur in the ladle. These include alloying, deoxidizing,
degassing, and the reheating and stirring of the bath. Ladle refining affords the steelmaker with the flexibility
to control the processing of heats in order to achieve greater production efficiencies and superior metallurgical
traits.
Ladle refining vessels range in sophistication from in-house designs built with plant equipment to engineered,
multi-function stations. Most refiners use electric arc reheating although a limited number use plasma torches.
These facilities are equipped with systems to add alloys in bulk; some also are equipped with powder injection
and/or wire feeding. The refiners provide stirring of the bath for thermal and chemical homogenization and
expedite metallurgical reactions using an inert gas introduced near the bottom of the ladle by a porous plug,
tuyere, or lance.
In addition to adjusting temperature, the primary function of ladle refining is to fine tune the steels chemistry.
This adjustment can be accomplished by means as simple as bulk alloy additions during the tapping of the melt
vessel, to additions of smaller lumps or chunks added at the bath surface, to injectable or wire-encased powders
added below the surface. Powders tend to be used for the more exotic or micro-alloying elements that are added
in small quantities. Tighter chemistry ranges can now be attained through the iterative process of small additions
and chemistry checks. Additions for other purposes such as slag formers or modifiers can be made in these ways
as well.
The alloys or alloy carriers can become oxidized, carrying undesirable inclusion forming elements. With the
need for cleaner steels containing fewer inclusions, the sources of oxygen entering the heat during refining must
be limited.
Trends and Drivers. Issues in ladle metallurgy are related to productivity, yield, chemistry control, inclusion
morphology, chemistry and size distribution, and refractory life. Some specific trends include:
Decreased inclusion mass and size distribution

Rapid and accurate determination of chemistry and inclusion content
Shorter processing times
Minimization of waste
Increased lining life
In the past, the extent to which metallurgical goals could be achieved in the ladle was limited by the bath
temperatures and hold times due to the refractories of the fireclay ladle lining materials. Innovations of high
alumina and basic refractories have made it possible to tap heats at higher temperatures and hold heats for longer
times.
Now available are refractories that resist damage from the electric arc and wear from the stirred bath, while
resisting the corrosiveness of refining slags and remaining chemically stable with respect to the chemistry of the
steel. For example, magnesia and magnesia-chrome materials have carbon and metallic additions for slag
resistance and added strength.
29
Ladle refining stations are equipped with in-process sampling and temperature measurement capabilities. For
example, expendable immersion thermocouples are the most commonly used method of measuring temperatures,
producing a reading accurate to 10F within seconds. Immersion samplers have been developed for most
common grades. The sample is sent to the laboratory where it is analyzed for selected metallic elements using
x-ray fluorescence or spectrography, or gaseous elements by evaporative techniques.
Technological Challenges. Currently all steel ladle processes are limited to ppm levels of solute elements and
of oxide inclusion contents. Future levels of solutes and inclusion contents will be driven to lower than ppm
levels; however, the analytical techniques and processing steps necessary for such developments have not yet
been developed.
In addition to decreasing the mass of inclusions, an increasing body of literature indicates that product properties,
such as fatigue life, and processing issues, such as die life, are related not only to the mass of inclusions but the
chemistry and size distribution of inclusions. In addition, solidification initiation in the mold and solid state phase
transformations are now understood to be related to the chemistry and distribution of inclusions formed in the
liquid steel. Thus the future focus of ladle metallurgy will be strict chemistry control and deoxidants other than
aluminum. Future ladle metallurgy developments must include the development of rapid sensors for steel and
slag chemistry and inclusion chemistry, mass and size distribution determination. These sensors would minimize
time and increase the potential for highly accurate chemistry determination.
During recycling, unwanted residual elements are inadvertently added to the liquid steel. Future developments
will involve actively controlling reactive residual elements such as calcium, aluminum, magnesium and
zirconium and developing methods to minimize the effects of other non-reactive residuals.
Ladle refining vessels demand refractory lining systems that are environmentally sound and low in cost in
addition to being chemically inert and operationally safe. The refractory lining must also be easily and
expeditiously installed. In the future, landfilling of spent refractories will not be as affordable or permitted to
the extent it is today.
Metallurgical barriers deal with the development of processes to meet a given product requirement where a
solution is possible, but not yet proven or practical.
In the area of process technological barriers, affordable systems are needed that enable concurrent processing
or eliminate unproductive time. The future of ladle metallurgical developments include the development of rapid
or continuously operating sensors for steel and slag chemistry and temperature, as well as inclusion mass and
size distribution determination. These sensors would minimize time and increase the potential for highly
accurate chemistry determination.
Other challenges are as follows:
Slag control, manipulation, and recycling. Future developments in slag usage will involve slag recycling and
reuse within the steel plant in order to minimize waste. Manipulation of slag viscosity and solidification
characteristics will lead to slags that are not easily emulsified but easily removed from the ladle.
Inert or long life refractories. Steel and slag interaction with container refractories remains a limitation of ladle
processing.
Temperature control. Techniques for stream temperature prediction and control are necessary.
30
Modeling. Coupled heat and mass transfer models are necessary to allow prediction of the effect of ladle
metallurgy on chemistry and inclusion control. Current computational abilities could enable a ladle model that
would include heat transfer with the container and the slag, reaction between the steel and the slag, reheating,
degassing, and refining.
Yield. New ladle design and other methods to prevent metal mixing during ladle draining are necessary to
increase yield from the ladle and preserve quality. Vortex prevention, development of repeatable free opening
performance, and design are key components of this technology.
Productivity. Future developments in steel plant design will include better matching of steelmaking casting and
rolling mill productivity, significantly reducing ladle refining times in the future. Thus, rapid refining methods,
rapid chemical sensors, and new linings at the ladle metallurgy station must be developed to meet the new ladle
refining productivity requirements.
New and Emerging Technologies. Work continues on engineering steels with fewer harmful inclusions, desired
inclusion composition and morphology, and ultra-low residual element content. For many of these goals, the
key steps are known for the process (i.e., desulfurization and dephosphorization). For others, such as
simultaneous desulfurization and dephosphorization, the process has only been conceptualized or tested on a
laboratory scale.
New technology and automated processes are being applied to analysis and reporting to minimize cost and time.
A laser-based immersion probe system that provides elemental analysis within a minute is one new technology
being tested.
2.5.1
Ladle Refining Research and Development

R & D Needs
Ladle Refining
<
<
<
<
<
Alternative forms of carbon or better addition

method to improve the carbon dissolution rate
Minimized component process times or
develop parallel/concurrent processing
methods
Better sensors and control systems for
chemistry, cleanliness, and temperature
Methods to limit exposure of steel to air
New fluxing agents and inclusion modifiers
There are two areas in which alloying material

improvement would improve refining. The first
opportunity is the slow dissolution of carbon
which retards recovery and causes the uncertainty
of subsequent analysis. An alternate form of
carbon or better method of addition could improve
the dissolution rate.
To improve the flexibility of ladle refining,
component process times must be minimized or the
processes must be executed in parallel. For
example, sampling and analysis time must be
minimized, and reheating and degassing must
occur concurrently.
New fluxing agents and inclusion modifiers could be developed. These might either flux undesirable residual
elements or tie them up in engineered inclusions that impart beneficial properties.
31
2.6 Casting
Steel casting processes represent one of the major areas of technological development within the steel industry.
New technologies such as strip casting are under rapid development and commercialization. The steel industry
is undergoing major changes in North America due to the growth of these new technologies as companies realize
that specific technologies are appropriate for specific markets and that product-specific casting technologies will
have a role in the near future of steel plants. The advent of strip casting for carbon and alloy steels and near-netshape part production could radically change the conventional view of a steel plant from a large production
facility of semi-finished material into a smaller, product-oriented concern. Continuous casting has led to a major
reduction in ingot steel production. In 1995, 97.4% of the crude steel production was continuously cast.
However, ingot casting continues to be the preferred method to produce steel for some uses, such as intermediate
and large bar applications (e.g., power transmission) and high-performance bar and tubing applications (e.g.,
bearings and gears). Foundries and specialty producers also continue to use ingot casting and to produce large
cross-sections or thick plates.
Figure 2-4 outlines schematically current and potential directions in casting. Current technologies include ingot,
thick slab, thin slab, billet and bloom casting. Future developments will lead to ultra-thick slab casting for thick
plates, direct strip casting for sheets 0.03 to 0.15 inches thick, continuous casting products with fewer inclusions,
rod casting, rapid prototyping of complex geometries via droplet consolidation or laser/wire technologies,
rheocasting, and direct part fabricating via computer-controlled casting/milling machines.
New and Emerging Technologies. Commercial strip casting of carbon and stainless steels at Nucor
Crawfordsville by the end of 2001 represents a major new technology in flat rolled steel production.
2.6.1
Generic Casting Issues
Trends and Drivers. Future developments largely will be directed towards the technology associated with
continuous casting. All other technologies, including ingot casting, will have specific niche markets in the next
10 to 20 years for economic or quality considerations. The technological drivers for current operations are
increased productivity, yield, and quality.
New technologies are driven by:
Low capital and operating costs

Flexibility
Niche markets
Potential for new product development
In addition, casting developments will need to consider environmental factors and recyclability of waste
products, such as wastewater, refractories, and slag.
All of the above requirements drive casting development towards more streamlined near-net-shape processes.
This results in the cast surface becoming the finished part surface and leads to the necessity of defect-free
castings that must be produced at geometrical tolerances defined by the end product. Strip cast products will
undergo little or no rolling. Research on as-cast structure and properties is required. New alloys and alloying
techniques may be needed for strip cast products to develop properties comparable to conventionally cast
products. This progression results in a number of generic requirements in casting R&D.
32
Figure 2-4. Current and Potential Future Casting Strategies
33
Technological Challenges. Modern continuous cast steels must be consistently produced to the highest level
of quality. The presence of inclusions or clusters of inclusions greater than the minimum size for defect
formation, or of the wrong chemistry, often leads to inconsistent product quality.
Nozzle clogging is a common operational occurrence that can result in quality and production problems when
steels containing solid inclusions are cast. One solution to this problem is to transform the solid inclusions by
chemical treatment to a liquid or a non-clustering solid inclusion. This inclusion engineering is often not
achieved in practice, as the exact stability of all possible inclusions must be calculated for a particular alloy to
ensure that the designed inclusion chemistry is achieved. Inclusion engineering will lead to the design of new
alloys with alternative processing strategies to achieve specific properties, as well as retention of desirable
inclusions.
There is a lack of economical materials for containment vessels and molds that are sufficiently inert, long-lived,
and able to withstand large thermal gradients.
Active control of fluid flow and temperature is necessary to avoid the production of defects during casting and
to ensure product consistency. Current gravity-fed flow systems only allow gross control of the above
parameters, not independent control of flow and temperature in the tundish and mold of a continuous caster.
Process consistency is essential for a successful casting operation. Extensive automatic on-line monitoring of
cast processes can significantly improve process control and process consistency.
Instead of having cast surface defects or imperfections removed by grinding, oxidizing, or treating, technology
must be developed to eliminate casting or oscillation marks. As these casting technologies develop to the point
that cast surfaces are used directly, casting an exact geometrical shape to tolerances measured in smaller units
than those used currently will also become more important. Therefore, the ability to predict and control the exact
geometric profile of a casting will become vital to the design and operation of casting machines.
Operators do not always have the most up-to-date information when operating a caster. Sophisticated casting
machines require a detailed knowledge of the science and engineering principles involved in the design and
operation philosophy of the machine in order to solve any problems that occur.
New and Emerging Technologies. Strip casting (discussed in Section 2.6.3) is the most obvious new
technology. However, there are a number of ancillary technologies that are under development for currently
operating casters that could potentially be adopted in the future. These technologies include:
Applications of electromagnetics in the area of fluid flow control, heating, and containment
Advanced vision systems for defect detection and identification
Advanced computer diagnostic controls
Liquid steel temperature control in the mold and tundish
Advanced ceramics for clean steel production
Future developments will focus on near-net-shape production of all castings and droplet consolidation
technologies for rapid prototyping and rheocasting.
34
2.6.2
Slab, Billet, and Bloom Casting
Trends and Drivers. Issues in casting are related to productivity, operating cost, quality, and the energy content
of the cast piece before rolling. Issues vary between thin and thick slab casters; however, there are a number of
common issues, especially in the areas of control and quality.
Some specific trends include:
Increasing strand cleanliness

Thinner cast slabs
Net Shape
Higher cast speeds
Technological Challenges. The demand for steel with increasing cleanliness requires that metal with a low
oxygen content be delivered to the caster, protected from exposure to the atmosphere, and exposed to minimal
contamination from the refractories, tundish, and mold fluxes.
The materials systems used to contain and conduct the steel must be stable with respect to any steel grade and
not add to the inclusion population. They also must be cost-effective and capable of long exposures associated
with sequence casting. The tundish fluxes must have the proper fusing temperature and fluidity and not be
corrosive to the refractories, while providing protection from reoxidation and the ability to capture inclusions.
Flux design for continuous caster operation continues to be a difficult issue because the tundish and mold flux
requirements are complex and there is not a complete understanding of the exact design requirement for fluxes.
Nozzle clogging remains an issue that impacts productivity and quality in casting. A solution that allows the
casting of steel grades containing solid second-phase particles will ensure consistent production of aluminumkilled steels.
There is a lack of refractories for use in the ladle, tundish, and molds that are sufficiently long-lasting, stable,
and non-porous to allow cast quality to reach its full potential. Ultra-clean steel production is limited by
refractory interactions with the steel.
Higher surface quality of castings would allow the cast surface to be used directly in all applications without
modification. Mold friction, surface defects (including meniscus marks), sub-surface defects, and argon and
other bubbles are all quality problems that require attention.
2.6.3
Strip Casting
Cast speed in strip casting can vary from 160 to 325 ft/min, while conventional casters operate between 3 and
20 ft/min. Strip casting is quite unique in that solidification occurs against a chill mold and the cast surface must
be defect-free. Cast tolerances must be on the order of tens of microns (ten-thousandths of an inch) across the
width and length of the strip. Strip-cast materials are significantly different from conventionally processed strip
because they have not undergone hot reduction.
Strip casting has great potential in the production of very thin materials to achieve cooling rates which, on the
average, are significantly higher than conventional casting technologies. In addition, inclusion size ranges tend
to be suppressed in strip casting, and the recrystallized structure can be significantly different than conventionally
processed material. This leads to the potential of casting a number of different alloys (especially those that are
difficult to roll) that have not been previously considered in sheet form.
35
New alloys with novel structures, chemistries, and properties may be cast by this technique. Metallic glasses
and materials with ultra-fine structures are possible. The development of strip casting of steels for electrical and
magnetic applications also seems to be an obvious way to make use of the inherent structure of strip-cast
materials.
Trends and Drivers. Because of its novelty, many fundamental phenomenon need to be studied. These issues
are related to process control, consistency, productivity, and quality (including tolerances). Because of the high
speed of strip casters, the control tolerances must be significantly tighter than in conventional casting processes.
Technological Challenges. The technological challenges associated with casting include process knowledge
and control deficiencies. For example, the required cast tolerances for strip casting cannot be achieved without
intimate knowledge of the variation of heat transfer with casting conditions.
Process control at high casting velocities is not possible without good data on the thermal conditions in the
growing shell and in the rotating roll, better knowledge of initial solidification phenomena, and control strategies
for strip profile and gauge at high speeds.
The need for control of fluid flow and temperature is even more severe in strip casting than in conventional
technologies. There are problems with liquid steel control, process consistency, productivity, and ability to make
different structures.
The strategy for conversion of a strip-cast structure to a structure that allows equivalent or improved properties
for all strip applications is at this time unknown for all but 304 stainless steels.
New and Emerging Technologies. The advent of commercial production of strip-cast 300 series stainless steels
by Nippon Steel in 1997 represents a major new technology. Commercial strip casting of carbon and stainless
steels at Nucor Crawfordsville by the end of 2001 is an important new technology in flat rolled steel production.
2.6.4
Casting Research and Development

Some generic casting R&D needs have been identified, as well as specific R&D needs for slab, billet, and bloom
casting and strip casting.
Generic
The ability to produce liquid steels with strictly controlled inclusion contents needs to be developed. This ability
is necessary to restrict inclusion size to less than 0.0002 inch in diameter and to minimize the total mass of
inclusions. In this area an understanding of the interaction of fluid flow at the slag-metal interface must be
developed and modeled to eliminate formation and facilitate the removal of inclusions during processing.
Techniques need to be developed so that stability diagrams can be calculated for all grades of steel. This will
allow the exact stability of all possible inclusions to be calculated for a particular alloy to ensure that the
designed inclusion chemistry is achieved.
Process control research presents many opportunities for casting improvement. The ability to monitor and
actively control fluid flow, temperature, and chemistry would improve casting performance. Given the high cost
and reliability issues associated with wiring in the harsh environments common to the steel industry, sensors that
emloy wireless technology to communicate data and diagnostic information could be beneficial to the
36
The details of cast shape, inclusion or bubble

distribution, and structure in three dimensions are
currently unknown. Development of modeling
techniques is required to gain a detailed
knowledge of surface formation in castings, an
area that has been somewhat ignored in
conventional casting, and to predict on-line the
details of micro- and macro-structure
solidification and the inclusion or bubble
distribution in the casting.
Casting
<
<
<
<
R & D Needs
infrastructure of iron and steel manufacturing

facilities. Fluid mixing control in which mixing
of unlike grades can be either enhanced or
minimized in the tundish or mold, is also a
necessary development to allow seamless grade
transition and order size that is better matched
with optimum heat sizes. Other needs include
advanced process control strategies, vision
systems for defect detection and identification,
and the implementation of advanced computer
diagnostic controls for identification of potential
operation problems and the scheduling of maintenance.
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Ability to produce liquid steels with strictly

controlled inclusion contents
Techniques to calculate stability diagrams for all
grades of steel
Ability to actively control fluid flow, temperature,
and chemistry
Ability to monitor the process to ensure
consistent quality
Improved surface quality through improved mold
oscillation using hydraulic oscillation
Ability to predict cast shape, inclusion, or bubble
distribution and structure
Advanced heat transfer and fluid flow models
Techniques to minimize scaling or develop scales
that are easily removed in post processing
Enhanced education on the science and
engineering principles involved in the design and
operation of casters
Direct rod or wire casting at high rates and
production directly from liquid steel
On-line control systems
Development of products associated with thin
slab rolling in the 2 phase (alpha & gamma) field
Development of a heavy rod casting process with
in-line rolling to variable diameters
Advanced heat transfer and fluid flow models

that include the free surface of liquid/liquid
boundaries, the prediction of slag emulsification;
the final position and shape of the cast surface;
and a detailed prediction of cast structure, inclusion, or bubble distribution and segregation patterns are
necessary. In addition, a detailed understanding of the interactions between steel shell, the flux, and the interface
of the mold is necessary.
Processing techniques need to be developed to improve quality and production rates. For example, techniques
are needed to either minimize scaling or develop scales that are easily removed in post processing to maximize
yield and eliminate scale-related defects. This problem will increase in severity as castings become thinner and
closer to a product dimension. Also, technologies are needed to produce direct rod or wire casting at high
production rates directly from liquid steel, possibly through droplet consolidation or rheocasting.
Finally, more education is needed on the scientific and engineering principles involved in the design and
operation of casters. A strong foundation in traditional engineering disciplines and metallurgy will be a
necessary requirement for caster operation.

Areas of development in slab, billet, and bloom casting include total inclusion content, mold design
improvement, appropriate refractory systems that are less prone to clogging, and optimized fluid flow and heat
transfer within steel pouring systems. This includes the need for stable refractory systems that will enable the
next level of cleanliness to be achieved.
37
R & D Needs

<
<
<
<
<
<
Methods of reducing total inclusion content

Improved bulk fluid flow and meniscus control,
optimized mold flux design and heat flux control
in the meniscus area
Flux design improvements
Nozzle development to allow a very controlled,
stable fluid flow into the mold
Fluid flow control and stream shrouding
techniques for small-section billet casters
Mold designs to control billet shape and to allow
for increased cast speed and improved quality
Bulk fluid flow and meniscus control as well as

optimized mold flux design and heat flux control
in the meniscus area are needed to achieve
improved surface quality. The production of a
smooth cast surface without meniscus marks
caused either by electromagnetics or the
development of a hot-top mold may lead to the
elimination of certain subsurface defects,
especially at high casting speeds.
The
elimination or complete removal of argon and
other bubbles from cast steels must also be
developed to produce ultra-clean steels that are
beyond the quality levels currently produced.
In the area of flux design, work is needed on flux crystallization phenomena, flux physical and chemical
properties, and flux compatibility with liquid steel, refractories, and other surroundings. Nozzle development
must continue to allow a very controlled, stable fluid flow into the mold that does not encourage mold slag
emulsification and decreases the tendency of nozzle clogging.
Mold designs that incorporate instantaneously controllable taper and temperature profile are needed to control
shape and allow further increases in casting speed. Technologies must be developed to improve surface quality
so casting can be used for all applications without surface grinding or treatment. Also, soft reduction needs to
be investigated as a potential technique to produce sound structures in near-as cast state.
Strip Casting
Strip Casting
R & D Needs
Strip casting R&D needs include gains in process

and technical knowledge as well as control
systems and techniques. One need is more
complete knowledge of the variation of heat
transfer with casting conditions and alloy
chemistry. The details of the initiation of
solidification and the effect of mold coating and
texture on this phenomenon must be known to
improve product quality.
<
<
<
<
<
Knowledge of the variation of heat transfer with

casting conditions and alloy chemistry
New models, sensors, and control systems
Novel techniques of liquid flow control
Applications of strip casting for conventional and
novel alloys
Post-processing steps necessary for strip-cast
material to have better mechanical properties
than conventionally processed materials
Determined inclusion engineering requirements
New models, sensors, and control systems are

<
needed for process control at high cast velocities.
The development of comprehensive heat transfer,
fluid flow, and solidification models will also
allow the thermal conditions in the growing shell
and in the rotating roll to be defined and enable in situ compensation or correction for roll distortions.
Novel techniques of liquid flow control also need to be developed. Techniques to control fluid turbulence within
the pool of a twin roll caster will result in improved process consistency. In addition, development of rheocasting
or a superheat removal technology for use in the entry nozzle of a strip caster will lead to enhanced productivity
and novel strip cast structures.
38
Another need is the development of the post processing steps for strip cast material to have equivalent or better
mechanical properties than conventionally processed materials. For example, techniques can be developed to
achieve texture control in strip cast materials without significant reduction in thickness of the strip.
2.7 Rolling and Finishing

Rolling and finishing convert cast or semi-finished steel into finished products that meet specific requirements
for shape, mechanical behavior, and other properties. Rolling is performed both hot and cold. Finishing
operations are often product-specific heat treatments, such as spheroidizing, normalizing, or annealing, or surface
treatment operations, such as galvanizing, electroplating, carburizing, machining or surface induction treating.
Because rolling and finishing operations are often the last processes to significantly affect the bulk microstructure
of the steel, they must be designed to give appropriate or optimized microstructures capable of yielding requisite
properties.
Advances in steelmaking, casting, rolling, and finishing will redefine the combinations of properties obtainable
from a particular composition, grade, or alloy. Defining the possible combinations of properties and the
appropriate markets for evolving steel products should be the focus of considerable future efforts in rolling and
finishing.
2.7.1
Rolling and Finishing-- General
Trends and Drivers. Improvements in upstream processes are expected to have a dramatic effect on the shape
and internal cleanliness of the semi-finished and finished products. Future developments will focus on obtaining
the requisite microstructure and properties in light of process developments and essential service requirements.
The factors with the greatest influence on rolling and finishing include as-cast shape, improved process control,
residual element content, and improved internal cleanliness. Microstructure control remains one of the most
basic objectives for the selection of working conditions. Accelerated cooling, inter-stand cooling, and direct
quenching technologies are also being used to refine the base microstructure and alloy carbide and nitride phases.
Heat treatment and chemistries are evolving with the goal of reducing the size and/or volume fraction of
precipitates and inclusion particles. For many grades of steel, a major objective is grain refinement for strength
and toughness. While near-net-shape casting reduces the amount of reduction that can be used to homogenize
the microstructure, it also provides faster solidification and cooling rates, which limit the growth of second-phase
particles.
For severe fracture critical applications, opportunities for grain refinement through hardenability will continue
to emerge. The effect of residual elements and inclusions on hardenability remains an active area of research.
Microalloyed grades will continue to expand into markets, increasing the need for improved fracture resistance.
Ways of strengthening thick sections with this approach and improving fracture resistance will be needed.
Greater toughness and strength occurs concurrently with the refinement of second-phase particle distributions.
Also, reduced carbon content and higher nitrogen contents are generally found to improve microstructures and
range of property combinations pertaining to weldability, wear resistance, and fracture. Fixing processing
temperatures and deformation passes to create a fine-grained austenite structure has become standard practice
for products requiring higher strength and toughness.
39
In many instances, particularly when substantial hot deformation is required, energy savings are realized when
as-cast or as-rolled products are immediately transferred to the hot rolling or forging soaking stations. Hot
charging is increasingly being incorporated for process streamlining and energy savings.
Customers continue to drive rolling and finishing process developments. One example is the development of
value-added products, such as metallic-coated, organic-coated, pre-lubricated, pre-painted, or powder-painted
sheet steels, offering the customer process simplification. Customers require information to understand the
technical issues associated with processing capabilities and property limitations. In the drive to facilitate
informed decisionmaking, communication is increasingly more technical; metallurgists are often hired into sales
positions.
Automation and step-by-step verification of heat treatment, galvanizing, and other processes have also been
developed to improve product consistency. Developments of new sensors for measuring chemistry and
temperature variations are also being sought. Computer models of thermal and stress distribution in parts,
permitting selection of process parameters, have also been recently developed and allow prediction of residual
stresses.
The following trends are indicative of the drive to improve the intrinsic engineering properties of steels and to
reduce processing costs. Due to the continuing improvements in steelmaking and casting, property advancements
continue to occur in weldability, formability, strength, corrosion, wear, and fatigue resistance. Reduced material
costs allow the use of high-residual element-containing scrap and investigations into the effect of residual
elements on properties.
Continued advances in the area of thin slab and strip casting will diminish the role of the hot rolling mill in the
production of thinner strip. However, optimizing rolling mill performance will become increasingly critical.
Current research focuses on understanding and controlling kinetic and thermodynamic aspects of the
solidification, heat transfer, and mechanical behavior of stainless steels. Extension of ferritic grades will be
further complicated by phase changes.
Technological Challenges. Many specific barriers to major advances in rolling and finishing exist, including
inadequate characterization methods and models, as well as a lack of methods to quantify hydrogen content. The
optimization of bake-hardening and mitigation of cold work embrittlement are limited by a lack of suitable
methods capable of characterizing the influence of alloying and residual elements on the activity and
thermodynamic behavior of carbon and nitrogen at very low concentration limits.
A lack of reliable, material-specific input data limits prediction accuracy of heat treatment and quenching models.
Data for iron and alloy transformation behavior under stress need to be generated as do data for iron and alloy
oxide heat transfer coefficients. Also, prediction accuracy of deformation (rolling, extrusion, etc.) models on
quantitative microstructure-property relationships is limited. There is no framework within which complex
materials information can be easily and confidently evaluated with respect to design, fabrication, and service.
In the finishing area, the life of molten bath hardware (e.g., rolls and bearings) used in the hot dip coating lines,
such as galvanizing or aluminizing, is a serious concern. Because of the aggressive nature of the molten baths
in these processes, the hardware lives are presently very short (in the order of a couple of weeks), which requires
costly shutdowns of the continuous processing lines to replace the hardware.
An additional challenge is hydrogen, which remains a major concern because it contributes to lower fracture
resistance and poor coating adhesion. Methods for reliably quantifying hydrogen content down to sub-ppm
levels continue to be sought.
40
New and Emerging Technologies. Some recent developments in the area of rolling and finishing include
models of steel microstructure and properties, methods to improve texture control and strength, and technologies
to improve heating during finishing.
Recent studies have been directed at modeling the effect of thermal deformation conditions on microstructure
and properties of steels produced in the hot strip mill. Advances in this direction must continue in order to obtain
reliable and easy to use microstructure and property models. Once models have been verified, extension of the
analysis to more sophisticated grades will make well-grounded process modifications possible. This modeling
has also been used for optimization of bar and tube rolling.
Ferrite or warm rolling has been tested and shows promise as a means to impart essential shape change as well
as texture control and strength to strip and plates. Good lubrication is essential in order to prevent through
thickness texture variations. Ferrite rolling may require higher mill loads. However, the benefits to the resulting
microstructure have not been completely documented.
Inter-stand cooling in the hot mill offers new temperature control flexibility and expands the attainable
combinations of finishing temperatures and mill speeds. Further modeling of cooling of all products shapes are
needed. Also, rapid heating technologies now permit heating rates in excess of 3600 F/second in thin sections.
This is a novel thermal process for which the benefits have yet to be quantified fully.
Hot dip galvanizing production of bake-hardenable steels represents an advance that should combine the strength
and room temperature aging resistance of batch annealed EG (electro-galvanized) bake-hardenable steels with
the corrosion resistance and cost savings associated with hot dip galvanizing for automakers (exposed).
2.7.2
Rolling and Finishing-- Plate
Trends and Drivers. Trends in plate rolling and finishing include:
Continuous processing mills to achieve maximum efficiencies

Advancement of computerized automation in melting and rolling operations
In-line, direct detection and classification of surface imperfections in hot conditions
Accelerated cooling after rolling to achieve enhanced properties and to harness all potential benefits
of an in-line cooling process
Continuous processing techniques for plate include closer coupling of casting and rolling, the use of accelerated
cooling or direct quenching, and the use of Steckel mills. Steckel mills are used to produce lighter-gauge coiled
plate products and to provide good temperature control during rolling as well as good flatness and shape.
Temperature retention provided by hot coiling on either side of the rolling stand eliminates the rapid loss in
temperature experienced in standard reversing plate mills and the attendant high mill loads and shape problems.
The long-term impact of Steckel hot-rolling technology will be significant. A large portion of the market
currently served by traditional plate mills will be serviced through new wide/heavy cut-to-length lines with platein-coil sourced from Steckel mills and from conventional hot strip mill facilities with new, more powerful coilers.
As production shifts to these new sources, customer expectations will be significantly higher.
In terms of computer automation, the new and revamped mills servicing the plate market will feature highly
sophisticated level 1 and 2 process control similar to that currently operating in modern hot strip mills. Process
control will also be more fully deployed downstream from the mill in value-added processes such as shearing,
trimming, leveling, burning, laser-cutting, and heat-treating.
41
Competitive mills will also feature an increasing degree of process/systems integration at the manufacturing plant
level as it becomes necessary to balance competing demands for quick response times, minimal work-in-progress
inventory, high capacity utilization rates, high yield, and process flexibility.
The in-line detection of surface imperfections during hot rolling has been examined for hot strip mills with
moderate success. The application of these techniques to plate mills would be a natural extension, to Steckel
mills for example, but even reversing plate mills should benefit from this technology.
More plate manufacturers are using in-line accelerated cooling after rolling to enhance the strength or toughness
of the as-rolled plate. In-line accelerated cooling is often referred to as interrupted accelerated cooling because
the plate is water-cooled to an intermediate temperature, then removed from the cooling facility and allowed to
self-temper and/or precipitate-harden during air cooling. The process requires controlled rolling of plate before
the accelerated cooling from approximately 1,450 to 1,000oF to achieve its maximum benefits.
In-line accelerated cooling has traditionally been used in the continuous hot strip mill to produce strip mill plate.
Over the last twenty years, it has been increasingly used in plate mills, and more recently in the Steckel mill
process. Plate mills throughout the world use in-line accelerated cooling to produce low-carbon line pipe and
ship plate with improved weldability, and this technique is being applied more and more to light-to-moderate
thickness structural plates for similar reasons.
Plates that are controlled-rolled and accelerated-cooled exhibit a lower yield-strength-to-tensile-strength ratio
than heat-treated plates. Low yield/tensile ratio is of particular importance when bridges and other structures
must be constructed in earthquake-prone regions where maximum plasticity is required of plates and structural
components. Yield strengths of 80 ksi and higher have been achieved in relatively light-gauge plates of lowcarbon steels that have been controlled-rolled and accelerated-cooled.
Interest has increased in plates that are too long to be heat-treated. Plates longer than about 52 feet cannot be
water-quenched by domestic plate producers. Bridge fabricators, for example, would welcome longer plates that
do not have to be splice buttwelded with the attendant welding and inspection costs. Accelerated-cooled plates
are one of the possible solutions to providing long plates in as much as they are totally processed in-line and are
not heat-treated.
Technological Challenges. Centerline segregation in plate grades causes cracking during welding and joining
and local variations in stress relief. This could be minimized if centerline segregation were better understood
and predicted. However, most solidification models for centerline segregation have been developed in Japan
where most major steelmakers utilize soft reduction capabilities in their slab casters.
Because very few casters in North America use soft reduction on slabs to improve center segregation, their use
of solidification models is limited. Most solidification models in the North American steel industry generally
treat only the thermal/mechanical and occasionally fluid mechanical aspects of solidification. Segregation
modeling is mostly conducted at the university level.
New and Emerging Technologies. The new and emerging technologies for rolling and finishing plate were
included in the Trends and Drivers discussion.
42
2.7.3
Rolling and Finishing - Rod and Bar Products
Rod and bar mills convert various shapes and lengths of semi-finished billets into hot rolled-as-rolled shapes.
The shapes may be rounds, flats, squares, hexagons, or reinforced concrete bars. Rod and bar is manufactured
to produce the characteristics specified by the customer.
These characteristics are classified by steel grade, dimensions, metallurgical properties, and qualities. These
basic qualities are further defined for carbon steel (special quality) and alloys (regular quality). The basic
qualities are used in many applications, such as hot forging and machining and structural uses. More critical
qualities are specified in cold heading/cold extrusion, high carbon for tire cord and bead, wire rope, pre-stressed
concrete, welding rod, and bearing applications. Merchant quality is specified for structural and less critical
applications, such as reinforced concrete bar. The more critical qualities often require the HRAR rod or bar to
undergo further processing, such as cleaning (mechanical or acid descaling), coating, quench and tempering, heat
treating, straightening and cutting to length, surface inspection, internal soundness inspection, and surface
removal.
Trends and Drivers. Market and customer requirements continue to drive rod and bar mills to improve product
quality. One way to improve steel and billet quality is to use special melting and casting practices. An example
is rolling at lower furnace exit temperatures to reduce decarburization levels. Also, the mills control the
temperature profile so as to minimize the core to surface temperature differential of the section, producing grain
refinement to enhance uniformity of physical properties. These as-rolled properties will respond to subsequent
heat treatment as well as improve surface quality
Customers also demand rolling of larger billets to produce larger coil weights and improve the product yield of
the coiled and straight bar products. These reduce customer and processor set-up times, thus reducing costs.
Production of precise tolerance product in multiple sizes is an additional market need.
These practices and methods combine with downstream processing to positively affect the overall product quality
of todays rod and bar products. These demands are responsible for higher manufacturing costs. Suppliers can
overcome some costs by adding equipment with much faster production speeds and higher values of mill
utilization to increase production capacity, improve product quality, reduce manning requirements and material
costs, and thereby increase profitability. While higher production rates help decrease overall operating costs,
the demands for cost control and consistency are still difficult to meet. Direct rolling to utilize satiable heat can
help lower costs, as well as energy use. Other drivers include increased rolling cycle frequencies to reduce
inventory and just-in-time delivery requests.
Technological Challenges. Future rod and bar suppliers will be forced to operate modular type, quick change
rolling components that offer engineered set-ups, off-line technology for rapid mill start-ups, quick changeover
times, precision sizing, and colder rolling capabilities. These components will require process control equipment
to support customer driven menus, accurate and repeatable drive systems for tension free rolling, interstand
cooling, and reduced roll and pass changes for equipment. The various types of modular equipment will not only
provide high speeds and increased production rates, but they will also allow faster changes. These equipment
design features will help decrease operating costs, and they will ensure consistency by allowing off-line setup,
which greatly reduces errors, thus circumventing the tremendous cost of manning and training. Mill roll pass
configuration should include single family rolling where only a single pass shape is utilized at each stand
position in the roughing and intermediate trains to guarantee consistent setups in the rolling stands, increase mill
utilization, and consequently produce tremendous cost savings.
43
New and Emerging Technologies. The rolling of large billet sizes in continuous rod and bar mills has brought
about the increased use of breakdown mills which produce a free bar section (i.e., a bar of such length that
when it exits the last stand of the breakdown mill, it has not started to enter the continuous train). This layout
avoids excessively low entry speeds into the first stand of the continuous train. These breakdown mills are
usually of horizontal/vertical layout configuration to avoid product twisting and thus minimize surface damage.
Rod and bar sizing stands are now available, offering many advantages regarding production, precise ovality,
and free size rolling (the ability to produce other discrete sizes without roll or guide or pass changing). Quick
change equipment means that these advantages can be achieved with a high level of mill utilization.
New developments in continuous/continuous billet rolling are surfacing. For example, endless rolling is
achieved by welding billets together. This concept decreases the number of head ends, decreases the mill
threading variables, reduces the opportunities for cobbles, and most likely increases mill yield. Endless rolling
may lend itself well to present merchant quality products. If it can be perfected and applied to higher quality
levels, the technique will surely help reduce process costs.
Further downstream processing costs can be off-set and eliminated by combinations of chemistry control,
thermomechanical rolling, precision ovality, and sophisticated final product cooling menus. These attributes will
either promote fine grain structure and the consistency of physical properties to greatly reduce the cost or
eliminate heat treating.
Tight tolerance levels coupled with good decarburization control will also allow suppliers and customers to mass
produce hot rolled-as-rolled parts of like grades into master sizes that can be subsequently surface prepared, or
cold drawn, to the exact size needed for the respective part. This concept will alleviate mill changes, decrease
overall inventory, allow longer shelf life (hot rolled-as-rolled inventory versus finished inventory), and meet the
ever growing demands for just-in-time delivery.
Low-temperature rolling for grain refinement can be practiced with the latest equipment designs. New equipment
is being designed with quick change and/or traversing capability to minimize downtime when changing product
sizes.
High speed bar delivery systems, including special high speed shears for cutting in-line head and tail-ends,
reduces inherent end conditions delivered to final stand/pass set-ups and the need for extensive trimming. Thus,
the systems positively affects factors such as time, manpower, and worker safety.
2.7.4
Rolling and Finishing Research and Development

The following list provides research topics that will advance rolling and finishing technology.
Characterization of thermodynamics and kinetics of phase transformations under stress. Determine the influence
of stress on the decomposition of austenite and other transformations. The stress induced by physical constraint,
gradient cooling rate, and point-to-point composition variations will influence the transformation and the
microstructure evolution.
44
Sheet steels with good room-temperature aging resistance and bake hardening values in excess of 15 ksi.
Examine the interrelationships among temper rolling strain, interstitial solute content, and the factors that control
the return of the yield point. Expanding the obtainable combination of bake hardening values remains an active
area of interest; the high dissolved carbon contents responsible for good bake hardening values decreases rate
sensitivity.
Al-N particles and of alloy carbonitride particles. Establish conditions and limits for modification and
refinement. Both direct quenching after hot working and sub-critical annealing before quenching and tempering
have been used to modify second phase particle size distributions, thereby affecting strength and toughness
favorably.
Influence of alloy and residual elements on the solubility and precipitation of carbide and nitride phases.
Answer a number of basic questions through the application of techniques such as internal friction to measure
the dissolved carbon and nitrogen. Such data can help refine model input and verify microstructure evolution
during processing and/or service.
Material property characterization and the development of new coatings. Research directed at shape changing
and surface modification technologies should continue in this area. Optimal conditions for forging and rolling
and application of wear-resistant surface coatings depend critically on steel composition. The influence of
residual elements needs to be documented to help establish appropriate processing maps.
Rolling and Finishing
<
<
<
R & D Needs
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Characterization of thermodynamics and kinetics

of phase transformations under stress
Sheet steels with good room-temperature aging
resistance and BH values in excess of 15 ksi
Determination of the conditions and limits for
modification and refinement of Al-N particles and
of alloy carbonitride particles
Definition of the influence of alloy and residual
elements on the solubility and precipitation of
carbide and nitride phases
Characterization of material properties and new
coatings for shape changing and surface
modification technologies
Closed-loop control of heat treatment processes
and deformation processes
Methods to effectively communicate the
interrelationship between end properties,
production route, microstructure, and cost
Development of longer-life molten bath hardware
for hot-dip metallic coating processes
Development of coating surface modification and
surface alloying during the hot and cold rolling
operations
Elimination of acid pickling by finding ways to hot
roll steel without scaling or economically remove
scale mechanically
Investigation of reduction ratio vs.
microstructure and final properties for very thin
and near-net shap cast products
45
Closed-loop control of heat treatment processes.

Feedback from suitable microstructure sensors
must be used to actively adjust process
parameters. Systematic microstructure-property
relationships should be established and correlated
with the sensor output to ensure accuracy. These
processes will reduce piece-to-piece variability
and rejections.
Methods to effectively communicate the
interrelationship between end properties,
production route, microstructure, and cost.
Research should be directed at developing a
flexible scheme in which different processes and
products can be evaluated and compared. Such a
scheme would also be easy to use and include a
degree of flexibility to accommodate different
process routes and/or modifications of existing
processing routes.
Continuous processing mills. The closer coupling of casting and rolling can involve hot and warm charging or,
for light-gauge plate, a mini-mill concept of an intermediate strand cast thickness and a tunnel furnace followed
by a finishing mill (either reversing or continuous). Such close coupling of casting and rolling would require
an excellent cast surface or means to in-line surface condition.
Hot surface defect detection. In-line direct detection and classification techniques would improve detection of
surface defects in hot and cold rolling operations.
Accelerated cooling. A need exists for accelerated-cooled plates or some other method of providing plates longer
than approximately 52 feet that do not need to be heat treated.
Solidification modeling. Robust technologies for soft reduction at the caster would help achieve required
through-thickness properties at 2:1 reduction or less. Solidification modeling may also potentially eliminate
unsound centers and voids in casting.
Slab-reduction models. Schedule-free rolling technologies for applications in wide mills would improve
production.
Hot steel identification technology. Technology needs to be developed that is not destroyed by processing
(heating, rolling, shearing, parting, heat treatment).
On-line non-destructive evaluation technology. New technology could allow quick and accurate verification of
mechanical properties and surface appearance.
Development of corrosion resistant hardware material for use in Galvanizing, Galfan, Galvalume baths.
Galvinizing, Galvalume, and aluminizing are some of the popular methods of corrosion protection for steel.
Molten metals are very aggressive in attacking the bath hardware, and often the galvanizing bath requires
shutdowns after only ten days of operation. For Galvalume and aluminizing, the molten metals are even more
aggressive, and the shutdowns occur after less than ten days of operation. The shutdowns are costly and done
in order to replace the corroded hardware, among which bearings are replaced most often. There is high priority
R&D need to develop cost effective molten metal hardware material for life extension by at least an order of
magnitude.
Corrosion remains a high priority for the steel industry. Understanding the phenomena of corrosion in varying
environments, including sensors and test methods to characterize corrosion, are very important. Such tools and
techniques will lead to new steels and coatings that resist corrosion, a major factor in steel rejections and failures.
2.8 Refractories
Refractories are broadly defined as materials that have been engineered to withstand high temperatures and often
highly corrosive environments. A range of refractory types are used for the working and safety linings of
steelmaking vessels and for flow control of the molten steel.
Refractory materials are modified continuously to meet the evolving needs of the steel industry. As new
advantageous processes and procedures are adopted, refractory modifications or new developments are required.
Once the improved refractory has been engineered to withstand the service conditions, steel producers make
additional changes to further increase productivity, improve cleanliness, or reduce costs, all of which require
further modifications to the refractory. This cycle has been repeated for decades, leading ultimately to the
46
steelmaking processes and associated refractory materials that are considered standard today. So long as
improved steelmaking processes are developed and improved refractory materials are available, this trend will
continue indefinitely.
Appropriate refractory selection is critical as productivity, energy efficiency, and manufacturing and labor costs
are affected by the overall performance of the refractory linings. This dependence of steelmaking on refractory
materials has two key ramifications: research that yields enhanced refractory material performance or reduced
installation time will benefit the steel industry; refractory/containment material performance (reduced
consumption) will affect steelmaking research.
Refractory research topics will not focus on furnace applications because improvements to refractories used in
steelmaking furnaces offer less benefits than those used in blast furnaces, ladles, degassers, tundishes, and
continuous casting refractories.
Trends and Drivers. The trends and drivers associated with the refractories used in the steel industry are as
varied as the materials and applications for which the refractories are used. In general, reduced manufacturing
costs per ton of steel produced and increased steel cleanliness drive enhancement of existing refractories and the
development of new refractories.
Manufacturing cost reductions can be achieved by reducing initial refractory cost, extending refractory lining
campaigns, reducing vessel tear-out and reline duration (lower production losses), and reducing or eliminating
refractory disposal costs through reuse of the materials. Production of clean steel can be achieved by
developing refractories that are inert to the steelmaking process or by establishing techniques to remove
refractory inclusions from the steel. Other drivers include limiting the amount of landfilled refractory material
and the need to measure high-temperature refractory properties in models used to design steelmaking vessels.
A general shift to monolithic, including castable, refractories is ongoing, and this trend is expected to continue
until all refractory linings are based on cast-in-place technology.
Technological Challenges. Submerged entry nozzles (SENs) are a specialized group of refractories is used for
molten steel flow control. These include nozzles and slide gates as well as other refractory materials that guide
and protect the molten steel from the ladle through the tundish and into the caster.
The SENs are used in steelmaking to prevent reoxidation of molten steel directly from stream contact with the
surrounding environment and from air entrainment and splashing when the molten stream strikes the liquid
surface in the mold. Accretion formation and the associated clogging of tundish flow control systems is a major
problem that leads to decreased strand speed, premature changing of SENs, or casting termination as well as the
associated reductions in productivity, consistency, and steel quality.
Castable and monolithic refractories have been used successfully as linings for many steelmaking vessels.
Castable linings have advantages such as reduced installation costs, limited/eliminated joints, and limited shape
constraints. The main difficulty with castable materials in general is associated with removal of the moisture
used to place the material. The low porosity and permeability inherent in the latest castable refractories can lead
to explosive spalling or at least lining damage during dewatering. Effective dewatering procedures based on gas,
electric, or microwave heating must be established in order to fully realize the advantages associated with
castable refractories.
47
There is a lack of data on the types, quantities, and nature of refractories used throughout the steel industry,
adversely affecting the development of recycling methods. Evaluating key engineering properties of refractory
materials is so difficult and costly that producing relevant data has at times been impossible. Difficulties with
making these measurements are either related to the way the test is conducted, costs, or to the material that is
being evaluated.
Problems with the way the tests are conducted relate to the nature of refractory used because the temperature
gradient that develops within the refractory during use must be accounted for when measuring properties.
Sophisticated vessel design techniques being used require data on the temperature dependence of multiple
engineering properties, such as modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, creep, and thermal conductivity.
Because isothermal heat treatment of test specimens does not reproduce the phase development that occurs
during use of the materials, the relevance of such data is questionable.
The presence of graphite, carbon, and/or metallic additives in steelmaking refractories further complicates
measurement of high-temperature properties. Oxidation of the materials during testing often invalidates the test
while likely damaging the test equipment. Operation in neutral-to-reducing conditions requires specialized
equipment and does not prevent volatilization of various components within the refractory. The volatile
components can damage test equipment and, since similar volatilization does not occur in normal use of the
refractories, questions again exist about the validity of these tests.
New and Emerging Technologies. Steelmaking refractory development is moving away from the standard
single-component materials to multi-component composite materials composed of high purity oxides, carbon,
and graphite. Magnesia-graphite refractories (with and without metallic additions) have been used successfully
in steelmaking vessel barrels and slag lines. Castable refractories, including self-flow types, are increasingly
used to line low wear areas of steelmaking vessels while dry, vibratable, magnesia-based tundish linings have
emerged as an alternative to sprayed magnesia linings.
New refractory placement techniques such as shotcreting have been found to provide superior properties over
gunable or ramable materials while eliminating the need for expensive forms. Further advances in placement
techniques are expected soon.
Slag splashing, although not a refractory issue by strict definitions, has gained wide acceptance as a way to
dramatically increase BOF vessel lining campaigns. Coating the refractory lining with a modified slag and then
operating with the new solidified slag coating has yielded campaigns in excess of 30,000 heats.
2.8.1
Refractory Research and Development

Refractory research will focus more on applications downstream from the furnace in order to take advantage
of the significant potential benefits that can be achieved through research directed towards ladle, tundish, and
continuous casting refractories. This fact is clear when considering the refractory materials campaign durations
for the various applications.
SENs, for example, may be replaced as often as once every two to four heats as compared to BOF linings that
last many thousands of heats. Assuming a cost of $500 /SEN and three heats/SEN, a company would spend in
excess of $2 million on SENs between furnace relines. This figure is even larger when considering other aspects
such as the cost of physically replacing the SENs and the cost associated with decreased productivity and quality
as nozzle accretion occurs. Similar cases could be made for ladle slag lines, tundish linings, and slide gates and
shrouds.
48
Six refractory-related materials R&D topics present the greatest opportunities:
Submerged entry nozzles that resist accretion

Dewatering of monolithics
Castable development
Refractory recycling/landfill reduction
High-temperature properties measurement
Refractory wear gauge for steelmaking vessels
Submerged Entry Nozzles That Resist Accretion
Characterization of Clogs. A detailed postmortem microstructural analysis should be

conducted to establish the prevailing wear
patterns and accretion formation for the refractory
nozzles currently used. Used nozzles should be
sectioned in the area where accretion is most
pronounced, providing a complete record of the
phase formation as a function of distance from
the refractory/molten metal interface. Data on
accretion as a function of prevailing metallurgical
conditions is essential for establishing the
underlying mechanism(s) for SEN accretion
R & D Needs
SENs are often the limiting material in refractories used for molten steel control, so a program to address this
issue alone is detailed in the following paragraphs. It is likely that advancements in SEN technology could be
applied to other flow control refractories.
Refractory Submerged Entry Nozzles that Resist
Accretion
<
<
<
<
Clog characterization
Simulative tests
Model to predict the location and rate of
accretion
Quantified degree to which molten metal wets a
ceramic substrate
Simulative Test Development. The nozzle clogging phenomena is controlled by a combination of factors
including steel composition, temperature, and flow characteristics through the nozzle area. A method for
simulating the clogging of the nozzle interior is needed due to the cost and time constraints associated with field
trials along with the potential for reduced steel quality and equipment damage. This simulation will allow rapid
evaluation of candidate materials and metallurgical practices, providing insight into the mechanisms responsible
for nozzle clogging and the amount of improvement that can be expected in field trials.
Mathematical and Finite Element Modeling. One of the greatest problems with controlling nozzle plugging is
that it occurs in an enclosed area that cannot be observed during operation. This enclosure makes it difficult to
determine the accretion formation mechanisms and the effects that practice or refractory changes make on the
clogging or wear phenomena of the SENs. Flow modeling and finite element thermal analysis can be combined,
and a new model can be created to predict the location and rate of accretion.
Contact Angle Measurements. The degree to which molten metal wets a ceramic substrate can be quantified by
measuring the contact angle between the liquid metal and a flat and horizontal ceramic surface. Systematic
investigations of the molten steel sessile drop contact angle on flat substrates of single phase components of
typical nozzle materials will yield data providing insight into modifications to steel inclusions as well as optimal
oxides to be used as nozzle components.
49
Field Trials. Promising results from laboratory experimentation should be validated through field trials, when
interested steel producers will be identified, and side-by side performance comparisons of standard and improved
nozzles will be conducted. Post-mortem comparison of the nozzles should be completed.
R & D Needs
Dewatering of Monolithic Cast Refractories

Dewatering Simulations.
Laboratory scale
furnaces that accurately simulate single-sided
heating of a castable refractory lining should be
developed.
Refractories - Dewatering of Monolithics

<
<
<
Laboratory-scale dewatering simulations

Determined properties such as strength,
elasticity, and permeability of castable linings
Models to predict critical dewatering rates and
lining performance as a function of dewatering
practice
Properties Determinations. Castable linings

must be heated slowly. Properties such as
strength, elasticity, and permeability should be
measured and compared to results in increasingly
accelerated dewatering tests. Dewatering rate
versus property relationships for selected model
castables should be established.
Establish and Validate Dewatering Models. Existing dewatering models should be modified to incorporate data
from the dewatering rate studies. The models will then be available to predict critical dewatering rates as well
as lining performance as a function of dewatering practice.
Castable Refractories Development
R & D Needs
Development of improved high alumina, basic, and carbon/graphite-containing castables will lead to substantial
reductions in steel manufacturing costs due
largely to reduced reline labor costs and reline
durations.
Refractories - Castable Development
Formulations. Castable refractories based on

<
Castable refractories based on high alumina and
high alumina (90+ wt.%) and basic oxides, such
basic oxides
<
Evaluation of castable refractories in highly
as magnesia and dolomite, should be developed.
variable slag line applications
These castables will require improved binders
<
Castable refractory performance evaluated
and additive systems to provide the necessary
through field trials
flowability as well as the service properties
required for steelmaking application. A new
class of castables containing carbon or graphite
also should be developed. Graphite-containing castables will have many of the desirable properties that have
made graphite-containing bricks so successful, but will require development of entirely new binder and additive
systems to provide the required flow characteristics.
Corrosion Testing and Post-Mortem Characterization. Castable refractories will be subjected to a systematic
series of dynamic slag corrosion tests to evaluate their potential in highly variable slag line applications. Postmortem characterization of slag line castables and slag line bricks will be compared, and data will be used to
make further castable improvements.
Field Trials. Castable performance will be evaluated through field trials conducted by interested steel producers.
Slag linings of steelmaking ladles should be cast into place with the ladle operating along side ladles with brick
slag linings. Performance should be evaluated by direct comparison of wear and by slag penetration determined
by post-mortem analysis.
50
Refractory Recycling/Landfill Reduction
R & D Needs
Refractory recycling should focus on highly efficient in-process separation of useful materials from components
of the refractory waste stream as well as the reuse of the separated products within the steelmaking facility from
which they were generated. A comprehensive refractory recycling program should include a collection of data
on the types and quantities of refractories used throughout the steel industry, characterization of representative
samples of spent refractories, and separation/beneficiation and post characterization of the reclaimed material.
Subsequent research should focus on investigating the manufacture of co-products from these materials,
maximizing efforts to develop in-house recycling.
Surveying and Sampling.
Detailed
investigations of steel plant refractory types and
quantities used and disposal techniques and
frequency must be completed and refractory
sampling procedures established.
Refractory Recycling
<
<
<
Detailed investigation of steel plant refractory

types, quantities, and disposal techniques
Characterized spent refractories
Improved methods of beneficiation of spent
refractories
Characterized reclaimed refractory materials
Characterizing Spent Refractories.

Characterizing spent refractories is an essential
part of a comprehensive refractory recycling and
reuse program. Characterization should identify
changes that have occurred in the refractories after extended, high-temperature operation in a corrosive
environment and should provide insight into possible separation, beneficiation, and recycling techniques.
<
Characterizing Reclaimed Refractory Materials. Reclaimed refractory materials should be characterized using
standard techniques that are applied to other refractory raw materials. These data should provide potential
consumers with the information needed to incorporate reclaimed materials into a variety of products.
High-Temperature Properties Measurement

Development of a device or set of devices that
would allow high temperature measurement is
essential, as the data generated would allow for
improved design of steelmaking vessels.
R & D Needs
Refractories
<
Equipment that can provide relevant data on the
high-temperature properties of carbon/graphiteEquipment Development and Properties

containing refractories
Measurement. Equipment that can provide
<
Good properties achieved by newer refractories
relevant data on the high-temperature properties of
<
Advanced ceramics that are long-life and inert
carbon/graphite-containing refractories will be
and allow close chemical control of inclusions
developed. The equipment will evaluate one or
<
Thin-walled ceramics to facilitate fluid transfer
from containment vessel to mold while
more of the key engineering properties related to
minimizing cost and consumption and ensuring
steelmaking vessel design at temperatures
safety
approaching 3100F.
The equipment will
withstand the reducing environment while
measuring the properties of the refractory material
in a situation that considers the temperature gradient in which the refractories are used. The data resulting from
measurements using this equipment will aid in vessel design and refractory selection.
51
The wide variety of refractories coupled with the myriad operating conditions may make it impossible to fully
characterize the properties of spent refractory materials. Research to discover new, simpler products that reuse
spent refractories without a complete knowledge of their chemistry and physical properties, should be started.
Examples of potential products are ballasts, paving stones, asphalt additives, wearplates, and aggregate.
Research Priorities
Submerged entry nozzle accretion is considered to have the highest priority of the refractory research topics,
followed by castable dewatering, castable development, and refractory recycling. High-temperature properties
measurements are also needed, but innovative ideas will be needed to develop affordable new equipment.
52
Iron Unit Recycling
On a weight basis, steel is the most recycled material in use today (Figure 3-1). The 70 million net tons of
steel recycled in 2000 were used to produce about 112 million net tons of new steel in the United States.
Traditionally, the steel industry has focused on recycling steel that is either discarded during manufacturing
processes or recovered from post-consumer products. Modern steelmaking now relies on recycled iron units
for more than half of its production.
The by-products of iron and steelmaking processes and several categories of steel scrap are also a source of
recycled iron units. This includes iron containing by-products which may also contain low grade energy
units. Examples include oxide dusts, sludges, scales, slags and spent refractories, all of which are generated
as natural adjuncts to iron and steelmaking
processes. These by-products often are classified
as wastes and are discarded in landfills at a
significant cost, although they offer significant
value when recycled and properly reused.
R&D efforts are needed to enable the steel industry
to further increase the recycling of iron units. To
plan an effective strategy for this work, it is useful
to examine each of the recyclable iron unit
sources:
By-products are the residues produced during

ironmaking, steelmaking, and rolling
operations. These residues include slags, dusts,
sludges, and mill scale and constitute almost
7% of steel production (the individual process
values are shown in Table 3-1). Currently,
about 50% of this volume is recovered and
recycled; limitations are set by the relatively
low intrinsic monetary value of some of these
chemically and/or physically complex
materials.
Figure 3-1. Comparison of U.S. Recycling Rate of

Steel and Other Materials, 1999-2000 (SRI 2001)
53
Chapter 3: Iron Unit Recycling
Home Scrap is generated within steelmaking plants. This category includes left-over pieces of steel
from steelmaking, iron and steel recovered from slag processing, and defective or rejected products at the
mill, e.g. crop ends, side trimmings, and other process related yield losses.
Prompt Scrap is steel scrap generated during the manufacture of steel products. Examples of this type
of scrap include punched-out pieces of steel sheet from the manufacture of appliances, turnings from the
manufacture of screws and bolts, skeleton scrap from the production of can ends, and side trimming from
the manufacture of hoods and bumpers at auto stamping plants.
Obsolete Scrap is the steel scrap contained in post-consumer products. This category includes such
diverse items as discarded cars, appliances, construction materials, containers (including steel cans),
other durables, and steel scrap recovered from municipal waste.
As shown in Figure 3-2, home and prompt scrap are already being recycled at a rate close to 100%. In
contrast, only slightly over half of the iron units available from by-products are currently recovered, and just
over three-quarters of those available from obsolete scrap are now recycled. Figure 3-3 provides an
overview of iron unit generation and recycling by source.
In absolute terms, by-products offer the potential to recycle an additional 3.5 million tons of iron units. With
further research, development, and demonstration, the industry should be able to exploit this opportunity to a
significant extent and recover many additional iron units.
54
Figure 3-2. Status of Iron Unit Recycling, U.S. 2000 (SRI 2001)
Figure 3-3. Recycling Iron Units by Source, U.S. 2000 (SRI 2001)
55
One advantage of focusing on this source is that most aspects of by-product generation, such as
transportation and treatment (or storage), are under the control of the steel industry. In addition, many
technologies that may assist in this effort are already under development. For these reasons, by-products are
considered the best near-term, and technologically most viable opportunity to increase iron unit recovery in
the steel industry.
In comparison to by-products, obsolete scrap offers an even larger opportunity in terms of volume: 8.4
million tons of iron units that have the potential to be recovered and recycled. However, the near-term
prospects for exploiting this potential are less promising due to technical and economic factors. Most of the
unrecovered iron units in obsolete scrap are embedded in materials from which they cannot be economically
extracted using current technologies. Moreover, the design of products in which iron units are embedded is
generally not under the direct control of the industry. Nevertheless, certain subcategories of obsolete scrap do
offer opportunities for increased iron unit recycling.
The remainder of this chapter explores the opportunities for increased iron unit recycling from by-products
and obsolete scrap. The quantities and characteristics of the materials and their current treatment options are
described. Existing issues or barriers to recycling are discussed, and research priorities are identified as
much as possible.
3.1 By-Products
Iron and steel mills in the United States
presently generate approximately 30 million
tons of residues each year (containing nearly
7 million tons of iron units, Figure 3-4). These
residues consist of slags, dusts and sludges, mill
scale, spent pickle liquor, and other iron-bearing
materials. Although many additional tons of
residues, mostly slags and fixed dusts and
sludges, have been stockpiled at mills over the
years, substantial progress has been made only
recently in retrieving and utilizing some of
these materials. As shown in Figure 3-4, the
operations that produce these residues are
steelmaking, rolling and finishing, and
ironmaking. Recycling tonnage in Figure 3-4
refers to that recycled for iron unit recovery
Figure 3-4. By-product Iron Units, U.S. 2000
only. In addition, significant quantities are
(SRI 2001)
recycled for other applications described later in
the text. Research leading to reduced generation of by-products during steelmaking operations is highly
desirable.
During the past decade, major progress has been made in the recycling and use of some of these residues,
particularly blast furnace and steelmaking slags. Although significant quantities of residues are landfilled,
this option has become increasingly costly. For example, the disposal of residues presently costs integrated
steel producers $7 to $10/net ton of material for in-house landfilling and at least $20 to $30/net ton for nonhazardous commercial disposal. For material classified as hazardous under RCRA, charges range up to
$150/net ton in addition to costs for stabilization (which further increases the volume to be placed in
landfill).
56
Figure 3-5. Major By-products: Generation Rates, Iron Content, and Barriers to
Recycling (U.S.)
Unless creative approaches can be found to advance the utilization of these materials, tighter environmental
regulations and closure of landfills will force disposal costs to escalate even further in the foreseeable future.
The steel industry seeks to eliminate disposal costs and increase its primary yield by recycling internally.
Figure 3-5 provides an overview of the major by-products, including amounts generated, their approximate
iron and carbon contents, and the barriers to recycling. These by-products are further described in the
remainder of this section along with the major issues to be addressed through R&D efforts.
It is important to realize that several of the steel industry recycling issues are closely related to the effects of
the zinc that is present in many of the process streams. The source of the zinc is galvanized scrap which is
recycled through the steelmaking vessel, volatilized and carried over into the dust. The effects of this
combination of the two metal systems are addressed later in the appropriate sections.
57
3.1.1 Ironmaking
The principal by-products produced from
ironmaking operations are blast furnace slag,
flue dust, sludge and top gas. Figure 3-6
shows the amount of iron recoverable from
these sources. It should be noted that within
every blast furnace operation there is an
internal recycling loop of iron scrap (e.g.,
skulls, spills, entrapment in slags)
corresponding to between 1 and 2% of
production, or 750,000 net tons, in 1999.
Blast Furnace Slag

In the production of hot metal, the blast
furnace is charged with iron-bearing materials
(iron ore, sinter, pellets, etc.), flux (limestone
and/or dolomite), and fuel (coke). Two
products are obtained from the bottom of the
blast furnace: molten iron and slag.
Figure 3-6. Ironmaking Iron Units, U.S. 2000

(SRI 2001)
Ironmaking: Blast Furnace Slag

Composition
Oxides of silica and alumina (from the iron-bearing material), and lime and magnesia (from the flux) make up
95% of the total slag produced. Typical basicity (ratio of CaO/SiO2) is near one. Blast furnace slag also
contains small quantities of oxides of manganese, iron and alkali as well as sulfur compounds. Additionally,
there are trapped metallic iron globules. The latter (amounting to 1 to 2% of blast furnace output), are
recovered by magnetic separation and recycled with the furnace charge.
Production
Approximately 11.7 million NT (Net Tons) were produced industry-wide in the US in 1999. Slag generally
constitutes 15 to 30% of hot metal production; 460 lb/NTHM (Net Tons of Hot Metal) is a typical rate for
the US.
Current Treatment Options

In the United States, nearly all blast furnace slag finds commercial applications, mostly in the cement and
concrete industry. Depending upon how it is cooled, slag is also used commercially as an aggregate in
materials used for:
A railroad ballast
A mineral wool
A slope protection
A soil conditioner
A anti-skid material
A embankments & fills
A roofing granules
A sewage trickle-filter media
Recylability Issues/Barriers
BF slag has a low intrinsic value between $9 and $28/NT depending on the method used to cool it and
therefore most cannot be transported economically for long distances; however, this has not been an
impediment to almost full consumption by various industrial customers. The sulfur content is a source of
concern due to risk of release of odors and/or leaching when used for road construction.
58
Trends and Drivers. Blast furnace slag has a relatively low iron content and finds almost complete
utilization in a wide variety of commercial applications (mostly in the manufacture of cement, concrete, and
road construction although there is some concern regarding its sulfur content). Therefore, it is considered a
by-product, and there is little pressure to develop new applications.
New and Emerging Technologies. Reported alternative applications for blast furnace slag include use in the
production of zeolite and refractories (IISI 1994 and EC Report 1988) and, as observed during the AISI
team's visit to the Novolipekst Plant in Russia in 1994, for manufacture of artificial marble.
In Japan, the Institute for Advanced Materials Processing and Tohoku University have developed two
technologies for granulating slag. The process granulates the slag by spraying a high pressure jet of steam
and natural gas, producing CO and H2.
Blast Furnace Flue Dust and Sludge

Blast furnace flue dust and sludge are generated as a result of scrubbing and cooling the flue gases produced
during the ironmaking operation. The off gases produced in the blast furnace are exhausted through the top
of the furnace. These gases are cleaned, cooled, and then burned in the stoves to preheat the incoming cold
air to the furnace or are used as fuel in other parts of the plant. Generally, cleaning the flue gases involves
the removal of large particulates by a dry dust collector (yielding blast furnace flue dust) followed by a wet
gas cleaning system for fine particulate removal (yielding blast furnace sludge).
Trends and Drivers. Two new technologies have been implemented for utilization of the iron units contained
in blast furnace dust and sludge: cold bonding (briquetting) of the fine particles to make them suitable for use
as a raw material in ironmaking and reduction in a RHF (McManus 1996 and Balajee 1995). While some
steel plants have been successful in recycling the briquetted blast furnace residues to the blast furnaces,
degradation problems occur while the briquetted residues are heated during descent in the furnace. This
causes a loss in permeability of the burden resulting in loss of production. As described below, the RHF
process is able to recover these iron units while treating other materials from the plant. Additional work is
needed to develop better, cheaper binders for cold briquetting these materials and to develop other lower cost
technologies to process them.
Of significant concern is adherence to the limits for maximum allowable zinc concentration in materials to be
charged to the blast furnace. Levels vary from steel plant to steel plant, but the control level of zinc
(maximum) charged into the blast furnace is generally about 0.5 pound/net ton of hot metal. This experiencebased limit is set to prevent zinc related buildups in the blast furnace stack (which have been linked to
catastrophic instances of internal scaffolding and slips) as well as damage to refractories by penetration of
zinc followed by condensation of zinc chlorides.
New and Emerging Technologies. Some success has been achieved using hydro-cyclones, a wet
classification process to treat blast furnace sludge. Since 1984, Hoogovens in the Netherlands has operated a
two-stage hydro-cyclone system capable of reducing the zinc concentration in the feed return material to
between 0.1 and 0.3%, although a new stream containing up to 7% zinc is created (Balajee 1995).
Bethlehem Steel's Burns Harbor Integrated Waste Management Facility treats all blast furnace sludge, BOF
sludge, and waste water treatment sludge (Lynn 1997) . The facility incorporates blast furnace hydrocyclone slurry and oily sludge into the sinter plant. It is important to note that at this plant the BOF
generated dusts and sludge are essentially free of zinc (<0.3%) by virtue of local scrap management policies.
59
Ironmaking: Blast Furnace Dust and Sludge

Composition
Primarily composed of oxides of iron, calcium, silicon, magnesium, aluminum, as well as carbon in the form
of coke breeze.
Production
Dust and sludge typically constitute 1 to 4% of the hot metal production. In 1999 approximately 380,000
NT of blast furnace flue dust and 650,000 NT of blast furnace sludge were produced by U.S. integrated steel
plants.

At steel plants with sintering facilities the dust and sludges are used as minor iron and carbon sources for
sintering operations. At others, it maybe mixed with other residues, briquetted, and recycled back to the
blast furnace. Some plants landfill the dust and sludge.
Recyclability Issues/Barriers
Key barriers to the recycling of the dust directly back to the blast furnace include its size distribution (95 to
99% minus 20 mesh) and the shutdown of many sinter plants. In comparison to the dust, blast furnace
sludge is less effectively recycled and/or utilized; much of both is landfilled and/or stockpiled. Barriers to
sludge recycling include its size distribution (97 to 100% minus 20 mesh), moisture (20 to 35%), and
chemistry (can contain up to 5~7% zinc, which adversely affects blast furnace operation and refractory life).
Recent implementation of two technologies, cold briquetting with other oxides and coke breeze for direct
return to the blast furnace and/or rotary hearth furnace reduction, have shown that the iron units in blast
furnace dusts and sludges can be recovered for reintroduction into the iron/steel making flow sheet. The
direct use of briquettes in the blast furnace often results in loss of permeability in the stack with consequent
loss of productivity. Better and lower cost briquetting methods would be beneficial in extending recovery
successes.
3.1.2 Steelmaking
The principal residues produced from
steelmaking vary according to the type of
process. The two major types are the BOF
process and the EAF process. Figure 3-7
shows the number of iron units in the major
residues generated and currently recycled for
recovery of iron units. Although the iron units
are lost, a large portion of BOF slag and EAF
slag are utilized for other applications described
later in the text. EAF dust is processed for
recovery of zinc and the slag generated in the
process is also used.
BOF Steelmaking
In the basic oxygen steelmaking process, Figure 3-7. Steelmaking Iron Units, U.S. 2000
molten iron and scrap are converted into steel
(SRI 2001)
by blowing oxygen and simultaneously adding
fluxes. At the end of the cycle, alloys are added. The basic oxygen furnaces used in this process generate
BOF slag and BOF dust and sludge, all of which contain iron units.
60
BOF Slags
Different kinds of slags arise during the steelmaking process. During the oxygen blow, impurities in the
metal (carbon, silicon, manganese, and phosphorus) as well as some iron are oxidized to form the largest
portion of the steel slag, the so-called primary slag. Secondary slags are produced from the pretreatment
processing of hot metal and from secondary steelmaking operations known as ladle treatment of molten steel.
Trends and Drivers. Disposal or utilization of steelmaking furnace slags present challenges due to their low
intrinsic cash value. Significant quantities are landfilled in some plants. In integrated plants, the natural inhouse customers for these slags are the sinter/blast furnace operations. However, their use is restricted by
required limits of phosphorus levels in the hot metal. As a result, plants with sintering facilities consume
40% of BOF slag internally. Efforts have been made (Fruehan 1999) to develop technologies to remove
phosphorous from steelmaking slags, but economics in the United States do not favor this approach. For EAF
slags, the technical issues are similar although the option for in-plant utilization (i.e., use in a sinter plant) is
not available.
In the past, the presence of large amounts of free lime (up to 7%) made external sale difficult. The presence
of free lime necessitated hydrating by exposing the slag to the elements. Improved BOF and EAF
steelmaking practices have limited the content of free lime so that current steelmaking slags have many
commercial applications, with room for development of others. Presently, most slags find applications as
road aggregate and in the manufacture of Portland cement. For the latter application, a portion of the MgO
and FeO contained within the slag are of benefit; however, high concentrations limit its use. It is important
to note that there is a significant energy credit to the steel industry from supply of the stone and dolomite
which it has calcined. Other applications include anti-skid material for icy roads and landfill daily cover.
BOF slag has been used in agriculture in Western Europe and has been found to have a neutralizing value
almost equivalent to that of limestone, but with added benefits attributed to the presence of P2O5 and some
trace elements (EC Report 1988).
Ladle treatment facilities also generate a small amount of slag. The chemical and physical characteristics of
these slags are unique to each facility, and their reusability usually is limited to forming the base or starter
of slags for the same application. Some refining slag is recycled into EAFs for use of the lime units.
New and Emerging Technologies. Several new developments are underway to increase the use of
steelmaking slags, and support is warranted to achieve complete usage. Developments include:
Reuse of spent slags to expedite the dissolution of newly added fluxes

Use of cooled slags in place of fresh magnesia in slag-splashing practices
Reaction of free lime and sand injected with oxygen into the slag pots, a practice developed in
Germany (Kuhn 1997)
Development of faster artificial aging techniques, such as utilized in Australia and Japan, to stabilize
steelmaking slags.
Alternative industrial applications, where the energy content of the pre-fused steelmaking slag would be a
credit, need to be explored. One potential application uses slag as an ingredient in glassmaking.
61
BOF Steelmaking: Slag

Composition
Calcium silicates combined with fused oxides of iron, aluminum, manganese, calcium, and magnesium.
Components in the hot metal from the blast furnaces, such as carbon, silicon, manganese, and phosphorus,
as well as some of the iron are oxidized during the oxygen blow; whereas the oxidized carbon leaves as CO
(to be converted to CO2 above the slag), the other elements form oxides that enter the slag together with
some of the sulfur in the hot metal and in the scrap.
BOF slag has a higher basicity than blast furnace slag (lime/silica ratio of 2.5 to 4.0), higher FeO content
approximately 25 to 35%, and is far more variable in chemical composition. A major concern is the
significant content of free lime often present in these slags.
Production
200 to 440 lbs of primary BOF slag is produced for every ton of steel made using the oxygen steelmaking
process. During 1999, approximately 6.2 million NT of steelmaking primary slag were produced in the
United States. A typical steelmaking slag processing operation involves recovery of the metallic iron fraction
for re-use within the ironmaking and steelmaking, as well as the crushing and sizing of the non-ferrous
fraction for re-use either within the steel works or for external sale.

Steelmaking slag is crushed and sized for charging to the sinter plant (if available) and/or to the blast
furnaces to utilize the fluxing compounds CaO, MgO in the slag and to recover the contained chemical
energy as well as the iron and manganese units. Unfortunately, most of the phosphorous in the BOF slag
reverts to the hot metal in the blast furnace. This limits the quantity of BOF slag that can be charged to the
sinter plant and the blast furnace to about 25% of generation.
Some steelmaking slag can be used as a starter fluxing agent in steelmaking furnaces. It is used extensively
outside the steel works, mainly for road construction, where it provides excellent anti-skid properties, and
in the cement industry. Unfortunately, some is landfilled while opportunities for sale to the cement industry
remain to be capitalized.
The practice of recycling steelmaking slag internally has declined (from 30% about ten years ago) as a
result of increased demand for low-phosphorus steels.
The use of steelmaking slag in road construction has fallen into disfavor in some parts of the United States
because the free lime present in steelmaking slag can subsequently hydrate, causing expansion and
disintegration of the roadbed. Additionally, the free lime can lead to the formation of tufaceous calcium
carbonate (tufa), which can plug roadbed drains; this has forced the implementation of methodologies to
stabilize the free lime by practice changes or by aging or by steam curing. At present, about 75% of BOF
steelmaking slag produced each year in the U.S. is consumed inside or outside of the steel works. This
leaves 25% to be landfilled, a situation in part caused by unfavorable costs incurred in transportation of a
relatively low value material. The rate of slag recycling is higher in Canada, Europe and Japan in part due
to economics and environmental regulations.
BOF Steelmaking Dust and Sludge

BOF steelmaking dust and sludge is generated as a result of the cleaning of the off gases emitted from the
oxygen-steelmaking processes. The off gases are exhausted through the top of the furnace. In most shops,
the gases, which contain nearly 90% CO, are combusted with entrained cold air, then cooled, cleaned, and
released into the atmosphere through a stack. In some shops, the gases are cooled with water sprays upon
leaving the furnace and vented through a flare stack. In Japan, which has much higher energy costs, some
shops make use of the energy in the off gases by adding them to the plant energy grid. In either situation, the
primary cleaning is normally achieved by washing the gases with water and, in a few cases, by means of a
dry system (electrostatic precipitators).
62
The wet gas cleaning system is usually a two-stage process. In the first stage, the gases are cooled, and the
coarse dust is removed. During the second stage, the fine dust fraction is washed out of the gas. After
settling in a sedimentation basin or thickener, the fine slurry fraction is dewatered by means of vacuum filters
or centrifuges. The coarse slurry fraction is normally treated separately in drag classifiers. Modern steel
works are also equipped with secondary collection systems, which collect dry dust during vessel charging
and tapping operations.
Trends and Drivers. Rising landfill costs and the increasingly stringent environmental regulations imposed
in most countries highlight the need for special treatments and other applications for the material. Increased
recycling of galvanized steel is increasing the zinc content in steelmaking dusts and sludges. If the zinc
could be kept out of the BOF scrap charge, either by segregation or by dezincing, the resulting BOF fume
would be low enough in zinc to be used in sintering in the few plants with such facilities. A broader solution
to this problem may be in processes that remove the zinc, with or without reducing the iron oxide, thereby
creating two separate recyclable streams.
New and Emerging Technologies. One internal recycling development is briquetting of BOF dust and
sludges for recycling back to the BOF. This approach uses the BOF as a reduction vessel, reducing scrap
melting and consequently steel output. In addition, vessel slopping is often encountered when using these
briquetted materials, resulting in environmental problems and yield losses. Another recycling method that
has been investigated extensively is the separate treatment of the low zinc-containing coarse fraction, which
can be recycled directly to a sinter plant or agglomerated and recycled. Unfortunately, the coarse fraction
accounts for only 10 to 30% of the total dust or sludge produced; in-plant recycling of the fine fraction has
not typically been possible without further processing to remove the zinc. Wet classification processes and
selective chemical leaching tend to be ineffective due to the fineness of the material and the form in which
the zinc is present, zinc ferrite (oxide) particles.
BOF Steelmaking: Dust and Sludge

Composition
BOF steelmaking dust and sludge generally contains 50 to 65% iron and between 0.3 and 12% zinc on a
dry basis. Size consist is 97 to 100% minus 20 mesh with a significant portion finer than 0.0002 inches.
For steelmaking sludge, the moisture content is 25 to 45%.
Production
Combined generation rates for steelmaking dust and sludge average 35 to 40 lb/NT of liquid steel. During
1999 approximately 260,000 NT of steelmaking dust and approximately 1.25 million NT of steelmaking
sludge were produced.

Steelmaking dust and sludge have been used in the production of Portland cement and as a coloring agent
for concrete. At present, less than half of the steelmaking dust and sludge generated is being re-used, very
little (one plant in the U.S.) internally in sinter plants due to the deleterious effect the contained zinc would
have on blast furnace operation. A few plants recover the contained iron units by incorporating the
dust/sludge in cold agglomerated briquettes as a charge in the BOF but at a penalty in steel output due to
the decrease in scrap melting capability. Recently, a new technology, Rotary Hearth Furnace reduction, has
been introduced to recover the iron and zinc units separately for return into their respective flow sheets.
Barriers to the recycling of steelmaking dust and sludges directly to the blast furnace or the steelmaking
furnace are size distribution, moisture, and chemistry (see Composition, above). Zinc content is the major
barrier to direct recycling.
63
From a practical viewpoint, it appears that only pyrometallurgical processes are capable of performing this
operation. Over the past 15 years, a number of pyrometallurgical processes have been developed for the
treatment of residues to yield iron for recycling into the BOF and zinc for sale as a feedstock, some of which
have been realized in pilot and full-scale plants. A well-known example is the rotary kiln in service for EAF
baghouse dust. However, theses approaches have not been economically viable for the zinc levels in BOF
by-product oxides. Thus, with the single exception of the plant at Sumitomo-Kashima, these processes are
used only to treat dusts originating in EAF operations. The AISI method is a coal-based smelting process
that produces molten pig iron, zinc oxide rich fume, and an off gas with fuel value, and was demonstrated in
a pilot plant (Downing 1996) .
In the last few years, three new pyrometallurgical treatment processes have been studied intensively. One of
these is the Inmetco process in which green pellets, made from chromium, nickel, and zinc-bearing residues
are reduced in a RHF with the recovered metal units returned to the stainless steel producing industry.
Recently, a related technology, the rotary hearth furnace reduction of briquetted oxides, has been
demonstrated in the pilot stage (Rinker 1999, Koros 2000) and installed at Rouge Steel (Daiga 2000),
Nippon Steel, and Kobe Steel (Hoffman 2000) to treat a briquetted mixture of pellet fines, oily mill scale,
and blast furnace and BOF by-products for charging into hot metal transfer ladles. A high-grade zinc oxide
dust catch is produced for sale to the zinc industry.
In Europe, a multiple hearth coal reduction process (PRIMUS) has been taken to the 2 NT/hour pilot plant
stage at ARBED, and stepwise reduction is achieving output similar to that of the RHF. Another process,
previously under development by Thyssen, USINOR and Lurgi and now abandoned due to economically
insurmountable problems with materials of construction, was based on a high temperature circulating
fluidized bed.
Researchers have also been looking into the possibility of reusing BOF steelmaking dusts and sludges as raw
materials in the electric arc furnace. These studies are based on the idea that by recycling EAF dust into the
furnace, zinc and lead can be enriched in electric arc furnace dust to a level that makes it more economically
attractive to treat for recovery of these elements. However, the logic for this approach, because of high
electrical energy smelting costs and economics of turning part of a non-hazardous waste stream into a
RCRA-listed hazardous K061 material, is unclear.
An interesting opportunity exists to utilize the Fe values in BOF dusts in the cement industry to satisfy the
iron oxide requirements for Portland cement. In one case in the Chicago area, payment for the iron units
nearly covers the cost of transportation, and landfilling is avoided. Zinc contents typical of BOF dusts (2 to
10%) are not considered a problem for this application, but as in landfilling, the zinc values are lost.
Sumitomo Metal Industries process removes zinc from dusts and sludges prior to recycling through the blast
furnace (Kochihira 1993). The method involves reducing the moisture content of combined BF/BOF
dust/sludge slurry from 70 to 20% using filter presses and then drying the material in a Waelz Kiln. Iron
(mostly as Fe2O3) is reduced to FeO, and the zinc is vaporized, recovered as the oxide, and sold. The coarse
iron rich residue is charged directly to the blast furnace (>0.2 inch), while the fine fraction (<0.2 inch) is
directed to the sinter plant. In 1991, the Sumitomo plant processed 124,000 tons of BF/BOF slurry and
produced 29,000 tons of blast furnace feed material, 59,000 tons of sinter plant feed material, and 5,000 tons
of zinc oxide.
64
The AISI and the U.S. Bureau of Mines developed a process that successfully dewaters BOF sludge from
about 60 to 12% water. The process, which employs pressure filtering followed by an acetone wash, awaits
full-scale pilot testing and further assessment of practical and economic feasibility.
At one location (Bethlehem Steel-Sparrows Point, Lynn 1997), a novel approach has been implemented in
which part of the hot BOF slag is used to dry the sludge from the BOF shop scrubber system. The result is an
iron-rich material employed as a component of the vessel charge. While this technique consumes all the
sludge generated at the BOF shop, it does not yet consume dusts, sludges, scale generated elsewhere in the
plant, or all of the BOF slag.
On the chemical treatment front, the Isonics-Fray Chlorination process (Fray 1999) has shown promise in the
use of chlorine gas at 1475 oF to remove base metals (Zn, Pb) from dust and sludge to make clean iron units
available for recycling.
In summary, the four pyrometallurgical process technologies currently most likely to succeed in recovery of
the iron units in BOF generated dusts and sludges are the RHF followed by a melting step to complete
reduction (from >90% metallized) to liquid pig iron; the stepwise reduction PRIMUS; the Bethlehem Steel
hot slag drying referred to above; and the oxygen driven bath smelting HISMELT process. Other
approaches under development elsewhere, including the new approach using elevated temperature
chlorination, merit support.
Electric Arc Furnace

The EAF process has changed markedly during the last few years with the more intensive use of chemical
energy (quantities of oxygen equivalent to the BOF), high power transformers, DC in place of AC power
sources, and large portions of pig iron and of pre-reduced HBI and DRI in the charge. The result has been a
dramatic shortening of heat cycle times (a 45 to 50 minute tap to tap is not uncommon), decreased total and
electrical energy use, and increased volumes of furnace slag and baghouse catch. The latest trend, in Japan,
Europe, and now the United States, is the charging of liquid hot metal made in a blast furnace or a smelter.
This practice can reduce electrical power requirements to the 200 to 250 kWh/NT range and shorten heat
cycles to less than 45 minutes.
In EAF steelmaking, specific grades of steel scrap are selected and charged into the furnace along with
varying amounts of other iron-bearing materials and fluxes. Charging typically takes place through the
furnace roof. During the steelmaking process, one to three large cylindrical carbon electrodes (depending on
type of furnace, AC or DC) are lowered through openings in the roof to melt the charge. It is important to
note that the above mentioned trends to use larger amounts of oxygen as well as charge materials other than
scrap cause marked changes in the nature (i.e., amounts, composition) of the process by-products, slag and
dust.
Electric Furnace Slag

For every ton of steel produced in electric arc furnaces, about 125 to 200 pounds of furnace slag are
generated. In addition, ladle treatment facilities generate about 20 lb/NT of slag. In total, about 3 to 4 million
tons of EAF shop slags are generated annually. These slags are somewhat different from those generated in
BOF shops in terms of composition, commercial usage options, and recyclability issues. Important
differences from BOF-produced slags exist due to factors related to process needs: EAF slags have lower
basicity, i.e., lime/silica ratio (to permit foaming), and higher FeO and P2O5 contents. There is a lack of inhouse reuse opportunities, and often the shipping costs to a potential industrial customer is too great to
permit the sale of these low value materials for commercial consumption.
65
Furthermore, the newer EAF shops tend to be in rural areas with low cost access to landfills for disposal.
Thus, a smaller portion of this slag actually finds industrial or construction applications. As referred to
above, there are examples of use of the full output of EAF slag in an adjacent cement plant with impressive
savings in energy costs and resultant increase in output of cement (Rostik 1997). Synergistic applications
with other industrial operations should be explored.
Electric Arc Furnace Dust

In 2000 electric furnaces produced about 50 million tons of carbon and alloy steel products in North
America, generating almost one million tons of dust (Most of this is classified as K061). In the United
States, this dust is collected by evacuation into a baghouse.
EAF Steelmaking: EAF Dust

Composition
EAF dust composition varies greatly depending on the makeup of the scrap charge and the furnace additives
used. The primary component is iron or iron oxides; a typical EAF dust contains 30 to 40% iron by weight.
EAF dust can also contain large amounts of zinc and lead (as high as 35 to 40% Zn as the oxide, sulfide or
chloride and 4% Pb as the oxide) if large amounts of galvanized steel and free-machining steel turnings are
used. In addition, EAF dust can contain cadmium, other metals, halides, and fluxes. The primary hazardous
constituents are lead, cadmium, and chromium. Stainless steel production yields dust with high percentages
of chromium and nickel oxides.
Production
The average rate of generation for EAF dust is about 25 lbs/ton of steel melted. In 1999 about 850,000
NT were generated. At a typical treatment or disposal cost of $125 to 150/NT the industry cost for 1999
was $115 million or $ 2.50/NT of EAF produced steel. (Note: due to competitive pressures, processing
costs have decreased during the last few years) The amount of iron units available in the EAF dust, based
on a typical analysis of 35% Fe, was 300,000 NT.

Current alternatives are to (1) ship to an off-site processor, (2) pay for stabilization and land fill in a secure
site, (3) sell to exempt markets such as fertilizer producers. Three HTMR processes are in use presently
for treating EAF dust to recover zinc. The main HTMR process is the Waelz kiln; others in use are the rotary
hearth furnace and the flame reactor. There are several versions of RHF processes: Inmetco, AlMet, MR&E,
Redsmelt, etc. Successful pilot plant work has shown the technical viability of the AISI Direct Steelmaking
smelting technology as well as of the related Hismelt process but economic issues (high capital cost) remain
to be addressed.
In 1999 about 55% of EAF dust generated was treated at an HTMR facility, about 40% was landfilled and
a small quantity was processed into fertilizer.
Emerging technologies, including new methods of HTMR, and pyrometallurgy, such as the Cl-based process
(1475 F), may lead to viable options to reduce the high costs of processing EAF dust. Within process
recycling, that is, return to the EAF of the baghouse catch, is a means for enrichment of the dust but at the
expense of power and furnace time (=productivity).
What had appeared at first to be a lower cost alternative, hydrometallurgy, is ruled out by the combined form
of Zn and Fe in the EAF dust; thus, cost remains the greatest barrier. Technologies with a low net cost to
the steelmaker attained either by a lower-cost process, by generation of a high-value, marketable by-product,
or through generation of a recyclable charge material are needed.
66
Trends and Drivers. The production of EAF dust in the United States is expected to continue to increase as
more furnaces are installed. Currently, about 55% of EAF dust is processed with the most common method
being the Waelz Kiln, a high-temperature metals recovery (HTMR) process for recovery of the zinc content.
This method is used because of the limited number of approved process alternatives for treating K061. The
Waelz Kiln process has carried an unacceptably high price tag because of limited competition and the limited
credit given for the zinc recovered from the dust. Several approaches have been pursued during the last few
years to lower the cost of treatment and/or disposal of EAF dust.
Although developed and emerging technologies are available to stabilize EAF dust for burial in landfills
(approximately 40% of generation in 1999), the long-term interests of the industry may be better served by
technologies that recover the iron units for reuse in steelmaking and take full advantage of the contained
recoverable zinc. Recent EPA decisions, that increase the economic attractiveness of landfilling stabilized
and delisted EAF dust, present recycling technologies with a cost challenge, particularly for EAF shops
located far from the available HTMR processing facilities.
One alternative approach that has been pursued is to increase the amount of zinc recovered in order to buy
down the processing cost. This approach can be accomplished by charging briquetted EAF dust into the
EAF, by sub-surface injection of the baghouse dust, or by bulk addition. Furthermore, the average zinc
content has increased over the past decade to the 25 to 35% range, enhancing the economics for treatment
and recycling of EAF dusts. This increase is attributed to a growing use (and thus returns) of galvanized
steel.
Technologies for the on-site recycling of EAF dust back into the furnace (for example, briquetting,
pelletizing, or pneumatic injection as powder) have been implemented in Europe because they offer the
potential to recover some of the iron oxide values while concentrating zinc values. Concentrating the zinc
reduces final recycling costs because smaller quantities of dust will be shipped off site and the resulting dust
has a higher zinc concentration which improves the revenue from the subsequent zinc recovery. However,
the costs associated with all these practices (e.g., preparation of the powders, maintenance of the delivery
equipment, increased power usage by the EAF for smelting) often outweigh the benefits. One approach (with
high capital and operating costs) is in place at one shop in Germany where the zinc-rich dust generated
during the scrap melting is captured in one chamber, and low zinc, iron-rich dust generated during the
oxygen blowing period is captured separately and re-injected into the furnace to recover the Fe units.
Treatment processes that produce a more enriched metallized iron are particularly attractive to steelmakers.
The higher metallic iron content allows processed residue to be handled in the same way as other scrap (i.e.,
by electromagnet), eliminating the need for special equipment.
A barrier to recycling EAF dust are the environmental laws that define EAF dust and mixtures that contain
EAF dust as hazardous waste. This discourages recycling and research because non-generators are unwilling
to receive the material.
New and Emerging Technologies. With support from the U.S. Department of Energy, EPRI's Center for
Materials Production examined various approaches to minimizing the formation of EAF dust, such as
modified scrap charge, power input level during meltdown, oxygen lancing practice, carbon dioxide for
carrier gas for carbon injection, use of carbon dioxide during charging and tapping, foamy slag practice,
post-combustion, and furnace draft (use of adjustable speed drives). Of these factors, the two-chamber
baghouse, variable speed fans, and improved slag foaming are the most beneficial, although the capital cost
for retrofits makes the first two unlikely to be implemented soon.
67
Hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical processes for treating EAF dust continue to emerge to compete
with the current two commercial HTMR technologies: Waelz Kiln and rotary hearth furnace. The
hydrometallurgical processes include the ZINCEX, ESINEX, and Cashman processes, while the
pyrometallurgical processes include Sirosmelt (Ausmelt). It must be recognized that the hydrometallurgical
processes often fall victim to the difficulty in digestion of the zinc ferrites, which, unfortunately, is the
prevalent form of the zinc in EAF baghouse dust (CMP 1993). The thermal and plasma processes have the
ability to break up the ferrites and thereby release all the zinc.
The biggest player worldwide in (thermal) treatment of EAF dusts are the Waelz kilns, operated in the
United States by Horsehead Resource Development Company. Unfortunately, the iron units are discharged
in the form of oxides in a diluted slag-like material, whereas zinc is recovered in a usable form to enter its
refining flow sheet. A newer competing technology for EAF dust, based on the rotary hearth furnace, is in
operation at Inmetco and one EAF shop (Sack 1999, Sloop 2000). It can produce a high purity zinc oxide
catch as well as a >90% metallized Fe product ready for melting (at AmeriSteel, the iron oxide is purposely
discharged at around 50% metallization for mixing into the EAF slag). The plasma furnace approach,
studied by the CMP and at first marketed by Tetronics, has fallen victim to technical problems (chloride
reactions with zinc and iron leading to condensation of unmanageable hard zinc) and unfavorable process
economics.
Another thermal reduction process, the AISI Waste Oxide Process, was shown in the pilot plant to
successfully recycle synthetic EAF dust.
A patented high temperature metal synthesis process has reached commercialization and soon will be
demonstrated with iron-bearing wastes. This PEL process will manufacture an engineered iron oxide
industrial product from grinding swarf, mill scale, turnings, and eventually EAF dust. While the iron units
will be lost to the industry, their use as a feedstock in the creation of another product will be beneficial
through reduced landfilling.
3.1.3 Rolling and Finishing

Rolling can be categorized as hot or cold rolling operations. The principal residues produced from rolling
and the related surface preparation operations are mill scale, rolling sludges, pickle liquor, grinding swarf,
and other dusts. Figure 3-8 shows the estimated number of iron units in the mill scale, rolling sludge and
pickle liquor.
Mill Scale
Mill scale is the product of continuous casting, reheating and hot rolling operations. It is not produced
during cold rolling. The continuous casting process is used to produce semi-finished steel shapes (such as
billets, blooms, and slabs1) directly from molten steel. The water sprays also serve to remove scale and
other impurities from the steel surface. The scale is collected in scale settling basins.
Although there are no strict definitions for slabs, blooms, and billets, the distinctions generally pertain to size and shape in cross-section. Billets
are usually squares of up to 5 inches on a side; blooms are squares of 6 to 12 inches on a side; and slabs are rectangular, measuring 2 to 10 inches thick
and 100 inches or wider.
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Hot mill rolling operations consist of processes

in which hot steel billets, blooms, and slabs are
transformed in size and shape through a series
of forming steps to ultimately produce semifinished and finished steel products. Water is
used for direct contact cooling and de-scaling.
Cooling water is used to flush the mill stand
work rolls and to prevent surface cracking of
the steel rolls due to sudden temperature
changes. Descaling sprays are also used to
remove oxide scale and impurities from the
surface of the material being rolled. Cooling
and de-scaling water is normally discharged
from the mill into scale pits where the heavier
solid particles settle out (scale).
Figure 3-8. Rolling and Finishing Iron Units, U.S. 2000
(SRI 2001)
Trends and Drivers. For oily rolling scale to be

recycled via a sinter plant, de-oiling of the material may be required to protect the environmental
performance of the plant. Although for other applications such as cement manufacture and RHF reduction,
oil is a tolerable presence, significant amounts of mill scale are landfilled.
Rolling and Finishing: Mill Scale

Composition
Rolling mill scale is relatively coarse, with 85 to 90% of the constituent particles >0.006 inches. The iron
content, mostly in oxide form, is about 70% (on an oil- and moisture-free basis). The oil content of rolling
scale is typically in the range of 0.2 to 2%, but oil contents as high as 10% have been observed.
Production
The quantities of scale generated by rolling operations vary, but tend to range between 10 and 80 lbs/ton.
In 1999 approximately 4.0 million tons of rolling mill scale were produced in the United States.

At a few steel plants, rolling scale is recycled through the sinter plant or sold to other steel plants as sinter
feed material; however, as noted below, this application is limited. Steel plants without sintering capability
have attempted to directly recycle the scale through their blast furnaces but with limited success. Others
have had success in briquetting the mill scale along with other residues and have used this product in their
ironmaking furnaces and/or steelmaking furnaces. In addition, several other industries are using mill scale
as a raw material, including the cement industry. Generally, almost all rolling scale is either recycled or sold.
Rolling scale containing more than 3% oil is generally landfilled or sold for manufacture of Portland cement.
New technologies such as reduction in rotary hearth furnaces have been shown to have the capability for
return of the iron units to the steelmaking flow sheet. Similarly, in Belgium, a blast furnace is consuming, by
tuyere injection, all the oily mill scale generated at the plant.
The oil/grease that is bonded to mill scale is difficult to remove and is the major impediment to the direct
recycling of this by-product residue within the steel plant. The scarcity of sinter plants is also a growing
barrier as many have shut down. New technologies have demonstrated the ability to make a product suitable
for recycling in the steel mill. The relative newness and significant capital cost of RHF systems presently are
barriers to its application.
69
New and Emerging Technologies. A patented de-oiling process for rolling scale was used at a steel plant in
the United States for several years and was capable of processing 550 tons of material a day to less than 1%
oil but the process owners have decided to abandon their technology. As discussed later, biological de-oiling
of rolling scale also has been studied (IISI 1994). An economical process that reduces the oil to less than 1%
is needed.
Rolling Sludge
Rolling sludge is generated during hot rolling and cold rolling operations. After the mill scale is removed
from the cooling and descaling water used in the hot rolling operation, the semi-cleaned water is then
normally sent on to a treatment plant where the fine particulates (sludge) are removed. Process water is then
either recycled back to the mill and/or discharged.
In cold rolling operations, flat steel products are reduced in thickness without preheating. An oil-water
solution is applied to dissipate heat from both the work rolls and the product as it is mechanically processed
and to flush impurities from the surface of the steel. The rolling solution is recovered and recycled within the
mill, then periodically discharged to an oil recovery plant. There, the rolling oil is recovered and typically
returned to a refiner. The processed solution from the recovery plant is discharged to a treatment plant where
the fine particulates (sludge) are removed.
Trends and Drivers. As with mill scale, sludges are bonded to oil/grease that is difficult to remove and
impedes the recycling of this by-product residue within the steel plant.
Rolling and Finishing: Sludge

Composition
Rolling sludge consists of oils, greases, and fine-grained solids. The iron content of rolling mill sludge typically
varies from about 30 to 60 % iron. Generally rolling sludge is 100% minus 20 mesh, moisture content can
range from 20 to 50%, and oil content can range from 1.5 to 30%.
Production
Approximately one million NT of rolling sludges were produced in 1999. Containing 30 to 60% Fe, this
represents a significant volume of iron units.

Sludges from hot and cold rolling operations (treatment plants) often are landfilled. Limited amounts of
rolling sludge have been used as sinter plant feed. Solvent extraction processes have been marketed for the
deoiling of rolling and wastewater-treatment sludges. Incineration of oily sludges is also technically, if not
economically, feasible. The AISI is trying to arrange sponsorship for a pilot/demonstration test of a new
technology for deoiling and dewatering sludges.
Barriers to the recycling of rolling sludge include size distribution, moisture, and oil content. The sludge
cannot typically be added to the sinter plant feed because the contained oil causes emissions. However,
recent experience has shown that these materials can be processed in rotary hearth furnaces without
impairment of environmental performance. The possibility of using the spent rolling oils in blast furnaces,
as done in one BF in Europe, merits examination.
70
New and Emerging Technologies. The following processes (one in use and two under development)
address the recyclability issues.
Two Belgian ironmaking furnaces experimented with injection of an oily rolling sludge composed of
35 to 60% water, 20 to 55% oil, and 10 to 20% solids (IISI 1994). Currently, spent rolling oil is used
as a tuyere injectant for one blast furnace.
Biological de-oiling of rolling sludge has been studied; however, the process rates appear too slow
for practical industrial utilization. Results to date indicate naturally occurring microorganisms with
mechanical aeration could be used to achieve a 50% reduction in the oil content of rolling sludges
over a seven-month period. Another study indicates that the oil content of rolling sludge can be
halved in one month and reduced to 3% of the original amount in 15 months when proper
biodegradation conditions are maintained (IISI 1994).
The Carnegie Mellon Research Institute, in cooperation with the AISI and the EPRI Center for
Materials Production (CMP), has developed a microwave de-oiling process for rolling sludges. The
single-stage microwave de-oiling process has been proven at the laboratory scale. The products of
this process are dry scale containing less than 1% oil and clean oil. A pilot demonstration of the
process is in the planning stages under the auspices of the AISI.
Development work and recent commercial implementation have shown that the rotary hearth furnace
process, through closely controlled time at peak temperatures and the control of the furnace atmosphere, has
the capability of reducing oil laden scales incorporated in the charge oxide briquettes without deleterious
effects on the gaseous effluents. These results are similar to those in cement manufacturing operations,
except in the latter the iron units are lost.
Spent Pickle Liquor

Acid pickling is a finishing process used to clean the surface of hot-rolled steel products prior to cold rolling
and/or coating operations. Acid pickling generates an iron-rich by-product called spent pickle liquor, which
is considered a hazardous waste (K062). It generally contains considerable residual acidity and high
concentrations of dissolved iron salts. There are four types of spent pickle liquor, each of which produces
different types of dissolved iron salts when recycled.
Trends and Drivers. Over the last decade, the trend in treating pickle liquor has been away from deep wells
and towards acid regeneration facilities. Some companies are electing to build spent pickle liquor recycling
facilities on site, thereby minimizing corporate liability for transfer off site and generating revenue through
sale of the by-product ferrous chloride. Most facilities have moved from sulfuric to hydrochloric acid
pickling.
New and Emerging Technologies. On-site recycling processes for hydrochloric acid pickling liquor are
available.
71
Rolling and Finishing: Spent Pickle Liquor

Composition
(1) Hydrochloric acid spent pickle liquor consists primarily of water, but contains approximately 25 to 30%
ferrous chloride and 1% hydrochloric acid, which is formed when the iron oxides on the steels surface react
with the acid during the pickling process. The liquor may contain traces of chromium, lead, nickel (all three
of which are considered hazardous), arsenic, cyanide, and cadmium. (2) Sulfuric acid spent pickle liquor
contains iron sulfate salts, which crystallize when the material is concentrated. The resulting iron sulfate
has been used for agricultural applications and stabilization of EAF dust, but is mainly discarded. (3)
Hydrofluoric and (4) Nitric Acids used in the pickling of stainless steel are subsequently separated from the
iron salts using special membranes. This separation process produces a sludge that is classified as a
hazardous waste. Bailey Engineers has developed a system that regenerates the pickle acid and recovers
the iron for recycling.
Production
A total of approximately 165 million gallons of spent pickle liquor are produced in U.S. integrated mills and
by outside processors. This liquor contains nearly one pound of iron/ gallon. Over 90% is from HCI acid
pickling lines.

While the majority of the spent pickle liquor generated each year is recycled through acid regeneration
plants or used in water treatment (in both of these cases the iron is recovered), over 50 million gallons is
still disposed of each year via deep well injection. While hydrochloric acid is the main product of the acid
regeneration process, a fine iron oxide by-product is also produced. If the quality of the iron oxide by-product
is sufficient, opportunities exist for using this by-product in the magnetics industry. However, at times this
product cannot be sold and must be discarded.
Barriers to the recycling of this iron oxide by-product back to the steel plant are its size and chemistry. Since
the water treatment market is very limited, the greatest opportunity for using this by-product exists in the
regeneration of the acid and production of iron oxide for the magnetics industry.
3.1.4 Other By-Products

A number of other by-product wastes and residues are associated with BOF and EAF steelmaking. These
include:
Grinding swarf
Grinding flue dust
Metal fines
Metal machining wastes
Hot metal/desulfurization baghouse dusts
Other dusts
Other sludges
Two of these waste streams are discussed briefly as follows.
Grinding Swarf
Grinding swarf is the product of cutting and conditioning (scarfing) operations. This material, generated at a
rate of about 0.7% of overall steel production, is difficult to dispose of because it is typically wet and oily.
Landfilling costs about $70/ton.
72
The iron content of swarf is about 60%. Assuming that approximately 700,000 tons were generated in 1999,
some 400,000 tons of iron units would be available. Some on-site recycling of swarf is being conducted by
charging it into the EAF or mixing into sinter plant feed. This is becoming less desirable, however, because
of concern over contamination by tramp metals.
Other Dusts
Other dusts are collected from the steelmaking plant during maintenance and clean-up operations. At the
dust generation rate of 0.13% per ton of steel, about 140,000 NT of dusts were collected throughout the
industry in 1999. Despite containing about 50% iron as the oxide, these dusts are landfilled because they are
generated in small amounts in disparate locations; and they may contain a broad range of contaminants.
Thus, recovery of the contained 70,000 NT of iron units is economically impractical at this time.
3.1.5 By-Products Research and Development Needs

While the specific impediments to improvement of the recycling and utilization of steel plant residues vary
from company to company and from plant to plant, the following problems have been identified as generic.
Ironmaking and Steelmaking Slags

While nearly all ironmaking slag is used commercially, such as in the manufacture of cement and concrete,
land reclamation, landfill construction, road repair, and civil engineering projects, there is room for concern
about the quantity of steelmaking slag not finding commercial markets outside the steel works.
Iron & Steel Making Slags
R & D Needs
Means for minimizing the quantity of BOF slag

produced during steelmaking should be
investigated, calling for the use of more
reactive but physically stronger lime, the
recycle of slags to aid in slag formation, and the
reduction of silicon and phosphorous contents
of hot metal. Yield and energy use benefits
would be realized.
<
<
<
<
Develop economic process to reduce or stablize

free lime in steelmaking slag
Investigate partial reuse or steam curing free
lime in BOF slag
Identify alternative uses for slag
Investigate Japanese method of minimizing
production of BOF slag (capital & operating
costs)
The presence of free lime and magnesia in

Potential Impact: 1.6 Million NT Iron Units
steelmaking slag is detrimental to its volume
stability and limits its use in construction and as
asphalt aggregate for roadmaking. Use of
steelmaking slags as replacement for raw stone in the manufacture of cement needs to be expanded; a major
energy credit arises from such use. Nonetheless, there is room for development of new economical processes
to resolve the problems that limit wider use of steelmaking slags.
Alternative uses for steelmaking slag need to be identified, such as in manufacture of refractories or
ceramics. The benefits from agricultural uses of steelmaking slag need to be evaluated further as has been
done in Western Europe. Alternative steelmaking slag practices also need to be considered.
73
Ironmaking and Steelmaking Dusts & Sludges and Rolling Scale & Sludges
Iron & Steel Making Dusts and Sludges
R & D Needs
<
<
<
<
<
<
Economical gas cleaning system to separate

zinc-rich fraction from steelmaking gas stream
Better and cheaper binders for cold briquetting
Dewatering method which reduces sludge
moisture to 10%
New applications for the iron oxide by-product
New pyrometallurgical processes to smelt dusts
and sludges
Demonstration plant for microwave de-oiling
process (sludges)
Dusts and sludges from ironmaking and

steelmaking as well as scale and sludges from
rolling operations are mainly composed of
oxides, primarily iron oxide. The obvious
place to recycle these residues is through the
blast furnace via sinter plant (if available). As
discussed earlier, the main limits to recycling
the ironmaking and steelmaking residues are
their zinc content, the presence of oil, water,
and other contaminants and the large content of
fine particles. Specifically, sludges suffer from
the disadvantage of too much moisture, and
some rolling scale and sludges are hampered by
the amount of oil they contain. Therefore,
processes need to be developed to
economically address these problems.
Zinc. From a practical viewpoint, currently only pyrometallurgical processes are capable of separating the
zinc from the iron to create a separate marketable stream. As described earlier, HTMR processes are in place
and new technologies have reached the pilot stage to accomplish this function (keeping in mind that the zincrich fraction of the off-gas stream from BOF and some EAF operations is not concentrated enough for
purchase by an outside processor), and further support of such efforts is warranted. The alternate approach,
to remove the zinc from the scrap prior to melting, is addressed later in the section on Galvanized Scrap.
Imaginative new methods are needed to better separate the zinc-rich fraction from the rest of the materials in
the gas stream.
Binders. Generally, most pyrometallurgical recycling processes will require that the dusts and sludges be
agglomerated. Recycling agglomerates through the blast furnace and steelmaking vessels requires that they
be strong enough to withstand abrasive and thermal shock. Although RHFs are much less demanding,
breakage can still occur, resulting in hearth problems and carryover of iron bearing materials to the gas
cleaning system.
Better and cheaper binders for cold briquetting by-product oxides are needed. Work is also needed in
understanding how binders react in a pyrometallurgical process.
Moisture. Most agglomeration processes require the moisture content of mixed incoming materials to be in
the 5 to 10% range. The moisture content of a mixture can be controlled by adjustment of the proportions
and sequencing of incoming wet and dry materials so as to obtain the desired moisture level. However, the
quantity of wet by-products generated at a steel plant normally far outweighs the quantity of dry by-products
generated.
Dewatering methods are needed that are capable of economically reducing sludge moisture to levels
approaching 10%. The study addressed by the AISI should help in this endeavor.
74
Oil. Oily materials generally do not agglomerate well and may cause problems with the opacity of the
gaseous stream emitted from the sinter plant stack. In some recycling processes, high levels of oil in the
incoming materials could increase the potential for fires in the gas cleaning system of thermal dryers. In
addition, due to the size distribution and nature of most dusts and sludges, binder costs can play a significant
role in the economics of an agglomeration process. It is important to note that while the sintering process
does not tolerate significant quantities of oil in the burden (due to the very short time in the high temperature
flame zone and the risk of fires with dry stack cleaning systems), the rotary hearth furnace process offers
sufficient time and completion of combustion to provide the ability for safe usage of oil and coal containing
charges. The same effect prevails in cement kilns used for the manufacture of Portland cement which
requires small amounts (approximately 5%) of iron.
Economical de-oiling processes that will allow material to be de-oiled to levels approaching 1% or less are
needed. Experimentation with the microwave technology developed under DOE (at the CMP) and AISI
sponsorship merits support. Processes to recycle the oil as a fuel and/or lubricant may be attractive. These
may include the tuyere injection of spent rolling oil implemented for a blast furnace in Belgium, which
merits investigation. Technologies such as the rotary hearth furnace with the capability to manage full
combustion of the oil and grease on oxide materials should be also further investigated.
Pickle Liquor
Rolling and Finishing
R & D Needs
Spray roasting is the most common

<
Decreased residual chlorides and other
regeneration technology used for pickle liquor.
impurities in Pickle Liquor
This technology produces hydrochloric acid
<
Improved quality of Pickle Liquor iron oxide bythat is directly recyclable and iron oxide that is
product
about 98 to 99% pure. This quality of iron
<
Economical agglomeration process to handle fine
particles of iron oxide
oxide has been found to be acceptable for most
hard ferrite applications such as small motors.
With the drive toward highly energy-efficient
motors, however, higher-quality iron oxide is
needed. In addition to the magnetics industry,
the iron oxide could be recycled to the sinter plant, but the size of the material makes this difficult.
Work is needed to reduce the residual chloride content and other impurities such as silica, calcium, and
sodium. In addition, improvements in iron oxide quality are needed to make this by-product more attractive
to the soft ferrite industry for use in TV cores and other electronic components.
Since the moisture content of the iron oxide is very low, it is very dusty, rendering open blending
environmentally unacceptable. Work is needed in development of economical agglomeration processes
capable of handling fine materials.
75
3.2 Obsolete Scrap

Obsolete scrap is any steel item recovered after
it has reached the end of its useful life.
Examples include the steel recovered through
the shredding of used cars and appliances, cans
collected through curbside pickup or recycling
centers, and structural beams or plates
recovered from the construction or demolition
of buildings and bridges.
Obsolete scrap is an extremely diverse category
and presents a wide variety of challenges to
recycling. Figure 3-9 shows the six main
subcategories of obsolete scrap along with the
volumes of iron units currently available and
recycled.
3.2.1 Municipal Waste

Stream
Figure 3-9. Obsolete Scrap Iron Units, U.S. 2000

(SRI 2001)
The municipal waste stream contains a large

amount of steel scrap that is not currently
widely recycled, but the iron units contained
in that scrap cannot be recovered
economically using current technologies.
The vast majority of this steel is attached to
other materials from which it cannot be
separated easily. Examples include steel box
springs and the hinges or guide rails of old
wooden furniture.
Some form of magnetic separation is the
most desirable way to recover the highest
quality scrap from the municipal waste
stream. Mass burning of municipal solid
waste in waste-to-energy plants has been Figure 3-10. Appliance Scrap Iron Units, U.S. 2000
(SRI 2001)
suggested as an alternative solution to the
problem. Proponents maintain that ferrous
metals could easily be recovered from the bottom ash using magnetic separation (Power 1995). This waste
treatment approach, however, still must clear several technological and societal hurdles. Unfortunately,
ferrous materials recovered from bottom ash are generally undesirable and unacceptable for melting highquality steels because contaminants from the surrounding materials become alloyed into the steel scrap.
3.2.2 Appliances
All appliances contain recycled steel that can be further recycled at the end of product usefulness. As shown
in Figure 3-10, however, the majority of iron units available for recovery from this source are in large
appliances.
76
Appliances
Composition
70% of the shredded appliance material is ferrous metal (ISRI 1999).
Production
U.S. manufacturers ship about 50 million major household appliances each year or roughly 137,000/day
(ISRI 1994). In 2000, Americans discarded an estimated 3.5 million tons of appliances.

Landfill or recycle for iron units.
State bans are helping to discourage landfilling of appliances. Infrastructure for collection and markets for
the recycled product continues to need development. However, currently there are over 11,800 locations
throughout the U.S. and Canada that accept appliances for recycling (SRI 2000.)
Trends and Drivers. To extend the life of landfills and encourage appliance recycling, several states have
enacted landfill bans for large appliances (known as white goods) thereby forcing the contained steel into
the post consumer scrap stream.
3.2.3 Automotive
In 2000, the steel industry recovered and
recycled more than 14 million tons of shredded
steel scrap from automobiles (SRI 2001).
Altogether, the scrap industry recycles about
80% of the weight of a car (Figure 3-11). The
goal of the steel industry is to see that recycling
of the ferrous portion of automobiles is 100%.
The biggest potential for increased recycling in
the automotive sector is in the area of
miscellaneous automotive scrap. More
specifically, as shown in Figure 3-12,
substantial opportunities exist in the recycling
of used oil filters and in processes for
galvanized scrap.
Figure 3-11. Iron Units by Vehicle Type,
U.S. 2000 (SRI 2001)
Used Oil Filters
Oil filters are generated by convenience oil/lube and fleet service shops or by home do-it-yourselfers.
Historically, the do-it-yourselfer has thrown filters in the trash.
Trends and Drivers. The recycling infrastructure for filters is developing quickly, and end-market
consumption by steel mills and foundries should accelerate. Do-it-yourselfer oil and filters are beginning to
be recycled through pilot programs in retail stores, such as Wal-Mart or NAPA Auto Parts. Retailers with
on-site oil or lube service shops are well suited for this activity; those without a shop may offer recycling as a
marketing strategy.
77
Melters need specialized holding areas for

used oil filters to contain incidental run-off.
Filters are routinely blended with other scrap,
at the rate of one or two tons/melt. This limit
helps ensure that air emission permit limits are
not exceeded and that no flame or smoke
problems are created.
New and Emerging Technologies. Recycling
oil filters through the blast furnace is being
studied. A demonstration may follow.
Galvanized Steel Scrap

The low-carbon galvanized steels normally
used in automotive bodies and appliances are a
Figure 3-12. Iron Units by Vehicle Component,
source of high-quality scrap feed for both BOF
U.S. 2000 (SRI 2001)
and EAF steel production. Although the steel
industry and the DOE, through Argonne National Laboratory, invested heavily in support of the development
of technology for removal of the galvanized coatings, the protracted delays in achievement of an
economically viable solution forced most BOF operators to implement alternative methodologies to maintain
environmental compliance (EAF operations, with higher dust disposal cost, benefit to some extent from the
value of the contained zinc units). Thus, future process development toward dezincing scrap must be focused
on approaches that can fit into the economic realities of the costs incurred presently (i.e., loss of yield,
inability to recycle the iron units in the dusts/sludges, increasing costs to meet new tighter limits for water
treatment, furnace delays to manage charging emissions).
Trends and Drivers. The amount of galvanized steel produced and used, and therefore the zinc content of the
scrap charges, continues to rise (Koros 1998).
New and Emerging Technologies. A pilot plant using an electrochemical dezincing process for prompt
scrap was in operation for about two years. Although the process could remove zinc under certain conditions,
it was not demonstrated in the requisite closed loop mode.
Future work in this area will need new entrants, preferably with new concepts likely to result in a lower cost
process. One such approach, based on use of air and of regenerated chlorine (Fray 1999), has been taken to
the pilot stage although more work is needed particularly to diminish the amount of surface oxidation of the
dezinced scrap product (the latter effect is considered undesirable by the potential customers in the foundry
industry).
3.2.4 Containers
Recycling of the iron units in steel cans shows substantial room for improvement, as shown in Figure 3-13.
The overall industry goal for can recycling is to recover 60% of the available iron units as soon as possible.
The majority of steel cans and some pails are made from tin-coated material. It is feasible to recover the
high-value tin from these containers (as well as from tin-coated home and prompt steel scrap) by detinning
prior to remelting the base steel - in 1999 approximately 10% of cans were returned for detinning in 1999
(SRI 1999). The low value of tin has hindered the use of this recovery method.
78
Tinplated Steel Scrap

Tinplate is often used for food, general line
cans, and closures to provide corrosion
protection and serve as a substrate for
decorative and protective lacquers. The tin
coating is very thin, typically three hundredthousandths of an inch. Detinning is practiced
for two reasons: recovery of valuable tin for
reuse and production of clean scrap suitable for
remelting.
With respect to the latter,
steelmakers prefer to minimize the amount of
tin in scrap because tin can be detrimental to the
properties of certain deep-drawing steels and
electrical steels and can contribute to
embrittlement in susceptible alloy steels.
Figure 3-13. Container Scrap Iron Units,

U.S. 2000 (SRI 2001)
Containers: Tinplated Steel Scrap

Composition
The weight of tin on tinplate has been reduced to 0.20% from the range of 0.25% prevalent even 5 years
ago. Furthermore, nearly one third of production in tin mills currently is Tin Free Steel, which is really a
chromium based coating. These factors, and the removal of tin in some can making operations, has
resulted in a relatively low content of tin in post consumer can scrap.
Production
Detinning technology is of interest in the US only for prompt scrap, that is, the material generated by the
tin plate producer or at the can making plants.

Industrial-scale detinning is performed by passing shredded tinplate through a warm, dilute solution of
sodium hydroxide containing an oxidant. This process removes the tin and the iron-tin alloy layer in about
an hour. The tin is subsequently recovered from the solution and the process sludge. Highest productivity
is achieved by careful preparation of the scrap with respect to size, bulk density, and freedom from tramp
material (particularly aluminum).
There are several problems currently facing detinning plants
Less tin is available for recovery as the thickness of tin coatings has declined, and some modern
canmaking technologies remove tin during manufacture.
The use of TFS for food cans is increasing (tin is replaced with a chromium coating).
The value of detinned scrap plus the amount and value of the recovered tin is
reportedly too low to support an adequate financial return.
Transport costs are high for moving recycled cans to the few detinning operations in
North America. (Many integrated plants are distant from detinners.)
As a matter of practical policy, integrated steel producers and some EAF operations
melt baled post consumer can scrap with a resultant small gradual increase in tin
residual levels in steel.
79
Trends and Drivers. Some steelmakers are using increased volumes of post consumer cans directly in the
steelmaking process, especially in the production of steels for which a small amount of residual tin is less
important. The average food can in 1999 was coated with only 0.20 lb/BB tin, thus with the modern low
volume of internal scrap generation in the integrated steel plants the rate of residual tin build up remains
relatively low (SRI 1999).
New and Emerging Technologies. None have been identified.
3.2.5 Other Durables

Approximately 90% of other durable scrap items are currently being recycled. This category includes oil
rigs, pipelines, aircraft, railway spikes and tie plates, lathes and machine housings, cranes, lifts, boxcars,
ships, and manhole covers. The steel industry has not yet identified this category as a priority area for
expanded recycling.
3.2.6 Construction
A highly sophisticated infrastructure exists in this country for the collection and processing of steel from the
construction and demolition category of obsolete scrap. The steel present in construction scrap primarily
consists of steel reinforcement bars (known as rebars). In 1999 approximately 45% of recovered rebars were
recycled (SRI 1999).
3.2.7 Obsolete Scrap Research and Development

Automotive
Improvements are needed for the systems and

equipment employed in the processing,
transportation, and storage of used oil filters so
as to reduce or eliminate the entrapment,
spillage, or migration of used oil.
Automotive and Scrap Appliances
R & D Needs
Used Oil Filters. Further work is needed to

expand the base of steel mills and foundries
that accept used oil filters for scrap. Such work
should include investigating the scrap value of
oil filters as well as their potential energy value
in blast furnaces.
<
<
<
<
<
Determined scrap and energy value of oil filters

Improved design of oil filter handling systems
New dezincing process concepts
Technology for treating galvanized obsolete
scrap
Improved method for separating out copper,
aluminum, and CFCs
Potential Gain: 1.1 Million NT Iron Units
Galvanized Steel Scrap.

Continued
development is needed for a technology to remove zinc from shredded post consumer scrap. Current
potential candidates are electrochemically aided caustic leaching and gaseous chlorination with air
enhancement (removal of zinc with minimal surface oxidation.) to increase recycling by the foundry
industry. A technology to treat obsolete scrap containing galvanized steel needs to be developed.
80
Appliances
Improved methods are required for separating copper, aluminum, and chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFCs).
The applicability of sorting technology developed in Japan should be investigated. The target is
approximately 600,000 NT of iron units from appliances.
Containers
Curbside recycling options for steel containers
should continue to be developed.
R & D Needs
Containers and Construction

Tinplated Steel Scrap. Given the economic
issues surrounding detinning, a better approach
<
Assessed sensitivity of modern steels to tin
to managing tin scrap is required. Research is
residual levels
needed to assess the sensitivity of modern
<
Methods for reducing levels of tin in the melt
steels (e.g., those containing ppm levels of
<
Economical process for removing concrete from
rebar
sulfur, phosphorous, and copper) to increasing
levels of tin residuals, especially with regard to
Potential Gain: 3.7 Million NT Iron Units
low temperature mechanical properties.
Methods to reduce the content of tin to even
lower levels in the melt or in subsequent
treatment processes is desired. The target is approximately 1,129,000 NT of iron units from scrap containers.
Construction
An economically sound process is needed to remove concrete from reinforcement bars (rebars) so that the
steel can be recycled easily. Currently, rebars are recovered only if they are exposed or become exposed
during demolition; the exposed portions are cut from the concrete with a torch and sent as scrap for
recycling. Rebar that remains in the concrete is generally landfilled.
81
Intentionally Blank
82
Environmental Leadership
Through the promotion of responsible policies that conserve energy and natural resources while sustaining a
sound economic environment, the steel industry is committed to the protection of human health and the
environment.
The steel industry has invested more than $7 billion in environmental controls over the past 30 years in order
to meet the challenge of compliance with national health-based standards. In a typical year, iron and steel plants
spend roughly 15% of their capital expenditures on environmental projects. In fact, the industrys discharge of
air and water pollutants has been reduced by well over 90% since the early 1970s. Despite this significant
progress, further improvements in pollution prevention technologies are needed for iron and steel plants to reduce
costs, improve profitability, and facilitate compliance with changing federal regulations.
Recently promulgated and impending air and water pollution control regulations pose a daunting challenge for
the U.S. steel industry. In accordance with requirements of the Clean Air Act, EPA has established Maximum
Achievable Control Technology (MACT) standards for hazardous air pollutant emissions. Under this program,
EPA established standards for coke oven door and topside leaks and charging emissions in 1992 and placed
cokemakers on a timetable to achieve progressively more stringent standards between 1995 and 2020. In 2001,
additional MACT standards are proposed for coke oven pushing and quenching operations and coke battery
combustion stacks. Also in 2001, MACT standards are proposed for blast furnaces, sinter plants, basic oxygen
shops, and ancillary operations.
In addition to these industry-specific regulations, EPA has also revised the ambient air quality standards for fine
particulate matter (PM-2.5) and for ozone. As regulatory programs are implemented over the next few years to
achieve these ambient standards, additional control requirements are possible for iron and steel industry sources
emitting fine particles or gases that contribute to the formation of urban smog, including NOx, SOx, and VOCs.
Also, the federal air permitting process under Title V of the Clean Air Act will require additional administrative
controls and monitoring obligations.
83
Chapter 4: Environmental Leadership
The industry also faces substantially tighter regulations under the Clean Water Act. EPA has proposed revisions
to Effluent Limitations Guidelines (ELGs) for the Iron and Steel Point Source Category that have been in place
since the early 1980s. The EPA is on schedule to issue these rules in final form by April 2002. The new limits
are dramatically lower than the existing ELGs and would require significant increases in recycling and more
efficient treatment for the full range of iron and steel processes. Many steel plants are already required to reduce
effluents below the previously established ELG limits because of the need to meet state and federal water quality
standards, particularly in the Great Lakes area as a result of the Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative.
Meeting these new and changing regulations requires effective R&D efforts throughout many different aspects
of the steelmaking process. To target future research, it is useful to examine the various processes and the
pollutants they produce. Although the coking process has been widely considered to pose the biggest
environmental challenge, environmental regulations affect all stages of the manufacturing and forming process.
The following sections discuss the potential pollutant output and development needs of each of the major
processes: cokemaking, ironmaking, steelmaking, refining, casting, forming, and finishing.
4.1 Cokemaking
Cokemaking represents perhaps the greatest environmental concern to the steel industry. Although much
progress has been made, cokemaking emissions continue to be a target of federal environmental regulations.
Continual efforts to reduce emissions are necessary to ensure the stability of U.S. cokemaking; some by-products
present an additional concern. Figure 4-1 illustrates the cokemaking process with its major inputs and outputs.
Strict environmental regulations in the United States, including the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, threaten
the economic viability of domestic coke production. While improvements to contain emissions have been
incorporated into recent oven designs, many older cokemaking facilities cannot be retrofitted economically to
meet current and proposed environmental standards. Tighter environmental regulations threaten to accelerate
plant closures, in turn reducing domestic production capacity by approximately 30% by the year 2003. Other
developed and developing nations are expected to follow the lead of the United States with tighter environmental
regulations that will affect worldwide coke production. At present, no new by-product cokemaking technology
is guaranteed to be environmentally compliant. In fact, new MACT standards provide an incentive for nonrecovery coke ovens for new facilities. In the future, U.S. dependence on foreign sources is expected to increase.
4.1.1
Cokemaking Emissions
Typical cokemaking air emissions include ammonia, benzene-soluble organics, benzene, particulates, SOx, and
VOCs. Coke plant operators have initiated significant efforts to control these emissions and have spent millions
of dollars on environmental control systems, improved operating and maintenance practices, and increased
personnel training. These efforts have substantially reduced cokemaking air emissions over the last three decades
84
Figure 4-1. Cokemaking Flow Diagram

The industrys efforts have reduced emissions by more than 95% for benzene and VOCs from by-product
sources, particulate matter emissions from charging and pushing, and SOx emissions from the combustion of
cleaned coke oven gas. To reduce air emissions, the industry installed many types of new and improved
environmental hardware. Training and, more importantly, the conscientious efforts of skilled operating personnel
have also substantially reduced emissions of benzene-soluble organics from coke plant doors, lids, offtakes, and
charging emissions sources.
4.1.2 Cokemaking Effluents

The typical volume of process wastewater generated at a well-controlled coke plant is approximately 150
gallons/ton of coke produced (EPA 2000). About 25 to 35 gallons/ton are generated as waste ammonia liquor
from moisture contained in the charged coal. The balance is from the steam used in distilling ammonia from the
waste liquor, light oil recovery, and other processes.
Cokemaking wastewaters contain significant levels of oil and grease, ammonia, nitrogen, cyanides, thiocyanates,
phenols, benzenes, toluene, xylene, other aromatic volatile components, and polynuclear aromatic compounds.
Wastewaters also contain trace amounts of the toxic metals antimony, arsenic, and selenium. The amount of each
pollutant generated depends on the by-product process, specific facility equipment, practices, and the range of
constituents in the coals used.
85
4.1.3 Cokemaking By-Products

In the by-product coking process, volatile components are collected as unpurified foul gas containing water
vapor, tar, light oils, coal dust, heavy hydrocarbons, and complex carbon compounds. Condensable materials,
such as tar, light oils, ammonia, and naphthalene are removed, recovered, and processed as gas and coal chemical
by-products. Finally, sulfur is removed, leaving clean, desulfurized coke oven gas. The cleaned, desulfurized
gas is then used as fuel for coke ovens or other plant combustion processes, or it is sold to nearby facilities.
Approximately 11,000 scf of coke oven gas (at about 500 Btu/scf) is produced/ton of coal charged (EPA 2000;
AISE 1998). About 40% of the gas is used to heat the coke ovens.
4.1.4 Hazardous Cokemaking Wastes

As shown in Figure 4-1, seven listed hazardous wastes are associated with cokemaking under the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). These include residues from coal tar recovery, tar storage tanks, light
oil processing units, wastewater sump residues, and naphthalene collection and recovery.
Process residues from coal tar recovery (K141) are generated when uncondensed gas enters a primary cooler.
Condensates from the primary cooler flow into the tar collecting sump and are discharged in the flushing liquor
decanter. Tar collection sump residue or sludge accumulates at the bottom of the collecting sump, and must be
recycled periodically as an individual stream, through the flushing liquor decanter, or back to the coke oven.
Tar storage tank residues (K142) are produced when residuals settle out of the crude coal tar collected as a coking
by-product. The residues are periodically removed from the storage tanks and are recycled to the oven or
landfilled.
Residues from light oil processing units (K143) collect in a light-oil scrubber and light-oil stripping still. Resin
is a related waste that accumulates from cleaning wash oil used in the light-oil recovery process. Wash-oil muck,
residue from a wash-oil purifier or decanter, is periodically removed and recycled to the coke oven, reclaimed
off-site, or used as blast furnace or boiler fuel.
Wastewater sump residues (K144) accumulate in the bottom of a sump used to provide sufficient quiescent
residence time for oil and water to separate during light oil recovery. These settled solids are removed
periodically and either recycled to the oven or landfilled off-site. Residues from naphthalene collection and
recovery (K145) accumulate at the bottom of a skimmer sump where naphthalene is mechanically skimmed off
the surface. Residues also accumulate in the hot and cold sumps used as collection or surge vessels and on
cooling tower surfaces. K145 is recycled to the decanter or sometimes the oven.
4.1.5 Cokemaking Environmental Trends and Drivers

Meeting the constantly changing environmental regulations is important to ensure the stability of U.S.
cokemaking. The federal government has already promulgated coke plant air emission regulations for doors,
offtakes, lids, coal charging, and collection mains that call for significantly more stringent emission requirements.
In addition, standards are also being proposed for pushing, quenching and battery combustion stack emissions.
Moreover, tighter effluent requirements are being proposed for cokemaking wastewaters.
These regulatory requirements challenge operating management and employees as they deal with aging batteries.
Even the installation of new batteries as greenfield sites or increased capacity at conventional existing coke oven
by-product plants will present environmental challenges because of new EPA regulations. On start-up, newsource by-product batteries with novel designs (e.g., jumbo ovens), pad-up rebuilds, or replacement batteries at
the same plant site will be subject to 2010 limits.
86
4.1.6
New and Emerging Cokemaking Technologies
Non-recovery batteries have been implemented at two sites. The newest project, a joint venture between a steel
plant and power company, produces coke and electricity without by-product chemicals.
Cokemaking Research and Development

Keeping the cokemaking process

environmentally sustainable will require
significant R&D. Some needs can be met by
incremental improvements to the current
cokemaking process. One example is the need
for new sealing methods, compounds, devices,
or mechanisms to effectively reduce emissions
from leaking doors, lids, and offtakes.
Improved cars and capture devices are
additional cokemaking development needs.
Cokemaking
<
R & D Needs
4.1.7
<
<
<
<
<
New ways to reduce emissions from leaking doors,

lids, and offtakes
Improved quench cars
Improved capture devices or quenching methods
Improved refractories for walls or better ways to
seal existing leaks through walls
Refractories or oven designs to accommodate
operation as negative-pressure batteries
New, more environmentally friendly cokemaking
technologies
Improved or higher valued chemicals from coke oven
gas and by-products
Alternative cokemaking technologies that

<
incorporate enhanced emission containment,
capture, and/or control capabilities also need
to be developed. Such technologies are
needed to ensure the long term environmental
viability of cokemaking. Development of negative pressure ovens and closed bar ovens is needed.
4.2
Ironmaking
This section focuses on the sintering and blast furnace ironmaking processes. Although sintering plants offer
significant benefits, environmental concerns have stymied greater use of traditional plants. NOx, VOC, and CO2
control are the major areas requiring further R&D. Figures 4-2 and 4-3 illustrate the sintering and blast furnace
processes, respectively, with their major inputs and outputs.
4.2.1
Ironmaking Emissions
Sinter Plant
Sinter plant emissions are generated from raw material handling, wind-box exhaust, sinter discharge (associated
sinter crushers and hot screens), and the cooler and cold screen. Wind-box exhaust is the primary source of
particulate emissions - mainly iron oxides, sulfur oxides, carbonaceous compounds, and chlorides. Fluorides,
ammonia, and various metal compounds may also be present (Steiner 1976). At the discharge end, emissions
are mainly iron and calcium oxides.
Sinter strand wind-box emissions are commonly controlled by cyclone cleaners followed by a dry or wet
electrostatic precipitator, high-pressure drop wet scrubber, or baghouse. Crusher and hot screen emissions, the
next largest emission source, are controlled by a hood and baghouse or scrubber.
87
Figure 4-2. Sintering Flow Diagram

Other material-handling operations also generate emissions. Baghouses are used to capture particulate matter
generated during conveyor transport and loading or unloading of sinter plant feedstocks and product. This dust
is either recycled as feedstock to the sinter plant or landfilled as solid waste (EPA 1995; Baker Environmental
1992). Although the chemical composition of the dust is highly dependent upon the sintering practice, typical
components include Fe, C, S, Fe2O3, SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, and MgO (Steiner 1976).
The EPA, which reported a total of 2 million tons of CO2 emitted from sinter plant windboxes in 1998, is
gathering data to update some of its emission factors (AISI 1999). For example, its unreleased data suggest that
some venturi scrubber emission factors may be significantly lower (in the range of 0.18 to 0.20 lb/ton) than the
0.47 lb/ton of sinter statistic reported in its AIRS database (Mulrine 1995).
Sinter plants have also been identified as potential sources of small concentrations of dioxin emissions.
However, the sources and formation of dioxins is not well understood and more study is needed.
Figure 4-3. Blast Furnace Flow Diagram

88
Blast Furnace
Particulate emissions are primarily generated during the casting of molten iron and slag from the blast furnace.
During casting, molten iron and slag flow out of a taphole at the base of the furnace into runners that lead to
transport ladles. When the molten iron and slag contact air, particulate emissions are generated. Emissions also
are generated by drilling and plugging the taphole, and by using an oxygen lance to open a clogged taphole.
During the casting operation, iron oxides, magnesium oxide, and kish are generated as particulate matter.
Casting emissions are captured in a high canopy or local hood and exhausted to a cleaning device, generally a
baghouse. Flame suppression techniques can minimize the amount of fume generated.
Dust captured from casting emissions is much less than that collected by a blast furnace gas cleaning system.
(EPA 1995; Baker Environmental 1992)
If hot metal desulfurization is used to remove or alter the sulfur compounds in the hot metal, emissions are
controlled by hoods and the exhaust gases are discharged through a baghouse to control particulate matter. This
operation usually occurs at a facility located between the blast furnace and BOF facilities.
4.2.2 Ironmaking Effluents

Sintering
Wastewaters are generated from the use of wet air pollution control scrubbers to clean the wind-box and
discharge ends of sinter machines. Typical flows for wet air pollution control devices are 1,000 gallons/ton, with
discharge (blowdown) rates of 50 to 100 gallons/ton for the better controlled water treatment plants (EPA 2000).
Wet-scrubber wastewater treatment includes removal of heavy solids by sedimentation, recycle of clarifier or
thickener water overflows, and metals precipitation treatment for blowdowns. Some sinter plants are operated
with once-through water in the wet-scrubber wastewater treatment plants. The principal constituents can include
suspended solids, oil and grease, ammonia-nitrogen, cyanide, phenolic compounds, and heavy metals, such as
lead, zinc, arsenic, cadmium, copper, chromium, and selenium (EPA 2000).
Blast Furnace
Nearly all of the wastewater generated from blast furnace operations is direct contact water used in the gas
coolers and high-energy wet scrubbers that clean the blast furnace gas. Typical water requirements are 6,000
gallons/ton of iron, which is recycled (EPA 2000). These waters are typically treated by clarifiers or thickeners
to remove suspended solids, and the overflows are recycled to the gas scrubbers. The final blowdown from the
recirculated system is then treated to remove additional heavy metals and other non-solid pollutants, such as
cyanide and, typically less than 100 gallons/ton, ammonia.
4.2.3
Ironmaking By-Products
The primary by-products generated during the production of molten iron include blast furnace gas, slag, air
pollution control dust (flue dust), and blast furnace filter cake (wastewater treatment-plant sludge). Between 2
and 3 tons of blast furnace gas, containing up to 100 pounds of dust, are generated for each ton of iron (AISI
1999). Blast furnace gas contains up to 40% CO and 6% H. The main solid components of the flue dust include
Fe, C, SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, and MgO (Steiner 1976). Blast furnace flue gas is emitted at the top of the furnace as
particulate-laden combustion gases composed primarily of CO. About 60% of the particulate matter is removed
from the gas stream by cyclonic vortex separation (i.e., dust catcher) of the heavy particles (flue dust). Fine
89
particulate matter is subsequently removed in a two-stage cleaning process with a wet scrubber and a high-energy
venturi impact scrubber or electrostatic precipitator. This two-stage cleaning process produces a gas containing
less than 0.05 grams/m3 of particulate matter (EPA 1995b). The cleaned gas is used as a fuel to pre-heat the blast
air for the furnace or to generate steam in an adjacent boiler house.
Dust and Sludge

Blast furnace dust is often recycled through the sinter plant. At steelmaking operations without sintering plants,
blast furnace dust is sometimes mixed with other by-product residues, briquetted, and recycled into the blast
furnace. In other steelmaking operations, the dust and sludge are landfilled, stockpiled, or sold.
Slag
The blast furnace also yields a slag that contains oxides of silicon, aluminum, calcium, and magnesium, along
with other trace elements. Blast furnace slag amounts to 20 to 40% of molten iron production by weight. In
1997, a total of 14 million tons of blast furnace slag was produced. Virtually all blast furnace slag is processed
and sold commercially for a variety of material applications.
4.2.4
Hazardous Ironmaking Wastes
None have been identified.
4.2.5
Ironmaking Environmental Trends and Drivers
Traditional sintering capacity is not expected to increase in coming years, but it will remain a major method of
recycling and recovery of iron-bearing waste oxides and secondary materials. Although the technology exists
for efficient particulate matter collection systems, opportunities exist for improving capture and collection
systems, wastewater treatment, and reducing water use.
Sintering poses a unique environmental challenge. Sintering is the traditional and proven method for recycling
iron-bearing secondary materials produced by ironmaking and steelmaking facilities. It can also produce a
material that replaces iron pellets and adds stability to blast furnace operation. Japanese blast furnaces, and at
least one U.S. plant, for example, operate on virtually 100% sinter feed. As more emphasis is placed on
recycling and recovering waste or secondary iron-bearing materials, plants with sintering operations will have
an advantage over those that do not.
Most sinter plants are equipped with high-energy wet scrubbers, fabric filters, or wet electrostatic precipitators
for collection of wind-box emissions. However, some of these devices have not always performed well across
the range of feed materials that operators would like to introduce into sintering. Therefore, opportunities exist
for developing new environmental control technologies. New emphasis on fine particles and NOx emissions will
place further pressures on the ability of traditional air pollution control devices. Concern over potential dioxin
emissions and restrictions on oily sinter plant feed materials are also relevant issues.
90
4.2.6
New and Emerging Ironmaking Technologies
The demand for sintering or other agglomeration processes that can produce iron pellet replacement material
remains high. However, environmental concerns and high capital and operating costs have led to a decline in
traditional sinter plants, leading to the development of other waste oxide agglomeration processes that serve as
a substitute for sintering. For example, AISIs waste oxide smelting technology has been demonstrated, and may
be licensed in several installations.
New technologies for ironmaking are covered in detail in Chapter 2 of this document.
4.2.7
Ironmaking Research and Development

Ironmaking
<
R & D Needs
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Improved capture and collection systems and

improved wastewater treatment for sintering
Understanding of NOx and toxic air pollutants
emissions, formation, and control
Alternative cost-competitive agglomeration
processes
Coke substitutes
Greater understanding of formation and mitigation of
NOx emissions in stoves
Methods of reducing total sulfur emissions
Improved methods of cast house emission controls
Improved methods of slag quenching, including
collection and treatment of excess slag quenching
water
Methods for de-oiling sinter plant feed materials
Fundamental research is needed to provide

more information on the formation and
mitigation of CO from sintering, reduction of
NOx (see section 4.9) and sulfur emissions,
and formation and control of organic and
inorganic toxic air pollutants.
When conducting R&D on new and emerging
ironmaking technologies, information on
environmental aspects and energy
consumption must be an integral part of that
work in order to assess alternative
technologies on the basis of environmental
issues, operating costs, capital costs, and
productivity. Data on particulate and gaseous
air pollutant generation, wastewater
generation and treatability, solid and
hazardous wastes, and energy consumption,
including CO2 emissions, should all be
considered.
Specific environmental control R&D opportunities in ironmaking include:
NOx and VOC control
Energy Use and CO2 Emission Reduction
NOx and VOC control

NOx and VOC controls have grown in importance as ozone control strategies have been developed for ozone
non-attainment areas and ozone transport regions. Because NOx is a precursor for fine particles, new fine
particle standards are likely to place even greater emphasis on sinter plants as a source of potential NOx.
Although a lower flame temperature makes NOx formation less problematic for blast furnace gas than for other
fuels, increased concern over NOx emissions presents challenges for combustion practices and devices that
reduce NOx emissions in boilers. A comprehensive study of NOx control at sinter plants is needed to develop
ways of reducing these emissions. The emission, formation, and control of NOx and organic and inorganic toxic
air pollutants, including dioxins, need to be understood.
91
As a result of the interest in ozone strategies, sinter plants may have to limit VOC components in feed materials
or increase the efficiency of air pollution control systems. A study of VOC components, including dioxins, is
also needed.
Energy Use and CO2 Emission Reduction

Energy consumption and CO2 emissions in existing and emerging agglomeration and ironmaking technologies
pose opportunities for reductions. Government concern over greenhouse gas emissions, particularly CO2, and
the related impetus for reducing energy consumption, suggest the need for developing ways to reduce energy
consumption and CO2 generation in existing and emerging agglomeration and ironmaking technologies.
4.3
Steelmaking - Basic Oxygen Furnace
Environmental standards for air and water emissions, including those for BOFs, are becoming more stringent.
Consequently, current environmental controls may not be adequate in the future. In particular, better air-cleaning
and in-shop work environments are needed. Figure 4-4 illustrates BOF steelmaking with its major inputs and
outputs.
4.3.1
BOF Emissions
Sources
Emissions are generated during each of the five major BOF steelmaking and refining operations: charging,
melting, refining, tapping, and slag handling. The most significant emissions from BOF steelmaking occur
during the oxygen blow period. The principal compounds generated are iron oxides and lime.
Control Systems
The particulate-laden combustion gases and fume (a very fine iron oxide) created during oxygen blow periods
are removed from the furnace by evacuation through a large collection main. These hot gases are typically
treated by one of three air pollution control methods:
Semi-Wet. Water is added to condition furnace off-gas temperature and humidity prior to processing the
gas in electrostatic precipitators or baghouses.
Wet-Open Combustion. Excess air is drawn into the hood of the off-gas exhaust system, allowing CO
to combust prior to high-energy wet scrubbing for air pollution particulate control.
Wet-Suppressed Combustion. Excess air is excluded from the off-gas collection system prior to highenergy wet scrubbing for air pollution particulate control, thus suppressing the combustion of CO until
after scrubbing (EPA 1995a).
Charging and tapping emissions are controlled by a variety of evacuation systems and operating practices.
Charging hoods, tapside enclosures, and full furnace enclosures are used to capture these emissions. The
particulate emissions are then exhausted to a primary gas cleaner or a second gas cleaner.
92
As in the case of the blast furnace, most trace hazardous air pollutants generated in the BOF are heavy metals,
including cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, and nickel. Zinc compounds are also present in BOF fume in
varying amounts depending on the zinc content of the scrap used in the process. Other factors affecting HAP
emissions from the BOF include the degree of oxidation of the molten steel and the amount of time required to
process the melt.
4.3.2
BOF Effluents
The gases and fumes released during BOF steelmaking are quenched with water to reduce their temperature prior
to being treated in air pollution control systems. The three major types of off-gas control systems generate
wastewater streams containing total suspended solids and metals (primarily lead and zinc, but also trace amounts
of arsenic, cadmium, copper, chromium, and selenium).
Suppressed-combustion and open-combustion systems use, respectively, about 1,000 and 1,100 gallons of
water/ton of steel, but typically less than 100 gallons/ton is discharged (EPA 2000). Standard treatment consists
of sedimentation in clarifiers or thickeners. Blowdown treatment consists of metals precipitation.
Figure 4-4. BOF Steelmaking Flow Diagram
93
4.3.3
BOF By-Products
BOF steelmaking by-products include BOF slag, air pollution control dust, and water treatment plant sludge.
Slag
BOF slag is composed of calcium silicates and ferrites combined with fused oxides of iron, aluminum,
manganese, calcium, and magnesium. After molten BOF slag is removed from the furnace, it is cooled and
processed to recover the high metallic portions (iron and manganese) for use in the sinter plant or as a flux in
blast furnaces. Some slag may also be recycled to steelmaking under certain conditions. The remaining nonferrous fraction is then crushed and sized for reuse either within the steel works or as a by-product.
BOF slag differs from blast furnace slag in composition (hydration of up to 10% can occur because of calcium
oxide and other oxides are present in BOF slag); therefore, its uses are more limited than blast furnace slag. The
lower metallic aggregate is typically used in construction applications such as railroad ballast or unconfined
highway base or shoulders, where its expansion will not create a problem. It is also used as an additive in cement
kilns.
Dust and Sludge

The BOF dust and sludge collected in the air pollution control system represent two of the three largest-volume
wastes typically land-disposed by iron and steel plants. Together with slag and water treatment plant sludge,
these wastes represent more than 93% of all wastes stored, recycled, or disposed (Baker Environmental 1992).
Particulate matter is separated from combustion gases generated during BOF steelmaking by one of the three
means described in Section 4.3.1. Cleaned gases from suppressed combustion systems are ignited before release
to the atmosphere to prevent CO emissions in the uncombusted gas. These gases can also be recovered for
heating value.
4.3.4
Hazardous BOF Wastes
There are no RCRA-listed hazardous wastes associated with BOF steelmaking. However, BOF dusts or slags
may need to be evaluated for hazardous constituents such as lead and other heavy metals.
4.3.5
BOF Steelmaking Environmental Trends and Drivers
Air Emissions
Regulatory pressures to reduce releases of toxic and hazardous substances in all media, including air, water, and
solid wastes, will continue. The issue of global warming may lead to increased requirements to reduce emissions
of greenhouse gases from fossil-fuel combustion. This increased pressure on CO2 emissions affects the steel
industry because the BOF steelmaking process inherently generates CO2.
During BOF steelmaking, carbon in the hot metal is oxidized and emitted from the process as CO2. This carbon
oxidation provides the heat that converts the iron into steel and is the basis for BOF steelmaking. Until another
method of steelmaking is developed, BOF steelmaking will continue to emit CO2.
94
Fugitive Emissions
Fugitive emissions from a BOF come from the following:
Scrap handling
Ore and flux handling
Hot metal transfer operations
Hot metal charging operations
Tapping
Teeming operations
Each state has regulations governing fugitive emissions; it is anticipated that there will be continued regulatory
pressure to minimize these emissions.
Water Discharges
Stringent EPA and state water quality standards will likely reduce the allowable discharge limits for the
discharges from BOF steelmaking facilities in the near future. Such a reduction will probably be directed at the
discharge of metals such as lead and zinc. Reducing metal-laden wastewater discharges may require additional
water pollution control facilities and water recycling for some BOF steelmaking operations.
Waste Discharges
The primary wastes collected from a BOF are slag dust and fumes collected either by wet scrubbers or dry
electrostatic precipitators or baghouses. Baghouse dust is also collected from operations such as hot metal
reladling, hot metal desulfurization, and slag skimming.
By current EPA definitions and test protocols, these wastes are not hazardous and can be disposed of in nonhazardous landfills. However, with increasing government emphasis on pollution prevention and waste
minimization programs, and with the increasing scarcity of landfill space, steelmakers will have to reduce the
volume of these wastes, increase recycling, or develop additional processing to increase their use as products.
Many steelmakers will be looking at ways to include these wastes in their pollution prevention and waste
minimization programs.
4.3.6
New and Emerging BOF Steelmaking Technologies
No new and emerging air or water pollution control technologies for BOF steelmaking operations are anticipated.
In waste management, developing technologies will increase the amount of BOF slag, BOF fume, and other
steelmaking revert materials that are recycled or used as other products.
Some companies are processing BOF fumes with other steel plant wastes for recycle to the BOF. Others are
recycling BOF fumes with low zinc content to the blast furnace via the sintering plant. Over the years, a number
of processes have been studied to remove the zinc from the BOF fume so more of it can be recycled to the blast
furnace via the sinter plant, and some of these processes may be viable in the future.
95
4.3.7
BOF Steelmaking Research and Development

BOF Slag
As discussed in Chapter 3, research is needed to find either alternate uses of BOF slag (with the calcium oxide
content and hydration effects) or an economical way to remove the calcium oxide. Research is also needed to
remove phosphorous from BOF slag because phosphorus content is a limiting factor to increased use of this
material. Removing phosphorus from the blast furnace pig iron prior to steelmaking would help increase the
amount of this slag that can be recycled to the iron and steelmaking process. Some companies recycle a portion
of their BOF slag to the blast furnace in order to supply calcium oxide flux and reclaim the iron oxide content
of the slag.
Zinc Content
Research into the mechanisms of zinc ferrite formation during the steelmaking process to prevent its formation
is needed, making it much easier to remove the zinc from fume. BOF fumes contain varying amounts of zinc,
lead and other metals. The primary source of these metals is the scrap used in the steelmaking process. If the
scrap contains a large amount of zinc, as does much of galvanized steel scrap, the zinc content of the fume can
be high enough to prevent its recycle to the blast furnace. The presence of zinc in the feed materials of a blast
furnace can cause serious damage to blast furnace refractories, which will shorten the life of a blast furnace.
Continued research is needed to develop
economical ways to remove zinc from scrap
since zinc is a commercial product. This
would help decrease the amount of zinc in
BOF fumes and thus promote increased
recycling of these fumes.
R & D Needs
BOF Steelmaking
<
<
<
<
Methods of removing phosphorus from the blast

furnace pig iron prior to steelmaking
Economical ways to remove zinc from scrap
Understanding of zinc ferrite formation mechanism
Determination of zinc distribution throughout the
recycle system
Determination of zincs effect on the properties of
steel
Research to determine the distribution of zinc

throughout the recycle system could lead to a
<
better understanding of the chemical
mechanisms at work, which would improve
understanding of this recycling technique.
Some companies recycle BOF fume directly to
steelmaking after mixing and agglomerating it with other iron oxide materials, such as mill scale. When
recycling zinc-bearing fumes directly to steelmaking, the zinc content of the fume, slag, or steel will increase
substantially unless a bleed stream is provided to keep the zinc build-up in the system at manageable levels. In
facilities using this recycling practice, zinc build-up has not occurred.
Research will likely be conducted to determine the effect of zinc on the physical, chemical and metallurgical
properties of steel. When zinc-bearing scrap is used in steelmaking, or when zinc-bearing fumes are recycled to
steelmaking, the zinc concentration in the steel produced also increases. Analysis has shown that some steel
samples from these systems contain several hundred parts per million of zinc.
96
4.4
Steelmaking - Electric Arc Furnace
Over the past 30 years, electric arc furnace fume systems have evolved considerably from simple systems aimed
at improving the ambient work environment around the furnace to sophisticated systems aimed at controlling
not only particulate emissions, but also toxic gases. Environmental regulations have stimulated progress in
primary and secondary fume control technology from side draft hoods, furnace roof hoods, and rudimentary
fourth hole extraction systems to today's sophisticated direct evacuation systems and fugitive emission control
systems. Modern fume systems are now designed to minimize the formation of gaseous pollutants and ensure
that others are destroyed before exiting the system. Figure 4-5 illustrates electric arc furnace steelmaking with
its major inputs and outputs.
4.4.1
EAF Emissions
Sources
Emissions are generated during each of the five major EAF processes: charging, melting, refining, tapping, and
slag handling. During the EAF process, oxide and other metal forms are volatilized in the presence of intense
heat and turbulence inside the furnace. Also, carbon from the addition of coal, iron, and steel scrap and graphite
electrodes react with injected air or oxygen. Consequently, the primary constituents in EAF emissions are
particulate matter and gases (specifically CO2, CO, and NOx). Note that use of EAF for steel production
provides the single most effective means of reducing CO2 emissions due to the significantly lower energy
requirements of melting scrap compared to smelting ore.
Figure 4-5. Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking Flow Diagram
97
Dioxins and furans have become a major concern over the past few years. Dioxins and furans are combustion
by-products and the prevention of these emissions depends strongly on control of the combustion process. Some
concern has been expressed over possible dioxin formation in EAFs.
Iron oxide is the predominant constituent of the particulate matter emitted during melting. In addition, small
amounts of NOx and ozone are generated during melting. During refining, the primary particulate compound
emitted is calcium oxide from the slag. These particulate emissions from melting and refining account for about
90% of total EAF emissions. The remaining 10% of emissions are generated during charging and tapping.
Emissions from charging scrap are difficult to quantify because they depend on the grade of scrap utilized. Scrap
emissions usually contain iron and other metallic oxides from alloys in the scrap metal. Iron oxides and oxides
from the fluxes are the primary constituents of slag handling emissions. During tapping, iron oxide is the major
particulate compound emitted. (EPA 1995; Baker Environmental 1992)
4.4.2
EAF Effluents
Most electric arc furnaces are operated with dry gas cleaning systems, which have no process wastewater
discharges. A small number of wet and semi-wet systems also exist. The water flows and pollutants of concern
for EAFs with wet and semi-wet air cleaning systems are similar to those of wet BOFs, but the metal content
(primarily lead, zinc, arsenic, cadmium, copper, chromium, and selenium) is higher because of the 100% scrap
charge and higher use of post-consumer scrap. EAF wastewater treatment operations are similar to those for the
wet BOFs, including sedimentation in clarifiers or thickeners and water recycling. (EPA 2000)
4.4.3
EAF By-Products
Slag
The major non-hazardous by-product generated during EAF steelmaking is slag. The primary components in
EAF slag are CaO, SiO2, FeO, MgO and Al2O3. EAF slag is managed similar to BOF slag. Cooled, solidified
slag is crushed and screened to recover metallics for recycle or reuse, and the lower metallic aggregate is used
in construction applications (Baker Environmental 1992). Worldwide, about 77% of the slag produced in EAFs
is reused; the remainder is landfilled (Szekely 1995).
4.4.4
Hazardous EAF Wastes
Dust and Sludge

EAF dust consists of particulate matter and gases produced during the EAF process and subsequently conveyed
into a gas cleaning system. The particulate matter that is removed from emissions in a dry system is called EAF
dust. Particulate matter removed from emissions in a wet system is called EAF sludge.
98
The dust (or sludge) removed from EAF emissions is designated by EPA as a listed hazardous waste - K061.
Since most of the dusts are collected dry, associated pollution issues generally fall into a non-wastewater
category (A.D. Little 1993). The primary hazardous constituents of EAF emission control dust/sludge are lead,
cadmium, and chromium.
EAF dust can vary greatly in composition depending on both the composition of the scrap charge and the furnace
additives used. Table 4-1 shows the typical composition of EAF dust generated during production of stainless
and carbon steels. The primary components are iron or iron oxides; typical EAF dust contains 24% iron by
weight (Kolarik 1996). As shown in Table 4-1, carbon steel dusts are richer in zinc and lead than stainless steel
dusts because of the greater use of galvanized scrap.
Over the past four decades oxygen usage in the EAF has increased by an order of magnitude (1970: 96 ft3/ton,
1980: 352 ft3/ton, 1990: 769 ft3/ton, 1999: 961 ft3/ton). This trend is expected to continue. With increased
oxygen use, the generation of fumes occurs at a greater rate. However, this rate increase is offset by the
reduction in average heat time and better scrap preparation. As a result, the generation of dust/ton of steel is
expected to decrease by 35 to 30 lbs/ton by 2010.
4.4.5
EAF Steelmaking Environmental Trends and Drivers
There will continue to be regulatory pressures to reduce releases of toxic and hazardous substances in all media,
including air, water, and wastes. EPA has concluded that the amount of toxic pollutants for which MACT
standards should be developed as part of Title III of the Clean Air Act. However, if EAFs are located in
integrated mills where the total amount of toxic air pollutants exceeds the applicability threshold for plantwide
toxic air pollutants, EAFs could be subject to case-by-case MACT standards. In addition, modifications to
existing EAF facilities shops can also trigger case-by-case MACT determinations. Regulatory requirements in
such instances can be expected to focus on lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel and other heavy metals listed as
toxic air pollutants. As in the case of other iron and steel MACT standards being developed, regulators are
expected to require state-of-the-art particulate matter controls to serve as a surrogate for MACT for these
pollutants.
99
As noted in the discussion on BOF steelmaking, new ambient air quality standards for fine particulate matter
(PM-2.5) may also lead to tighter requirements for emissions associated with EAF steelmaking and related
fugitive emissions, and Title V permits and compliance assurance monitoring rules may require new continuous
process and emission monitoring facilities and practices. New ambient air standards for ozone will also lead to
increase regulatory attention of NOx, which contribute to the ozone formation in the atmosphere. EPA and state
agencies are expected to continue to apply pressure to reduce emissions of NOx from industrial processes and
EAFs could be a target for such reductions.
Increased national and international emphasis on climate change and the relationship between CO2 emissions
and global warming potential may also lead to increase regulatory pressure to reduce CO2 associated with EAF
production.
The EPA will also likely review the New Source Performance Standard for EAFs in the coming years. Because
New Source Performance Standards are technology-based and technology continues to improve, tighter
particulate emission standards, monitoring requirements, and CO or NOx emission limitations are all possible
considerations during that review.
Dusts and sludges from EAF air pollution control facilities have been a designated hazardous waste (K061) under
RCRA for many years, and standards exist for the acceptable treatment and disposal of these wastes and their
treatment residuals. Nevertheless, the high costs of treatment and disposal of K061 continue to present
challenges for more cost-effective means of treatment and recovery. Although tighter requirements are not
anticipated in the near future, the presence of hazardous constituents in EAF dust will continue to draw close
scrutiny of treatment and disposal practices. For example, an exemption from RCRA rules for EAF dust in
fertilizers has recently been granted by EPA, and new technology-base treatment standards for non-nutritive
metals (such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, chromium, mercury, and nickel) have been proposed and will likely be
finalized in 2002 for any zinc micro-nutrient fertilizers derived from hazardous waste. EPA is also expected to
continue to examine other practices involving disposition of EAF dust for commercial purposes and to raise
questions about other EAF waste materials deemed to be similar to K061, such as material collected in drop-out
boxes and ductwork of air pollution control systems.
Slag from EAF steelmaking has also historically not been environmentally regulated. However, EPA has
recently suggested that in some cases and applications, hazardous constituents in steelmaking slag may be cause
for reporting as part of EPAs Toxic Release Inventory.
4.4.6
New and Emerging EAF Steelmaking Technologies
4.4.7
EAF Steelmaking Research and Development

Modern fume systems are now designed to minimize the formation of gaseous pollutants and ensure that others
are destroyed before exiting the system. Thus, gas cleaning in the modern day fume system entails much more
than trapping and collecting particulates. With tighter environmental restrictions expected in the future, it is
expected that electric furnace operations will have to look at environmental concerns in conjunction with furnace
operations. The key areas where additional R&D are required are outlined below.
100
Raw Materials Related Issues

Better control of feed material quality is needed because many of the undesirable components contained in EAF
dust are contained in the scrap feed to the furnace. Though scrap selection is primarily an economic
consideration, treatment of scrap to eliminate the transfer of undesirable materials into the EAF will likely
become necessary in the future. The use of lower grade fluxes and additives containing sulfur is also a concern
if the sulfur is not tied up in the slag and instead reports to the offgas stream.
Process Related Issues

A better understanding of the interactions between EAF process and environmental operations should be
developed. The EAF operation is extremely dynamic, and furnace feed materials can vary substantially from
one heat to the next. Thus the offgas system is typically designed for the worst case scenario, resulting in greater
costs. Future EAF operations will be based on a more holistic approach and it will be necessary to integrate
furnace process control with environmental control.
EAF Steelmaking
R & D Needs
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Better control of feed quality

Real time offgas analysis method
Real time offgas chemistry adjustment method
Understanding interactions between EAF process
and environmental operations
Effect of closing up the furnace on process control
Improved oxygen injection system to decrease peak
loads to the offgas system
Acceleration of tap-to-tap times to reduce energy use
and emissions
Offgas cleaning system to produce low BTU gas,
recovering more of the off-gas heat content
Improved off-gas system reliability, maintenance
practices, and design
Optimized operating cycles to reduce peak conditions
Improved gas cooling techniques
Reduction of gas cleaning operating costs
Cost effective, environmentally friendly gas cleaning
alternatives
Although proven technology for the

measurement of offgas chemistry on a
continuous basis is currently available, few
installations of on-line, offgas chemistry for
EAF process optimization exist. In order to
better understand the complexity of the melting
and environmental parameters, more
fundamental R&D must be completed. It is
likely that offgas systems will move to a more
closed operation with controlled addition of
combustion air via injectors. The juncture of
the furnace elbow and water cooled duct may
include an adjustable sleeve, which will allow
for minimization of air infiltration without
impairing furnace roof movement.
The
successful EAF operations of the future will be
based on real-time measurements of off-gas
chemistry to control both the EAF steelmaking
process and the EAF fume control system.
Research into major process changes of steelmaking are needed. The feasibility of hydrogen-based steelmaking,
which generates H2O rather than CO and CO2, may be researched. The potential for sealing the furnace will
likely be investigated and developed further. It is already becoming apparent that future furnace designs will
use multiple injection points for both gases and solids. This is beneficial for process operations and will allow
for greater control of furnace operations.
101
Offgas system research and a more complete understanding of the combustion chemistry process may help
decrease the environmental effects of steelmaking. Furnace offgas systems are typically designed for peak
volumes and heat content, which only occur for a small portion of the tap-to-tap cycle. Thus, the offgas system
fluctuates between peaks and valleys depending on the phase of the cycle. Oxygen injection frequently results
in peak conditions due to the high levels of CO generated. If O2 injection is spread out over the full cycle time
using submerged injectors, the CO generation over the entire heat can be smoothed out, allowing for improved
post-combustion operations and decreased peak energy loads to the offgas system.
Research is also needed to discover means to minimize the quantity of EAF fume generated by the steelmaking
process and to recover the iron, zinc, and other metallics contained in the fume. Periodic additions of carbons
and fluxes can exacerbate the emission problem. Tap-to-tap times could also be accelerated so that furnace
energy losses are decreased and fume emissions are reduced per ton of steel production. The implementation
of post-combustion research could also improve EAF performance.
Some modern EAF operations use such high levels of alternative iron in their operations that CO generation rates
are similar to those encountered in BOF operations. In such cases, using the CO outside of the EAF may be more
efficient. If scrap pre-heating is incorporated on a closed furnace, the resulting cool offgas stream will contain
primarily CO, VOCs and CO2. Attempting to burn such large quantities of CO in the furnace will likely result
in poor heat recovery and potential equipment damage. By cleaning the gas following scrap pre-heat, the
resulting low Btu gas could be used for various heating applications within the plant. This would result in
maximum utilization of the heat content contained in the offgas.
System Design Issues

System reliability, maintenance, and optimized design are all concerns for future offgas control systems. Given
that environmental legislation is becoming more stringent, offgas system availability may become a major issue.
Gas collection and cleaning equipment can account for up to 25% of the capital cost for a new meltshop facility.
This is a growing concern as this equipment does not contribute to meltshop productivity and hence reduces
profitability. Greater emphasis needs to be placed on providing more robust, lower cost systems. Offgas systems
are designed for peak operating conditions which may exist for only 10 to 20% of the operating cycle.
Optimization of operating cycles with a view to reducing the magnitude of peak conditions within the system
could result in lower cost facilities which are better utilized. Improved gas cooling techniques are also needed.
Typically, fume system electrical power requirements equate to 10 to 20% of those required for EAF scrap
melting. This represents a substantial operating cost. In addition to the cost issue, the availability of electrical
power could also become an issue. Some facilities are already experimenting with variable speed fans, although
the effect these might have on system performance still needs to be thoroughly evaluated.
Retrofitted environmental systems in melting facilities have become commonplace as more and more furnaces
increase the use of chemical power input for scrap melting. In the future, greater care will likely be taken to
provide modular systems, which are easily expanded as the meltshop steel output grows.
Alternatives to baghouse dust removal need to be developed. Current legislation makes it difficult to apply gas
cleaning technologies other than baghouse cleaning. Further investigation of other gas cleaning technologies
is needed. Economic factors coupled with environmental requirements may result in more appealing alternatives.
102
4.5
Refining and Casting
The SO2 and VOC emissions are of particular concern in refining and casting operations. Effluent from the
vacuum degassing process also requires better control technology. Figure 4-6 illustrates the refining and casting
processes with their major inputs and outputs.
Ladle refining is a process for final adjustment of the chemistry and temperature of the steel. It can encompass
the following techniques:
Addition of alloys to the ladle following tapping of the steel from the furnace
Electric-arc or plasma-torch heated ladle refining
Degassing of the steel in a separate degassing facility or reheating in the ladle or stirring
4.5.1
Refining and Casting Emissions
Continuous casting is the most prevalent casting method. During ingot casting, particulate emissions are
generated when molten steel is poured (teemed) into the molds. The major emissions, including iron and other
oxides (FeO, Fe2O3, SiO2, CaO, and MgO), are controlled by collection devices. Operational changes in ingot
casting, such as bottom pouring instead of top pouring, can reduce emissions. Bottom pouring exposes much
less of the molten steel to the atmosphere than top pouring, thereby reducing the formation of particulate matter
(Marsosudiro 1994).
Certain refining processes, including ladle metallurgy, generate particulate (and SOx if sulfur bearing compounds
are used) emissions. These emissions are typically collected in baghouses as air pollution control dust. The EPA
does not list any particulate emissions factors for continuous casting operations.
Figure 4-6. Refining and Casting Flow Diagram
103
4.5.2
Refining and Casting Effluents
Refining
Of all the refining processes, only vacuum degassing uses process water and generates effluent. Vacuum
degassing involves direct contact between gases removed from the steel and condenser water. Principal
pollutants contained in the effluent include low levels of total suspended solids (TSS) and metals (particularly
lead and zinc, but also chromium, copper, and selenium) that volatilize from the steel.
Applied water rates for vacuum degassing are typically around 1,250 gallons/ton of steel, with discharge rates
of 25 gallons/ton achieved through high-rate recycle (EPA 2000). Standard treatment includes processing the
total recirculating flow, or a portion of the flow, in clarifiers for TSS removal; cooling with mechanical draft
cooling towers; and high-rate recycle. Blowdowns are usually co-treated with steelmaking and/or continuous
casting wastewaters for metals removal. Vacuum degassing plants are often operated as part of ladle metallurgy
stations where additional steel refining is conducted (EPA 2000).
Casting
Continuous casters usually include two separate closed-loop, non-contact cooling water systems for spray and
mist cooling. The mold cooling water system is used to cool the mold, while the machine cooling water system
is used to cool all other mechanical equipment. Direct-contact water systems are used for spray cooling of the
steel as it exits the mold; at the gas cutting torches to control fume generation; and for flushing mill scale down
the flume beneath the runout table.
Applied water rates for the contact systems are typically about 3,600 gallons/ton of cast product; discharge rates
for the better controlled casters are less than 25 gallons/ton (EPA 2000). The principal pollutants are total
suspended solids, oil and grease, and low levels of particulate metals. As with vacuum degassing, chromium,
copper, and selenium may be found in continuous casting wastewater. Wastewater treatment includes scale pits
for mill scale recovery and oil removal, mixed- or single-media filtration, and high-rate recycle (EPA 2000).
4.5.3
Refining and Casting By-Products
Refining By-products
Wastes resulting from refining processes are very small in comparison to the wastes generated from ironmaking
and steelmaking. The more common solid wastes generated include the following:
Ladle metallurgy facility and capped argon bubbling APC dust

Nozzle block sludges (Baker Environmental 1992)
Air pollution control dusts from refining are non-hazardous and are either processed and recycled or landfilled.
Casting By-products
The major by-products of continuous casting are scale and sludge. Scale generated during casting, which is
subsequently washed off of the steel, is periodically removed from the bottoms of scale-collection settling basins.
Fine-grained solids that do not settle in the pits are typically removed by flocculation and clarification or by
filtration, depending on the level of water treatment required and the degree of water recycle practiced.
104
The scale is usually recycled within the steelmaking facility at integrated mills that operate sinter plants. Scale
may also be landfilled (particularly by stainless steel producers) or even charged to an electric arc furnace (Burke
and Liebman 1993). Sludge generated during continuous casting is either processed and recycled on-site or
landfilled.
4.5.4
Hazardous Refining and Casting Wastes
There are no RCRA-listed hazardous wastes associated with refining or casting processes.
4.5.5
Refining and Casting Environmental Trends and Drivers
Ladle Refining Air Emissions

Emissions from these sources vary depending on the operations. Emissions from these operations include:
Particulate emissions from alloy addition practice

Particulate and SOx emissions from ladle refining processes
Particulate emissions from degassing, ladle reheating and ladle stirring facilities
Increased control of the particulate emissions from these sources may be required as part of the overall effort to
reduce fine particulate emissions.
Ladle Refining Water Discharges

Ladle refining air emissions are controlled by dry collection devices (typically baghouses); therefore, process
water is not normally discharged from these facilities. The exception is vacuum degassing. The vacuum for this
process is normally generated by steam or water ejectors. The exhaust steam and water is condensed with water
and processed to remove the suspended solids from the vacuum degassing operation.
Most steel contains low concentrations of zinc and lead. These elements are removed from the steel during the
degassing process and end up in the ejector or quench water. To comply with NPDES permit effluent limitations
for these operations, these suspended solids and metal discharges must be reduced to extremely low levels.
Ladle Refining Waste Discharges

Baghouse dusts collected from the electric arc or plasma-heated ladle refining furnaces contain mostly dusts from
flux, ore and slags used in the process, and some metal oxides. Normally these dusts are not hazardous and can
be disposed of in a conventional landfill. However, particulate wastes collected from a vacuum degassing
operation may contain enough lead to be characterized as hazardous, and, if so, must be disposed of or recycled
as such.
The industry anticipates continued pressure from regulatory agencies to minimize the generation and disposal
of hazardous waste. This pressure, along with shortages of landfill space and the additional cost of disposing
of hazardous wastes, will serve as incentives for companies to reduce hazardous waste generation and recycle
more of these wastes.
105
Casting Air Emissions

Emissions from continuous casting operations consist of steam from the quenching/cooling section of the
continuous caster, NOx from the fuel torches used to cut the steel sections to length, and dusts from tundish
heating and repair. At some continuous casting facilities, the steam emissions from the quenching and oiling
sections of the caster contain VOCs from the leakage of lubrication systems used in the cooling sections.
The NOx emissions, although minor, are the primary emissions of concern from fuel cutting torches. Particulate
emissions are minimal at continuous caster operations. For facilities located in ozone non-attainment areas,
additional controls may be needed to reduce emissions of NOx and VOCs.
Casting Water Discharges

The EPA is currently revising the water effluent guideline limitations for the iron and steelmaking industries,
which may result in a reduction in the allowable limits for discharges from the continuous caster water treatment
facilities. Such a reduction will probably be directed at reducing the discharge of metals such as nickel,
chromium, lead, and zinc, and could well require additional water pollution control facilities for continuous
casting operations.
Casting Waste Discharges

The primary wastes collected in a continuous caster are spent casting mold flux and coarse scale and sludges
from the continuous caster wastewater treatment process. The coarse scales and cutting swarf, which are
normally dredged from the casters mill scale pit, are relatively coarse particulates of essentially pure iron oxide.
They are not hazardous wastes and contain small amounts of water and grease. These scales are good candidates
for recycling to the iron and steelmaking process, particularly for steelmaking facilities with sinter plants.
The fine particulate mill sludges collected from the caster wastewater treatment system are also not hazardous
wastes, but contain larger amounts of water, oils, and greases. These sludge are normally landfilled. Drivers
to increase the use of these caster wastes include the following:
Increased pressure for waste minimization and pollution prevention programs

Scarcity of landfill space and increasing cost of landfill disposal
4.5.6
New and Emerging Refining and Casting Technologies
4.5.7
Refining and Casting Research and Development

Ladle Refining
Small amounts of SO2 are emitted during electric-arc heated ladle refining. For new installations, these
additional emissions could require controls in order to meet Prevention of Significant Deterioration requirements.
Research into the mechanism of SO2 formation during this ladle refining process may lead to ways to prevent
these emissions.
106
The VOC emissions from lubrication oils and

greases are transplanted in the steam that is
vented to the atmosphere from the quenching
and cooling section of the caster. Research is
needed to develop oils and greases or
alternative lubrication practices to reduce or
eliminate such VOC emissions, if found to be
significant.
4.6
R & D Needs
Casting
Refining and Casting
< Understanding of SO2 formation mechanisms during

the ladle refining process
< Oils and greases or alternative lubrication practices

to reduce VOC emissions
Forming and Finishing
Figure 4-7 illustrates the forming and finishing processes with their major inputs and outputs for steel sheet, and
typical of long product rolling.
4.6.1
Forming and Finishing Emissions
Significant emissions from forming and finishing are limited to a few operations, including reheating, scarfing,
and pickling. Emissions from reheat furnaces are limited to products of combustion. Hand- or machine-scarfing
of semi-finished steel to remove surface defects generates particulate and gaseous emissions. Those from handscarfing are localized and generally minor in comparison to those from machine scarfing, which are typically
controlled with local exhaust hoods and wet or dry cleaning systems. The scarfing process volatilizes the steel
at the surface of the slab or other shape, creating a fine iron oxide fume. Major pollutants emitted during scarfing
include iron and other oxides (FeO, Fe2O3, SiO2, CaO, and MgO). Machine-scarfing operations generally use
an electrostatic precipitator, scrubber, or water spray chamber for particulate control; most hand-scarfing
operations are uncontrolled (EPA 1995b).
4.6.2
Forming and Finishing Effluents
Hot Forming
In hot rolling operations, clean recirculated water is used for direct cooling and descaling. Water use and
discharge rates from hot rolling operations vary greatly depending upon the type of mill and the shapes produced.
Applied process water rates typically range from 1,500 gallons/ton for specialty plate mills to more than 6,000
gallons/ton for hot strip mills, although most is recycled.
Descaling
Salt-bath descaling wastewaters originate from quenching and rinsing operations conducted after processing
sheet steel in molten salt baths. The principal pollutants in these wastewaters are total suspended solids,
cyanides, dissolved iron, hexavalent and trivalent chromium, and nickel. Wastewater flows normally range from
300 to 1,800 gallons/ton, depending upon the product and process. Descaling wastewaters are usually co-treated
with wastewaters from other finishing operations, such as combination acid pickling or cold rolling (EPA 2000).
107
Figure 4-7. Forming and Finishing Flow Diagram
Acid Pickling
Acid pickling wastewaters include spent pickling acids, rinse waters, and pickling line fume scrubber
wastewaters. Spent pickle liquor is listed as a hazardous waste (K062) because it contains considerable residual
acidity and high concentrations of dissolved iron salts. Pickling performed prior to coating may use a mildly
acidic bath, which is not a listed hazardous waste.
Process water and wastewater flows vary greatly depending upon the product and process. Waste pickle liquor
flows typically range between 10 and 20 gallons/ton of pickled product. Rinse water flows range from less than
70 gallons/ton for bar products to more than 1,000 gallons/ton for certain flat-rolled products. The typical
pollutants in rinse water include total suspended solids, dissolved iron, and other metals. For carbon steel
operations, the principal metals are lead and zinc; for specialty and stainless steels, the metals are chromium and
nickel (EPA 2000).
Cold Rolling
Process wastewaters from cold forming operations result from rolling operations that use synthetic or animal-fat
based rolling solutions, many of which are proprietary. The rolling solutions may be treated and recycled at the
mill, used on a once-through basis, and discharged to a wastewater treatment system, or handled as some
combination of the two.
108
The principal pollutants are suspended solids, oil and grease (emulsified), and metals (lead and zinc for carbon
steels, and chromium and nickel for specialty and stainless steels). Trace chromium may also be a contaminant
from cold rolling of carbon steels caused by wear on chromium-plated work rolls. Toxic organic pollutants,
including naphthalene, other polynuclear aromatic compounds, and chlorinated solvents, have also been found
in cold rolling wastewaters (EPA 2000).
Process wastewater discharge rates range from less than 10 gallons/ton for mills with recirculated rolling
solutions to more than 400 gallons/ton for mills with direct application of rolling solutions (EPA 2000).
Conventional treatment of cold rolling wastewaters includes chemical emulsion breaking, dissolved gas flotation
for gross oil removal, and co-treatment with other finishing wastewaters for removal of toxic metals.
4.6.3
Forming and Finishing By-Products
The main by-products associated with forming and finishing are mill scale (typically iron oxides), an oily sludge
that results from lubricating the rolls (water treatment plant sludges), and air pollution control dusts associated
with treating effluents and cleaning exhaust gases.
Mill Scale
Coarse mill scale is separated from the sludge and collected in scale pits. The quantities of mill scale generated
vary but range from 10 and 80 lbs/ton for non-oily scale, averaging around 55 lbs/ton, and 4 to 60 lbs/ton for oily
scale, averaging about 10 to 15 lbs/ton (Szekely 1995; IISI 1994). In 1994, approximately 3.7 million tons of
scale were produced in the United States (Hamling 1996; Kolarik 1996).
Dust
Hot rolling mills have air pollution control equipment that collects iron oxide fumes, dust and particulate. The
dust and fume are generated during scarfing, a method of surface treatment in which the surface layer of steel
is burned off to remove imperfections. The dust and fumes are typically recycled, sold to sinter plants, or
landfilled.
Sludge
Sludge from hot forming operations is produced from the treatment of mill scale pit effluent. The sludge consists
of oils, greases, and fine-grained solids that are collected in settling basins or other solid or liquid separation
equipment.
Unlike hot rolling, no scale is formed in cold rolling mills or reduction operations. However, much greater
rolling pressures are required to form the metal, which generates considerable heat that must be dissipated by
a system of flood lubrication. Lubricants applied to rolled products must serve the dual purpose of lubricating
and cooling.
Another by-product associated with cold rolling is the fog-exhaust sludge generated from the mist or fog
produced during cold rolling. Fog-exhaust systems are used primarily to allow continuous observation of the
strip during processing. Particulate matter also combines with steam and oil mist generated during cold rolling
and is discharged to a settling chamber. The settled material is a sludge that is generally landfilled (Baker
Environmental 1992).
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4.6.4
Hazardous Forming and Finishing Wastes
Spent Pickle Liquor

Spent pickle liquor is an EPA-listed hazardous waste (K062) because it contains considerable residual heavy
metals and acidity. The hazardous constituents in K062 are nickel and hexavalent chromium. Waste pickle
liquor sludge generated by lime stabilization of spent pickle liquor is not considered hazardous unless it exhibits
one or more of the characteristics of hazardous waste.
Spent pickle liquor is discussed further in Section 3.1.3 (part of the Recycling Chapter).
4.6.5
Forming and Finishing Trends and Drivers
A hazardous air pollutant standard was promulgated for HCl pickling in June 1999 and no additional
requirements are anticipated for that source category in the foreseeable future. New ambient air quality standards
for fine particulate matter (PM-2.5) may also lead to tighter requirements for emissions associated with forming
and finishing operations such as scarfing, and Title V permits and compliance assurance monitoring rules may
require new continuous process and emission monitoring facilities and practices. New ambient air standards for
ozone will also lead to increased regulatory attention of NOx, which contribute to ozone formation in the
atmosphere. The EPA and state agencies are also expected to apply pressure to reduce NOx emissions from
industrial processes, reheat furnaces, or other forming and finishing combustion-based processes.
Revised federal Effluent Limitation Guidelines, including requirements for numerous forming and finishing
subcategories, have been proposed and will be promulgated as final rules in 2002. Because these standards are
required to be based on best available technology, tighter standards can be expected for many forming and
finishing subcategories.
A few companies still use deep well injection for disposal of waste pickle liquor, but requirements to continue
this practice continue to be made more rigorous. Acid regeneration and recovery processes are the challenges
for more cost-effective means of treatment and recovery. In addition, some attention has been given by the
regulatory and environmental community to possible alternative process for pickling. This interest is driven by
the prospect of eliminating pickling waste waters altogether and to the possibility of eliminating HCl pickling
because of general concern for chlorinated compounds in the environment.
The general disposal, reuse, recovery, and recycling of dusts and sludges, many of which derive from forming
and finishing operations, continues to be a challenge for the industry, particularly when they contain oily
residues, which can limit alternatives for recycling or reuse. Although waste oils are not considered to be
hazardous under federal law, some states classify them as such, and the potential for comparable federal action
exists. Thus, waste oils represent both a processing and environmental challenge.
4.7
Coating
Figure 4-8 illustrates the coating processes with their major inputs and outputs for various steel products (e.g.,
strip, sheet, and other shapes). For tonnage mass production, there are many coating processes; these can mainly
be classified as hot-dip metallic coatings (e.g., galvanizing, aluminizing, terne, etc.,), electrocoating (e.g.,
electrogalvanizing, tin plating, tin-free coating, and other metallic coatings) and non-metallic coatings (e.g.,
ceramic, conversion coatings, and organic coatings such as paint and polymers). Vacuum and controlledatmosphere coating processes are used for specialized, niche applications.
110
Figure 4-8. Coating Flow Diagram

Coating processes can be continuous or batch type. However, all coating processes have three distinct steps or
stages as shown in Figure 4-8. In the pretreatment stage or step, the steel surface is prepared for the coating
operation. This is generally accomplished by surface cleaning techniques (e.g., alkaline cleaning, acid pickling,
mechanical cleaning, or combination of these techniques), followed by rinsing at each sub- stage. In organic
coating lines, the pretreatment stage may also include application of some conversion coating to improve coating
adhesion at the subsequent coating stage.
There are many coating processes, dependent on the type of coating or the final product. After the coating has
been applied, the steel product generally goes through some post-treatments, such as skin passing and/or tension
leveling to improve flatness or shape, reflowing to improve surface brightness (for tin plates), surface passivation
to improve aging or storage characteristics, and oiling to impart lubricity.
4.7.1 Coating Emissions

Significant emissions can occur in coating lines at each major stage or steppretreatment, coating, and posttreatmentdepending upon the product or process. At the pretreatment stage, emissions are limited to alkali
mist/fume, acid mist/fume, dust, and sometimes VOCs depending upon the cleaning process (alkaline cleaning,
acid pickling, mechanical cleaning such as brushing, abrasive blast cleaning and buffing, or combinations
thereof), special cleaning reagents (solvent cleaners, emulsion cleaners, etc.) and other processes used (such as
conversion coating). These emissions are collected by local exhaust fume extraction systems and scrubber
cleaning systems.
At the coating stage, emissions are limited to products of combustion, metal/metal oxide mists, fumes and
powders (from molten metals in hot-dip pots), VOCs and product of combustion (from organic coating lines with
baking ovens), as well as acid/electrolyte mists/fumes (from electroplating lines). Products of combustion are
carried away with the flue gas and are typically well controlled. VOCs and mists/fumes are collected by local
exhaust fume extraction systems and scrubber cleaning systems. Metal/metal oxide mist/fume/powders from
molten metal hot-dip pots may be collected with local exhaust fume extraction systems and baghouses.
111
At the post-treatment stage, the emissions are limited to fumes and dust. These are generally collected by local
exhaust fume extraction systems, together with scrubber cleaning systems, if required.
The control techniques for removing pollutants and maintaining EPA standards include packed towers and wet
scrubbers, as well as baghouse dust collectors. Removal effectiveness in excess of 95% is common. In general,
available technologies are quire sufficient to control emissions from various coating operations.
4.7.2
Coating Effluents
At the pretreatment stage, wastewaters include rinse waters from various sub-stages (e.g., alkaline cleaning, acid
pickling, mechanical cleaning, solvent cleaning), overflow and spills from various sub-stages, and various fume
scrubber wastewaters. At the coating stage, wastewaters come from:
quench tanks (in hot-dip metallizing and organic coating lines)

rinse tanks (in all coating lines)
over-flow, drag-out and recirculating tanks ( mainly from electroplating lines)
scrubbers
At the post-treatment stage, wastewater comes from various rinse tanks, make-up water tanks, spills and overflow
as well as fume scrubbers. Process water and wastewater flow at each stage and sub-stage are dependent on the
product and process used. Rinse water flow may range from 50 to 1,000 gallons/ton. The typical pollutants are
TSSs, oil and grease, and heavy metals such as Fe, Pb, Zn, Cr, Cd, Ni, and Ba, depending on the coating, base
metal, and process.
Acidic alkaline rinse waters are generally neutralized separately before being mixed with other rinse water
effluents. These are then sent to a central water treatment plant. The available technologies are adequate in
meeting the effluent discharge regulations for existing plants. All large steel companies have their own central
and localized wastewater treatment plants. Small coating operators, new installations with one or two coating
lines, and large installations such as integrated plants, try to avoid the cost of central water treatment plants. They
would prefer to recirculate and reuse the wastewaters, if such cost-effective technologies are available. An ultrafiltering water treatment technology is available but is cost-prohibitive.
4.7.3
Coating By-Products
The main by-products associated with coating operations are dross (from hot-dip coating lines), sludge (mainly
from the pretreatment stage and from all electroplating tanks), and dust (associated with treating effluents and
cleaning exhaust gases, as well as baghouses).
Dross
Dross is a by-product generated in hot-dip metallizing processes (e.g., hot-dip galvanizing, aluminizing, terne
coating, and so forth). Top dross is the scum that forms on the surface of the molten metal bath, consisting mainly
of oxides. Bottom dross is the solid waste that forms by the reaction of iron in the steel product with the metals
in the molten bath and sinks to the bottom of the hot-dip pot. The amount of dross formed in a hot-dip pot
depends on many factors, such as temperature, composition of the molten bath, and composition of the steel
product. Hot-dip galvanizing lines produce the vast majority of the dross since more than 20 million tons of
galvanized products are produced in the United States. Dross is always sent to outside processors for reclaiming
the metals for reuse.
112
Sludge
For coating operations, the sludge can be defined as the insoluble materials and reaction products that collect in
cleaning, processing and electroplating lines. The sludge from the cleaning and processing tanks consists mainly
of oils, greases, and fine grained solids (mainly iron oxides). Oil and grease may be recovered for subsequent
reuse or recycle. The remaining part can be further dewatered by mechanical filtration or by use of sludge drying
beds, and can be reused as iron feed material in ironmaking and steelmaking operations. Untreated sludge is also
landfilled.
The vast majority of the sludge from coating operations comes from electroplating lines (from the electroplating
tanks). These types of sludges are generated by the reaction of the steel product with the electrolyte and other
additives and are complex in nature. This sludge, which contains valuable metals, is separated out from the
electrolyte by filtering or even by dredging in many cases, and is always sent to outside processors to reclaim
the valuable metals.
Dust
The dust and fumes associated with treating effluents and cleaning exhaust gases at the coating operation plant
are typically landfilled. Metal oxides or powders collected at the baghouse are generally sold or reused.
4.7.4
Hazardous Coating Wastes
Pickling performed in the pretreatment stage in coating operations generally uses a mildly acidic bath, which is
not a listed hazardous waste. Where strong acidic bath is used, as in the case of incoming steel products with
heavy scale (e.g., hot bands, wire rods, shapes as the incoming materials in hot-dip galvanizing lines or
conversion coating lines), the spent liquor is a hazardous waste. Spent liquor is discussed in section 3.1.3 and
4.6.4.
As indicated in section 4.6.4, the hazardous constituents of K062 are generally heavy metals. Thus, the sludge
formed in the plating of heavy metals such as Cr, Ni, and Cd, and even for some tin plating operations, are
hazardous. Some of the effluents from passivation treatments (containing hexavalent Cr+6) are also hazardous.
4.7.5
Coating Environmental Trends and Drivers
Federal, state, and local environmental regulations are driving coating environmental trends. In some cases, state
or local regulations are more stringent than federal regulations. There are at least three major federal acts that
govern the environmental requirements for coating operations. The federal Clean Air Act (CAA) states that
coating operations must undertake the following tasks:
Reduce emissions of NOx and SOx (product of combustion)

Reduce or eliminate the use of VOCs
Control, reduce, or eliminate chemicals identified as HAPs
Phase out ozone-depleting substances
National Ambient Air Quality Standards specify the requirements for VOCs and HAPs. RCRA is the primary
law that governs the management of solid and hazardous wastes. The Clean Water Act dictates the water quality
standards for wastewaters, including the effluent limitations for hot coating operations (e.g., hot-dip galvanizing,
terne coating, and other coatings). The limitations are spelled out for existing and new installations under the best
practicable control technology currently available (BPT), the best available technology (BAT) economically
achievable, and the best conventional technology (BCT).
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4.7.6
New and Emerging Coating Technologies
4.7.7
Coating Research and Development Needs and

Opportunities
In general, the environmental R&D needs in the coating area are the same as in the industry as a whole: reduce
or eliminate emissions, water pollutants and solid wastes, especially hazardous waste.
Research needs to reduce NOx and CO2 from combustion processes have been identified in the previous sections.
Elimination or reduction of VOCs requires research in process development and in coating types.
In water treatment area, the major need is in developing cost-effective water treatment methods so that rinse and
overflow waters can be reused or recirculated at the point of origin. This research should include alternatives
to ultra filtration to remove heavy metals since ultra filtration is very costly, especially for small coating
operations.
In the area of solid wastes (including hazardous), the emphasis will likely be on the development of coating
processes that eliminate or reduce these wastes. Some of these needs are described below.
Direct Environmental R&D Needs
Indirect R&D Needs

Indirect R&D needs are focused on coating
and process improvements. Environmentallyfriendly, flexible, economical and shorter
routes are needed for surface treatments and
coatings, as well as substitute electrolytes for
electroplating (e.g., phenol-free electrolyte
for tin plating). Chromium-free, especially
hexavalent chromium-free, electrolytes
and/or solutions for surface passivation
treatments, primers and plating are also
needed.
Coatings
<
<
R & D Needs
Two direct needs exist for coating research.

First, methods or processes need to be
developed to treat wastewater (to cost
effectively remove heavy metals) from
various rinse/overflow operations for
complete reuse or recirculation at the point of
origin. Second, the ability to selectively
extract environmentally damaging
compounds in effluents, electrolytes and
spent liquors (e.g., spent acid, spent alkali,
spent electrolyte, etc.) could be developed.
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
114
Methods to treat wastewater from various

rinse/overflow operations
Processes for selective extraction of toxic
compounds in effluents, electrolytes and spent
liquors
Environmentally-friendly solutions for pickling and
cleaning treatments
Improved routes for surface treatments and
coatings
Chromium-free electrolytes and/or solutions for
surface passivation treatments, primers and
electroplating
Elimination of VOCs in the coating process through
new curing techniques
Organic coating products in order to avoid any
organic compound solvent emissions
Dry coating techniques for a wide range of coated
product applications
Cost-effective metallic/alloy coating techniques to
avoid the use of electrolytes
VOCs may also be eliminated in the coating process through the development of new cost-effective curing
techniques, possibly using radiation, to avoid any organic compound solvent emissions. Research is needed into
new organic coating products (e.g., paint in powder form) which avoid organic compound solvent emissions.
4.8
The annual production of the U.S. refractory industry is in excess of 3.3 million tons, worth more than $2 billion.
Refractory production data for 1995 (as reported by the U.S. Bureau of Census) are summarized in Table 4-2.
The single largest consumer of these materials is the steel industry, which typically purchases about 50% by
weight of the refractories produced annually. Most of these refractories are high-value, non-clay refractories that
are used as linings for various steelmaking vessels.
When vessel linings can no longer be used, the spent lining is demolished and discarded, and a new one is put
in place. Depending on the particular application, refractory material may last only a few hours or as long as
several years. Spent refractory materials are disposed of in a landfill or are recycled.
115
Many issues must be considered for the successful recycling and reuse of spent refractory material. These
include the type and quantity of spent refractories, the location of users and producers of refractories; local, state,
and federal regulations; health concerns; contamination; value of materials (including worth of components and
cost associated with disposal); and economics of separation or beneficiation. In general, refractory recycling may
fit into a companys overall recycling program and may follow the same progression as all other recycling.
4.8.1
Refractory Environmental Trends and Drivers
Many factors are driving the interest in recycling and reuse of spent refractory materials. Foremost is the need
to develop pollution prevention technologies for the iron and steel industry that will improve efficiency, reduce
costs, and ensure compliance with environmental regulations.
Refractory recycling is complicated by the presence of varying amounts and types of impurities within the used
refractories, problems with sorting and removing unwanted refractories, and problems with foreign objects being
included with the refractories of interest.
4.8.2
New and Emerging Refractory Technologies
It is possible that the technology necessary for recycling spent refractory materials exists. Technologies
customarily used by the minerals processing industry have been recently applied to spent refractories in isolated
instances. Although these processing techniques are not new, such economically viable and proven technologies
merit further study in their application to recycling spent refractory materials.
Previous efforts to recycle spent refractory materials have resulted in some high-value refractory components,
such as natural flake graphite, being reused in steelmaking refractories. Entire or partial ladle linings may be
reused many times by mechanically removing surface slag or metal, then applying a new surface by vibration
casting or hot gunning. New techniques such as slag splashing and monolithic linings have also helped reduce
refractory wear and costs in BOF vessels.
Refractory Research
Opportunities
In general, opportunities in refractory

recycling are in developing highly efficient
in-process separation of useful materials
from components of the refractory waste
stream and reusing the separated products
within the steelmaking facility where they
were generated. This development would
dramatically reduce the amount of waste
generated for disposal, eliminate the need for
expensive material transport, and increase
economic feasibility.
<
<
<
<
<
A comprehensive refractory recycling

program would include the following:
and
Development
Needs and
R & D Needs
4.8.3
Highly efficient, in-process separation of useful

materials from components of the refractory waste
stream
Methods of reusing recycled refractory products
within the steelmaking facility where they were
generated
Characterization of spent refractories
Microscopic analysis of crushed/ground spent
refractories
Uses of reclaimed refractory materials, including any
process that uses oxide materials
Collection of data on the types of quantities of refractories used throughout the steel industry
Characterization of representative samples of spent refractories
Separation/beneficiation and post characterization of the reclaimed material
116
Subsequent research will likely focus on investigating the manufacture of products from these materials and
maximizing efforts to develop in-house recycling. In addition, research into ways to minimize refractory
consumption or replacement would decrease the amount of spent refractories that are generated.
Surveying and Sampling

Information is needed on refractory types, quantities used, disposal techniques and frequency based on variations
in the type of refractory and demolition technique. The most important issue is to establish a systematic sampling
procedure that will produce representative samples. In addition to sampling current spent refractories, outdoor
stockpiles need to be sampled to obtain information on refractory materials that tend to age or hydrate.
Characterization of Spent Refractories

Characterization of spent refractories is an essential part of a comprehensive refractory recycling and reuse
program. The objectives of characterization are to accomplish the following:
Identify changes that have occurred in the refractories as a result of extended, high-temperature
operation in a corrosive environment
Provide insight as to possible separation, beneficiation, and recycling techniques
The characterization procedures and devices necessary include the following techniques commonly used by
geologists and mineral engineers in their surveys of potential sources of raw materials:
Visual examination
Reflected light
Transmitted light
Cathodoluminescence microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy, chemical analysis, and x-ray
powder diffraction
Beneficiation of Spent Refractories

Another area of research may focus on crushing and grinding using various crushers and mills and then
performing microscopic analysis of the ground materials to determine whether there has been effective liberation
of the reusable refractory particles from the impurities.
In addition, appropriate separation techniques need to be identified. If steel is the principal contaminant,
magnetic separation could be used to remove the iron material which could then be recycled using ordinary
methods. If other metals are present, such as lead contamination at the bottom brick of steelmaking furnaces,
density separation may be required. Density separation techniques can also be used to separate brick materials
in which a density change has occurred. When magnetic or density separation are not adequate, froth flotation
may allow separation of desirable components from contaminated materials.
Characterization of Reclaimed Refractory Materials

Reclaimed refractory materials would likely be equivalent to other beneficiated refractory raw materials and as
such, the reclaimed materials could be characterized using the standard techniques that are applied to refractory
raw materials. These data should provide potential consumers the information necessary to incorporate reclaimed
materials into a variety of products.
117
Standard characterization techniques used by raw material suppliers include chemical and phase analysis and
bulk properties. Additional properties are included when raw materials are sold predominantly to a single
industry. For example, the refractory industry might be especially interested in the pyrometric cone equivalent
of a material, while the petroleum industry might be interested in acid resistance. Specific data could be provided
if an individual industry were identified as a potential consumer of the reclaimed materials.
Potential Uses of Reclaimed Refractory Materials

Any process that uses oxide materials is a potential consumer of reclaimed refractory materials, as long as
sufficient characterization of the beneficiated material is available. Some examples of applications include the
following:
Desulfurizers
Slag conditioners
Slag splashing additives
Raw materials for calcia-alumina cement manufacture
Aggregates for refractory concretes
Alternate uses for spent refractory materials include ferro-alloys, portland cements, and construction concrete
aggregates. Once reclaimed aggregates have been characterized, they can be listed with similar aggregates, based
on virgin raw materials, and can be sold into the same markets.
4.9
NOx and Steelmaking
The iron and steel industry annually emits 138,985 tons of NOx routinely reported as NO2 (EPA 1995). NOx
contributes to the production of smog and acid rain. NOx reacts with VOCs in a complex sequence of reactions
to produce ozone, commonly referred to as smog. NOx also reacts with other atmospheric constituents to form
particulate matter, which generally is in the fine respirable range.
The quantity of NOx produced depends on the specific combustion process. Cokemaking, for instance, typically
emits 0.98 lbs NOx/ton of product, with sintering emitting 0.3 lbs NOx/ton, blast furnaces 0.41 lbs NOx/ton, and
steel reheat furnaces 0.8 lbs/ton.
4.9.1 NOx Environmental Trends and Drivers

EPA has identified NOx as a primary pollutant subject to control under the Clean Air Act and its amendments.
Ozone or smog is regulated by ambient standards, and EPA recently proposed tightened ambient standards for
ozone and fine particulate matter (PM 2.5), both of which can be formed from NOx emissions. Many populated
areas of the United States have been designated as ozone non-attainment areas. One of these, the Great Lakes
region in and around Chicago and northern Indiana, has been designated as a severe ozone non-attainment area
and is subject to stringent source NOx controls on new source equipment. This region includes a number of steel
mills.
Operating and capital costs, including the cost of emission control, are important to the steel industry. Burners
represent a low-cost route for NOx control and several manufacturers now sell low-NOx burners designed for
boilers and furnaces used by the steel industry. Emission levels of these burners are a small fraction of those of
conventional burners. However, these low-NOx burners are not always acceptable to older furnace designs
because of heat-transfer limitations.
118
The source of nitrogen in NOx is derived from either molecular nitrogen in combustion air or chemically bound
nitrogen in the fuel. Three NOx mechanisms are associated with nitrogen source and chemical reactions leading
to formation of nitrogen oxide: thermal, prompt, and fuel. Thermal NOx production is dependent on flame
temperature, and the high temperatures used in steel production favor high levels of NOx formation. Prompt
NOx is usually produced in fuel rich flames through a mechanism involving carbon-hydrogen fragments, while
fuel NOx refers to the oxides produced from the nitrogen associated with the fuel. Techniques used to control
NOx emissions address these mechanisms singly or in combination.
4.9.2
NOx Technological Challenges
Production of NOx, especially the combustion route, is a critical factor in steelmaking because of the high
temperatures required to produce iron and steel. Both traditional and newer iron and steelmaking processes
produce NOx.
The final mill product is often cooled and subsequently reheated. Steel reheating is a process that not only
generates NOx but also raises operating costs because of increased fuel use.
In the drive to increase electric arc furnace productivity by reducing tap-to-tap time, EAF operators are
supplementing electrical energy with energy from the combustion of fuels, a process that produces NOx. For
example, some electric arc furnaces use the oxy-fuel combustion of natural gas to provide additional heat for
scrap melting. Another growing trend is to capture and burn CO offgas to supplement electrical energy. Both
processes, while increasing the productivity of the EAF, increase NOx emissions.
Coke oven gas, a by-product of cokemaking, is burned in integrated mills as a fuel to produce steam in boilers
and generate heat in furnaces. Although the gas is scrubbed, nitrogen-containing components, primarily
ammonia, generally remain. When combusted, these nitrogen-containing compounds are converted into NOx,
producing an unusually high NOx level for a fuel with a relatively low BTU content.
4.9.3
New and Emerging NOx Technologies
New steel melting facilities are being built and processes are being modified that will comply with regulations
and reduce the cost of steel production. The Department of Energy is sponsoring several R&D projects to assist
the steel industry in reducing its NOx emissions and reduce its fuel costs:
Dilute oxygen combustion

NOx formation and control
Low-NOx burners
Oscillating combustion
Oxygen-enriched air staging
Dilute oxygen combustion (DOC) is a novel technique in which gaseous fuel is combusted with the least possible
amount of oxidant, thereby reducing flame temperature and NOx emissions. In DOC, the combustion of natural
gas proceeds via a high velocity turbulent jet reacting with hot surrounding furnace gas as a dilute oxygen source.
High oxygen jet velocity promotes sufficient in-furnace recirculation for dilution of the oxidant. A key
advantage of DOC is its mechanical design and installation simplicity. The technology is expected to reduce
emissions of NOx by about 10% of current levels, while improving furnace efficiency.
119
The NOx emissions are often found to be higher in steel mills where by-product fuels are used in the steel plant
to save on supplemental fuel costs. These by-product fuels usually contain nitrogen-containing species that are
converted to NOx. The University of Utah is currently identifying the NOx formation issues, defining the
controlling mechanisms, and evaluating low-cost NOx control concepts.
Three extremely low-NOx burner projects are being pursued for boilers in steel mills. Each of these projects has
the goal of achieving NOx levels of 9 ppm and CO levels of 50 ppm or lower at 3% excess oxygen without a
decrease in combustion efficiency or production rate. A different low cost combustion approach is used in each
project to reach this goal. These include combinations of staging, internal (within the boiler) combustion gas
recirculation, and conversion of natural gas to CO and H, and flux-enhanced radiant combustion. All three
projects are in various stages of development and demonstration, with a small model of one project (Radiation
Stabilized Burner) commercially available.
Oscillating combustion is a potentially low-cost route to realizing current state-of-the-art NOx levels without
burner replacement. Oscillating combustion involves the creation of successive fuel-rich and fuel-lean zones
within the flame through forced oscillation of fuel flow rate. Heat is removed from the zones before the rich and
lean fuel mix to reduce peak flame temperature, thus reducing NOx formation. Heat transfer to the load increases
due to the more luminous fuel-rich zones and the break-up of the thermal boundary layer. Typically, NOx
emissions are reduced by 60 to 90%, and heat transfer is increased by up to 10%.
Oxygen-enriched air-staging is being pursued as a low-cost NOx-reduction technique by avoiding the high cost
of 100% oxygen use. Tested on a glass furnace, NOx levels were reduced by 40% under optimum conditions.
Currently on the market for glass manufacturing, this approach should also be applicable to steel furnaces.
4.9.4
NOx Research and Development Needs and Opportunities
R & D Needs
Nitrogen Oxides
<
<
<
<
<
Improved scheduling in the manufacturing process

Advanced combustion control systems coupled with
low-NOx burners
Improved furnace heat transfer
Reduced cost of low-NOx systems
Direct flame reading sensors for continuous control
of pollutants
R&D needs for reducing NOx generation

and emission primarily include operational
and equipment issues.
One practice
development, improved scheduling in steel
manufacturing process, would improve
product flow and eliminate cool-down
between processes and thereby the
requirement for reheating.
Combustion and furnace research needs are key to improving NOx performance. For example, advanced
combustion-control systems coupled with advanced-generation, low-NOx burners may significantly lower
emissions. Improved furnace heat transfer would also minimize fuel consumption and consequently, NOx
emissions. Direct flame reading sensors for continuous control of NOx and other pollutants are an additional
development need. Continued reductions in the cost of these low-NOx combustion systems and equipment are
needed to ensure financial, as well as environmental, motivation for implementation.
120
Product Properties
In spite of challenges from alternative materials at home and abroad, steel remains the material of choice into
the twenty-first century. The reasons for the success of steel are clear. To consumers, steel offers safety,
strength, durability, recyclability, and value. For manufacturers, the appeal of steel is linked to its seemingly
infinite variety of alloys, properties, and applications: steel today can be ordered to more than 2,000
specifications.
These enviable characteristics are the result of the industrys constant investment in products that are lighter,
stronger, more versatile, and less expensive than ever before. Todays automobiles are also lighter, safer, and
more fuel efficient than ever because of steel. Although it represents 55% of total vehicle weight, steel costs less
than the upholstery. With the increased strength of todays steels, Chicagos Sears Tower, erected in 1974, could
be constructed with 35% less steel.
As a result of its superior properties, steel has attained a prominent position in a variety of markets. On an annual
basis, 30 billion steel cans are produced to accommodate 95% of all canned foods shipped in the United States.
Foods packed in steel cans are nutritious, inexpensive, and convenient and safe to store. Steel is also used
extensively in aerosol and paint cans and in household appliances. Light-gauge steel is rapidly penetrating the
housing market where it is valued for its ability to outperform other materials in withstanding the ravages of fire,
earthquakes, hurricanes, and pests.
The steel industry aims to retain a dominant position in all of these markets and many new ones through delivery
of superior product properties. In its Vision, the industry states that the steel industry of the future will be
increasingly responsive to ever-changing market demands and the needs of its customers. The industry is
dedicated to continuously making more efficient use of the alloyability, high strength-to-weight ratio,
formability, and low cost of steel.
This chapter identifies product properties that can be developed to benefit all North American manufacturers.
121
Chapter 5: Product Properties
5.1
Containers
Flat-rolled steel sheet products having a thickness of 0.0149 inch or lower are generally classified as tin mill
products (TMP). These steels may be produced with a tin or an electrolytic chromium coating or without a
coating (blackplate). The majority of TMP is used for food and general-line containers, while a smaller amount
is used in non-container applications such as oil filters, architectural fixtures, and metal buildings.
The North American market for TMP is about 4 million tons and has remained constant during the last 10 years.
Like many other steel products, TMP has faced a challenge from alternative materials, such as glass, plastic,
paper and cardboard, and aluminum and has already been displaced from the beverage can, oil can, and specialty
food can markets.
The consumer has a direct impact on the utilization of steel in containers. Consumer preference, product image,
pricing strategy, and package performance are drivers equally as important to the packer and canmaker as steel
quality and manufacturing productivity. The latter two issues are under the greatest control of the steelmaker
and offer significant opportunities to preserve and increase the market for steel containers (this discussion refers
generally to cans and small pails made of TMP; larger pails and drums are generally made of cold-rolled sheet,
but the competitive issues and remedies are similar).
To that end, it is useful to examine the following steel processing items that will allow TMP to meet the needs
of container products for the next 15 to 20 years:
Steel cleanliness
Thickness control
Lighter-gauge TMP
Plating, coating, and surface appearance
Product application
5.1.1 Steel Cleanliness

Steel cleanliness refers to internal non-metallic inclusions of steelmaking origin, the presence of which can
impact the forming of drawn containers, ends, components, and welded bodies. Specific problems include:
Inclusion-related pinholes
Tear-offs during deep drawing
Cracked beads, flanges, and curls
Non-metallic inclusions present in TMP typically result in container failures, such as cracked flanges, bead
failures, and tear-offs during deep drawing. A useful measurement is the number of inclusion-related drawing
failures experienced by the most efficient Drawn and Ironed can lines. The best current performance level is
about one tear-off in 100,000 cans.
Trends and Drivers. As container gauges and deep-drawn container wall thicknesses are reduced, inclusion size
will become a significant performance measure.
The current best performance level for tear-offs may be expected to progress eventually to one tear-off per one
million cans. It can reasonably be expected that container producers will demand a guaranteed minimum
performance level for cracked flanges and container tear-offs during production.
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Inclusion size and total number of inclusions are also important factors in the performance of sanitary food ends
and easy-open ends as end-gauge and score residuals progressively reduce.
Technological Challenges. Current casting and filtration technology (through ceramic filters or similar devices)
is not available or sufficient to achieve the target of the sub-4 ten-thousandths of an inch inclusion size deemed
necessary to minimize canmaking failure.
New and Emerging Technologies. Emerging technologies related to internal defects include:
Hot metal filtration (ceramic filters used in aluminum casting)

Electromagnetic brake mold devices
5.1.2 Gauge Control

The emergence of continuous, high-speed forming operations (for ends, for example), precision lithography for
can labeling, forming technologies dependent on the volume of metal rather than the area (draw-and-iron or
draw-and-redraw processes), and high-speed lap welding of can bodies have all placed stringent demands on the
control of steel gauge, profile, and flatness.
In particular, the effects of gauge variation include:
Clip outs (insufficient material to form)

Insufficient flanges and curls
Hot/cold welds (three-piece can welds)
Peaking and buckling (processed food ends)
Reduced axial strength (finished cans)
Trends and Drivers. The competing demands of material economics and substitution by competitive materials
are driving the container products TMP market to lower gauges and tighter gauge and control specifications.
As container-forming processes become faster and are tuned to close tolerance material, the effective operating
window will be reduced.
With the possible exception of general line containers, the requirement for closely controlled gauge tolerance
TMP will be required for the majority of the container product market.
Process monitoring of container operations will enable the can/end manufacturers to precisely monitor forming
loads in real-time and produce a process signature for a given operation and TMP batch. These real-time process
monitoring systems are developmental at the present time, but will increasingly be installed in high-speed and
precision-press operations. It should be expected that forming signatures will be used as a sophisticated and
continuous quality control tool by container product manufacturers.
Technological Challenges. The efficiency of high-speed forming and deep-drawing operations is severely
compromised if gauge tolerance excursions occur. Better gauge and shape control in the hot-strip mill and coldreduction will be required.
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5.1.3 Lighter-Gauge TMP

Heavier-gauge TMP are usually single reduced, that is, cold-rolled followed by annealing and temper rolling.
Light-gauge TMP are often double reduced, that is, cold rolled to an intermediate gauge, annealed, and then
cold-rolled and tempered to the final gauge. Double-reduced product is stronger, less ductile, and less formable
than single-reduced product. Depending on the steelmakers equipment, there may be significant overlap in the
single- and double-reduced gauges manufactured.
Trends and Drivers. The current trend of lightweighting/downgauging container products will continue. At
present, North American TMP minimum gauge capability is commercially limited to 0.0055 to 0.0061 inch,
whereas in Europe and Japan TMP is available at 0.0044 inch and at 0.0033 inch for low-volume specialist
applications.
In the area of cost reduction, container manufacturers will continue to experiment with and request lighter basisweight materials as they improve their manufacturing (e.g., welding, seaming) and handling-equipment
capabilities. Lighter-weight plate could also expand the market for TMP beyond container products and into the
traditional markets for foils. In combination with plastic coatings, steel foils could enter the container product
markets traditionally dominated by multi-layer polymer laminates (for example, thermoformed trays) and
aluminum foils.
Technological Challenges. Lighter-gauge TMP poses several challenges. In strip handling, there is a significant
risk of strip breakage and surface damage during contact with pass rolls. Creasing, buckling, and shape problems
already occur, and these issues will become more problematic as gauge is reduced.
Dent- and abuse-resistance could become a significant problem for container products made from light-gauge
TMP. Adjusting mechanical properties to increase resistance to denting will also affect the container-forming
processes of welding, flanging, and double seaming.
Adjustments will also have to be made to hot- and cold-rolling practices to manufacture lighter gauges. In
particular, hot-band gauges will be reduced to the point that good control of shape, gauge, and temperature will
become problematic, and productivity will suffer without some changes to the hot rolling process.
New and Emerging Technologies. None have been identified.
5.1.4 Plating, Coating, and Surface Appearance

Tin and chromium/chromium-oxide (TFS) coatings are applied to blackplate in high-speed electrolytic coating
lines whose electrolyte chemistry and operating parameters have been optimized over the past 50 years.
However, there are areas of concern related to these operations, including:
Environmental regulation affecting the choice of plating chemicals
Management of hazardous wastes
Reduction of trace heavy metals
Uniformity of coating weight (edge-to-edge and longitudinally)
Effective passivation of steel/corrosion resistance
Adhesion of organic coatings
Improved coating appearance for low-tin-coatings weights
Field strains associated with coatings
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Various surface modifying techniques have been developed to make possible improvements to the surface of
steel. These crosscutting technologies, such as spray deposition and laser surface alloying, are applicable to
plate, flat roll, and long products. For example, hard facing materials could improve the abrasion and corrosion
resisting properties for drill bits, grinding media, or shovels.
Trends and Drivers. Both commercial and environmental drivers affect these operations. To reduce costs,
tinplate customers have reduced tin coating weights (thickness) to very low levels (0.05 lb/bb). However, the
appearance of these products is not as bright as higher-coating-weight tinplate, leading to complaints from the
canmakers and packers. Formation of rust on the can during storage, canmaking, and packaging are also
problems.
The composition of the organic protective films applied to the can to enhance corrosion protection is also
changing from solvent- to water-based systems or non-solvent-based coatings (co-extruded coatings). Many of
these coatings are much more sensitive to the surface characteristics of the TMP, leaving both the steelmaker and
canmaker with a much narrower operating window.
There is also considerable pressure to develop more environmentally benign plating chemistries. AISI-sponsored
research has developed a process using trivalent chromium electrolytes to replace the hexavalent chromium
electrolytes currently used for TFS. However, the operating window for this process is too narrow for
commercial utilization at this time. Alternative tinplating electrolytes are also being explored, again driven by
environmental and cost issues.
Technological Challenges. The technological challenges include those mentioned in the previous section and:
TFS and chemical treatment electrolytes not containing hexavalent chromium

Improved surface appearances at low coating weights
Improved knowledge of lacquer/substrate interaction
Environmentally benign tinplating electrolytes
Production of wider material at increased capacity
Complete elimination of chrome electrolytes
In-line measurement of coating thickness
In addition, reduction in impurity levels in tin is a critical barrier. With respect to this issue, tin for tinplating
is carefully chosen to have the lowest possible level of residual elements.
New and Emerging Technologies. New and emerging technologies related to electroplating include:
High-current-density electroplating
Polymer-coated steels
Ceramic materials for roll surfaces to reduce scratching
Edge masks and profiled tin anodes to reduce overcoating on strip edges
Improved electrolytes for tinplate and TFS
Non-chromium-based passivation treatments
Pulse plating and insoluble anodes
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5.1.5 Product Application

Predicting the future direction of container products will provide much of the strategic development direction
for TMP production. The next 15 to 20 years will see substantial changes in the following areas related to
container products that might effect TMP manufacture:
Container manufacturing processes (including advanced automation)

Real-time process monitoring
Type and mix of container products (including shaping)
Post-manufacturing processing
Performance requirements
Composite materials
New organic coatings
Advertising and distribution
This is not an exhaustive list but an indication of the increasing diverse and complex future of container products.
Trends and Drivers. Can and end manufacturing will likely undergo future changes that are not purely linked
to economics, although economics will remain a key driver for change. Competing alternative materials,
environmental concerns, and the drive for automation in manufacturing and distribution will probably account
for those changes.
Plastic materials will develop over time to rival the dominance of rigid (traditional or metal) container stock.
Combined with changes in food-preservation techniques, the traditional robustness of steel packaging may not
be a lasting asset.
Multi-die press operations are commonplace today, and this is likely to continue for high-volume, singlespecification products such as can ends. However, as container diversity increases in support of brand marketing,
more flexibility in container manufacture will probably be required. These developments will demand
consistency of quality and performance. Likewise, automated container-manufacturing processes will be
intolerant of specification excursions.
It is predicted that the joining of end with container body by conventional double seaming will undergo
substantial change. Alternative technologies, such as micro seam, may eventually replace the traditional
mechanical double seam.
Protective organic coatings for cans are already shifting from solvent- to water-based coatings to reduce
emissions. Alternative application systems, such as electrocoating or co-extruded coatings, are also being
developed.
Aseptic processing for food is now being used more widely and may provide a much needed solution to the
container damage/abuse caused by older sterilization retorts. Wider adoption of aseptic packing could also
substantially reduce handling damage and external rusting.
Other food preservation technologies, such as radiation sterilization and Ohmic sterilization, will affect the
structural requirements of the container (generally reducing the axial and paneling resistance requirements).
These food preservation technologies will allow lower container metal gauges, which may increase the risk of
competitive materials being used in this market.
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Technological Challenges. Technology challenges include development of practices to produce very thin
gauges of steel with suitable properties, the development of improved organic coating systems, and the
production of steel with very uniform and reproducible properties for every gauge. Current container
manufacturing methods are not flexible enough to support expected future requirements in container diversity.
New and Emerging Technologies. Non-traditional can shapes and contouring have already been used as an
effective marketing tool for product differentiation in Europe and Asia.
5.1.6
Container Research and Development

Steel Cleanliness
Containers
<
R & D Needs
To optimize steel quality and performance,

improved steelmaking and casting practices are
needed to minimize inclusions and eliminate
cracks in flanges, curls, and/or bead fractures
during fabrication in a customer plant. Future
developments must focus not only on reducing
the total number of inclusions but reducing
inclusion size. The development of detection
systems to identify the location of inclusions is a
key requirement.
<
<
<
<
<
Improved steelmaking and casting practices to

prevent cracked flanges/bead fractures
Techniques to reduce number and size of
inclusions
Detection systems to identify the location of
inclusions
Process control practices that reduce variability
of surface finish
Automated in-line defect detection systems with
effective discrimination
Process control capability to achieve less than
1% gauge capability
Surface Appearance
Process control practices that reduce variability
of surface-finish (substrate surface finish, coating appearance, coating weights, and stain), rolling practices that
reduce physical surface defects (rolling marks), and detection systems with effective discrimination are essential
to reducing external defects. Automated in-line detection systems need to be researched for use as discriminating
inter-mill process controls.
Gauge Tolerance
Research is required to develop process control
capability to achieve less than 1% gauge
capability.
Automatic roll compensation
systems are required for rolling operations to
eliminate gauge excursions, particularly at strip
extremities and at high speeds.
R & D Needs
Light Gauge TMP Containers
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Chemical composition
Rolling practices
Hot roll/cold roll work roll surfaces
Shape control
Pass line and process rolls
Annealing practices
Process/property interactions
Light-Gauge TMP
Light-gauge TMP offers a significant opportunity to reduce costs.
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Plating and Coating
Product Application
R & D Needs
Research needs in this area include new methods

and technologies to improve quality and costs.
Containers: Plating and Coating
<
<
<
<
Improved non-chromium-based passivation

processes
Cost-effective, high-speed plating/passivation
technologies for lightweight steels
In-situ coating systems
New organic coatings, films, and application and
curing methods
Better coating uniformity
Research to meet the challenges of the next 20

years in the product application area include
<
research of TMP attributes and new container
coatings. One key area is collaborative research
into new organic coatings, films, and application
and curing methods, including new protective coating technologies compatible with high-speed, high-volume
can making.
Research should also be conducted in the
following aspects of container manufacture:
Containers: Product Application
New can- and end-forming processes,

< More closely controlled gauge, mechanical
including non-traditional shapes
properties, and surface quality
New protective coating technologies
< Better corrosion resistance
compatible with high-speed, high< Better formability of light-gauge TMP
< Greater resistance to stress cracking and stress
volume canmaking
corrosion
Improved container performances,
< Evolutionary easy-open ends and innovative
including reduced material consumption,
dispensing mechanisms
and increased axial strength, paneling
< New can- and end-forming processes
resistance, buckling strength, dent
< Improved container performance
resistance, and external rust resistance
Collaborative programs with food
packers and processors to develop
innovative procedures for processing food packs compatible with newly developed packages (including
package materials)
R & D Needs
5.2
Construction
5.2.1
Light-Gauge Construction
Light-gauge construction products can be grouped into three main categories:
Deck for concrete composite floor and roof

Profile roofing and siding
Load-bearing and non-load-bearing steel framing, including joists, columns, and studs
Trends and Drivers. Trends and drivers for light-gauge construction products can be categorized as market,
construction, builders and labor, consumers, and materials.
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Market
In both residential and light commercial, low-rise framing applications, accelerated growth rates can be fueled
by the declining quality and unpredictable pricing of traditional wood framing. Load-bearing steel is
competitive.
Increased competitiveness of residential roofing products can bring significant opportunities for painted lightgauge coated steels as the cost premiums are reduced within the higher end re-roofing market.
In structurally demanding applications, steel will continue to maintain its established market position through
metal building systems and component manufacturers. Low-slope roofing applications will continue to be a
strong source of demand.
The extent of the steel industrys success in North America will depend upon its ability to accomplish the
following goals related to light-gauge construction products:
Reduce the design and engineering cost and time required for steel framing through software
development and improved prescriptive standards
Educate and train builders and sub-contractors
Address thermal issues on a cost-effective basis with particular attention to roof structures and eave/topplate interface
Provide easy access to material and design information and services
The market for light-gauge construction products is developing on a number of fronts. To varying degrees,
traditional high-volume commercial roll formers have entered the market using their existing customer base of
traditional drywall wholesalers and truss and panel manufacturers. Newer innovative companies have attempted
to shorten the supply chain by providing design, roll forming, panelization, and even erection services.
Recognizing the need for software, truss manufacturers, sometimes partnered with roll formers, have added
product and design services to the packages they deliver.
As prescriptive standards become better understood and roll formers or independent software producers begin
to offer easy-to-use design tools, existing retail distribution yards will increase their sales of steel products.
Continued industry shake-out can be expected among smaller companies with limited financial resources, along
with increased consolidation among regional roll forming manufacturers into large national operations.
Increased international communication fostered by the International Iron and Steel Institute (IISI) will enable
best practices to transfer across the globe. However, because housing is fundamentally a local business,
significant business opportunities for AISI members would not be expected outside of systems or packaged
approaches targeted to government-funded housing initiatives.
Construction
Higher density developments, active adult communities, and assisted living plans are a few examples of segments
of the housing market in which continued growth is expected. Surveys by the National Association of Home
Builders indicate that few buyers are downsizing as they age, and two-wage families are increasingly directing
large disposable incomes towards housing. These trends can complement steel framing.
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Builders and Labor

The availability of trained labor will continue to drive builders to more pre-assembled components and panels.
This trend should benefit the steel industry, given the higher yields and lower costs of steel in the manufactured
environment.
The Consumer
Consumers will become more educated and sophisticated as home buyers. Quality issues, specific product
decisions, and environmental issues in both energy and sustainability will become larger areas of interest. Buyers
will pay for perceived value in general, but in terms of framing costs, will not spend appreciably more money.
Here steel will compete against engineered wood products both of which will take considerable share from
dimensional lumber.
Materials
As growth rates continue to rise, increased purchases will be either mill-direct or open-market, where specific
product attributes can be defined to maximize yields and production rates. Gauge performance will continue to
be a highly cost-driven issue. Two additional trends can also be expected: the continued use of full hard steels
will reduce finishing costs, and clinching technology will most likely be used as a connection, especially in plant
production environments. Future materials will be able to perform in such clinching applications. With any
consumer product, appearance becomes a part of perceived quality, and coatings will come under increased
scrutiny. White rust or other staining could become a marketing deterrent as builders react to a more informed
consumer.
Technological Challenges. The effect of overall steel quality on the rollforming process is a concern. More
efficient structural design tends to result in more complex rolled shapes manufactured from thinner sheets.
Inclusions of various types can cause cracking during rollforming and increase the manufacturer's scrap losses.
As roll forming line speeds increase and shapes become more complex, the potential grows for increased
manufacturing scrap losses due to inconsistent steel quality.
Some restrictions are placed on high-strength steels in the AISI "Specification for the Structural Design of ColdFormed Steel Members". Specifically, those categorized as high-strength, low-ductility steels are restricted to
uses as purlins and girts in buildings. Also, full hard steels are restricted to uses such as roofing, siding, and floor
decking, and the allowable stresses (design strengths) are reduced to 75 percent of normal levels. Although there
has been some recent liberalization of these rules as a result of AISI sponsored structural research, the rules
reflect the concern that steels with very high yield-tensile ratios must be used carefully to preserve adequate
safety margins. Obviously, the reduction in allowable stresses, which has been in effect for many years,
potentially hinders the most economical use of such steels in both current applications and in the development
of new products.
Steel is purchased to a nominal thickness with plus and minus tolerance. Products are designed based on a
"design thickness". To provide some tolerance for thickness variation, the thickness of the delivered product is
allowed to be up to 5 percent less than the design thickness. The market favors the steel supplier with the best
consistency, because the customer can order a nominal thickness very close to the "5 percent under thickness"
and realize a savings in purchased steel.
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Some major producers have initiated a theoretical minimum thickness selling strategy. This strategy has been
justified by asserting that the variation between theoretical minimum and actual thickness is factored into the
price. Evidence shows that, as steel is bought and sold (multiple times) between manufacturers and users, the
benefit of theoretical minimum is reduced or eliminated.
Various product industry groups address the overall performance of non-metallic protective coatings on
fabricated products. Some of these industry statements have relatively little technical merit and are not
necessarily consistent.
AISI standards address the structural element reaction and performance side of the load equation. However, the
methods of the applied loading are left to other organizations such as ASTM. For example, gravity flexural
loading on horizontal elements has become standard. However, diaphragm load testing and analysis of test
results is still not standardized. The ability of designers to understand and evaluate the performance of lightgauge structural diaphragms would be enhanced if the data were standardized (even factors of safety between
design and ultimate vary). A similar situation in the industry exists with the interpretation of superimposed
capacities for composite deck reinforced slabs.
ASTM and other standards address such issues as steel thickness, yield strength, ductility, and coating thickness
and performance of the flat-rolled sheet. However, specific guidelines or standards addressing these basic
performance parameters through a secondary process such as roll-forming (cold reduction through the radii) do
not exist.
Other issues that need to be addressed specifically for the light-gauge framing industry are fire testing for steel
truss and joist assemblies to establish equivalency to wood. Unfortunately, gypsum components have changed
greatly since wood tests were conducted and will not perform as well under current specifications if tested with
similar steel construction assemblies. Wood has a one-hour fire rating with a single layer of gypsum wallboard,
which cannot be reproduced today without a double layer of board on light gauge steel.
Some other challenges include the following:
Fabrication techniques, including fastening, continue to hinder the competitiveness of steel with other
materials. New techniques, such as mechanical clinching, pneumatically driven pins, and construction
adhesives are not yet fully developed.
Steel is more thermally conductive than some other construction materials, particularly wood. In order
to achieve the same thermal efficiencies, steel framing systems often require additional insulation, such
as exterior insulated sheathing on residential exterior walls.
Painted light-gauge coated steels still cost more than 1.5 times as much as fiberglass shingles for
residential roofing applications.
The relatively large number of patented truss designs for steel has hindered the use of prefabricated
steel trusses versus wood trusses with galvanized steel joints.
Lack of training on the part of local builders is a barrier to the use of steel framing.
Infrastructure is another barrier. The process of engineering, estimating, ordering, producing, delivering,
framing, complying with codes, and interfacing with contractors is more complicated for steel framing
than for wood.
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New and Emerging Technologies. The AISI Residential Advisory Groups Subcommittee on Technological
Research requested that a research funding proposal be developed for floor and wall assemblies, and testing has
begun at the National Research Center in Ottawa.
Other emerging technologies include:
Computer systems (CAD/CAM) that enable integration of the design and fabrication of assemblies, such
as trusses, including in-plant roll forming
Computerization of standardized Life Cycle Cost Analysis methods to enable owners to better evaluate
competing products with different service lives
Growing use of high-strength, low-ductility steels, such as residential wall and roof truss components
in Australia
Development and/or adaptation of mechanical clinching techniques for steel-to-steel connections and
pneumatically driven pins or screw guns for other materials-to-steel connections
Development and/or adaptation of new insulation materials and techniques for construction, such as
sprayed-in-place expandable foams
5.2.2
Plate
The markets for plate steel cover many segments of our national economy and consume approximately 10 million
tons of cut length and coiled plate annually. Plate steel is produced in thickness of 3/16 to over 15 inches and
includes a variety of chemistry and processing requirements to achieve the properties and behavior that a
particular application requires.
The steel plate market consists of the following major product segments:
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Pipe
Storage tanks
Industrial equipment and machinery
Building and bridges
Construction and mining equipment
Pressure vessels
Rail car
Shipbuilding
Offshore platforms
Electric transmission towers
Within these markets exists a future need for higher-strength steels developed through precise chemistry control
that offer increased toughness, improved weldability, stringent thickness control and compatible welding
products.
132
Trends and Drivers. As consumers of plate, pipe, and tube processors account for approximately 2 million tons
of discrete and coil-produced plate. For pipe manufacturers, steel plate performance is critical to all forming,
fabricating, and testing processes. Future pipeline projects are being designed for service in severe environments,
such as the arctic or deep offshore waters. Some large-diameter offshore pipeline facilities are approaching water
depths in excess of 3,500 feet, where the collapse strength from external water pressure can become the primary
design consideration. Other demanding applications such as sour gas service pipelines will continue to increase
the need for plate materials resistant to hydrogen-induced cracking and stress-corrosion cracking failures.
Impact toughness values have been raised considerably through improvements in chemical composition and
rolling practices. In the event of a pipeline failure, the Charpy impact test has been used as the primary measure
of resistance to fracture propagation.
Fusion-bond epoxy and polyurethane coating materials have been popular choices for many line pipe projects
because of their good corrosion protection and reasonable cost. Future pipelines, however, may demand more
advanced pipe coating systems to perform in severe environments. New coating products will continue to require
superior steel surface quality to ensure proper application and adhesion.
Steel tank and pressure vessel fabricators purchase slightly less than 2 million tons of plate a year. These thinplate (under 3/8 inch) steels are used in water and other storage tanks and are most cost-effectively produced
using coil-production techniques. As technology for underground storage tanks becomes more sophisticated with
various means of corrosion control and secondary containment, cost and performance are becoming major issues.
Currently, the industry applies thick-film urethane and fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) coatings after blasting.
New coatings that are thick enough to provide structural capabilities while eliminating the need for blasting will
be required.
Underground steel tanks are competing with non-metallic FRP tanks that are less expensive and present a
competitive challenge that requires technological solutions. In order to compete with FRP tanks, the steel tank
industry will require a thinner-gauge, high-strength steel that reduces shipping and handling expenses by
reducing the weight of the tank.
In the aboveground tank market, insulated tanks are becoming much more common in order to satisfy fire code
requirements for gasoline storage. For these applications, concrete encasement has become a popular feature.
Economical alternatives to these enhanced tanks are needed to offer cheaper insulation and to lower weight.
Most tanks fabricated today are custom-built and do not utilize automated welding processes. Sound welding
and fit-up are essential to produce tanks for storing hazardous substances, and one of the steel tank industrys
biggest concerns is finding qualified welders. Various types of joining operations are used to form the tank,
including butt, lap, and joggle joints, and new methods are desired to evaluate all the different welding
techniques and procedures.
Applications for electrical generation and petrochemical and hydrocarbon processing vessels require carbon,
alloy, and stainless steels with improved performance in service. Demanding toughness levels will be extended,
requiring further enhancements in clean steel production. Because many of these applications specify the largest
plates possible, ingot production will be utilized with emphasis on improved internal quality and better chemistry
uniformity.
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Steel has faced little competition from alternative materials, such as aluminum, in heavy industrial and
construction equipment. However, improvements in surface quality, property and dimensional consistency,
flatness, weldability, and toughness are required because of the quest for greater durability and the increasing
use of robotic fabrication. In addition, the equipment manufacturers are actively pursuing grade-consolidation
opportunities as a means of reducing costs.
Manufacturers of heavy equipment and large earth-moving vehicles are challenging plate steel producers to
reduce weight by thickness reduction without the loss of structural stability. High strength as-rolled steels are
providing such benefits by offering micro-alloyed grades produced in coiled form, leveled, and cut-to-length
from coil. Coil memory and surface-finish requirements continue to be important for this product application.
Effective use of these abrasion-resistant steels also relies upon further improvements in alloying, shearing, and
oxy-acetylene cutting. Equipment and machinery manufacturers are increasing their use of laser and plasma
cutting, and steel plate products are expected to accommodate such advancements in fabrication.
The current emphasis of the federal government on supporting improvements in the U.S. highway system will
lead to continuing need for plate steel in bridge construction. Although construction of new bridges is declining
as the interstate highway system nears completion, bridge repair and replacement is expected to be a major
activity. Currently, the bridge market is fairly evenly divided between steel and concrete. Most research
activities are focused on making steel bridge construction more cost-effective than concrete construction.
Improved design methodology is reducing bridge weight by using high-strength steels.
Federal and state bridge design philosophies now include alternate designs and innovative concepts that provide
higher-yield strengths of steel plate to reduce weight and increase overall cost competitiveness. These higherstrength levels have been shown to achieve at least a 10% overall cost reduction for bridge construction.
In addition to high strength steels, the use of weathering steel has become the best option for the bridge industry
to reduce construction and maintenance costs. These grades have been estimated to save up to 18% of steel
bridge construction costs. The successful implementation of high-performance steel for short-, medium-, and
long-span bridges should greatly increase the market share of steel in the next 10 years.
In the building market, seismic resistance remains important in earthquake-prone areas and has begun appearing
in design codes outside the Western United States. New building designs will require steels with improved plate
property uniformity and high ductility in order to survive earthquakes.
Freight rail car manufacturing continues to be a strong market of thin plate steels, and the need for plate thickness
control is growing because of the industrys focus on reducing car tare weight. Furthermore, the use of higherstrength-level steels (80 ksi minimum yield strength and higher) must become more widely accepted in the
United States, as it has in Canada, to allow for more competitive designs. Also, new utilitarian, dual-phase
stainless steel grades are expected to find an application for coal rail cars once a full life-cycle analysis is
performed. This application is particularly needed in the Eastern United States since cars can deteriorate over
time due to corrosion from sulfur-bearing coal.
The fabrication of offshore platforms for oil- and gas-drilling in the Gulf of Mexico and other offshore locations
will be a strong future market. Steels with up to 4-inch thickness with resistance to lamellar tearing (clean steel)
are required and must exhibit excellent toughness and weldability. The control of carbon-equivalent levels
continues to be very tight so that fabrication-yard welding practices can be most cost-effective.
134
Commercial and military shipbuilding will be a continuing market for a range of plate steel grades. In order to
improve the productivity of domestic shipyards, new high-heat-input welding techniques are being introduced
and will challenge current plate compositions. New steels such as the U.S. Navys Cu-Ni, HSLA improved
weldability grades may find more commercial applications. Weight control in these applications will continue
to be in demand, and thus tight thickness control of plate will be needed.
Steel electric transmission towers are designed using high-strength (65 ksi minimum yield strength and higher)
weathering plate steels. These steel towers are replacing the traditional lattice-like and wood pole structures.
Transportation to the installation site by helicopters necessitates thickness/weight control. Utility poles will
provide a significant growth opportunity for steel (long products) in the electrical distribution, microwave, and
communication areas. Steels are currently available; however, the end-user markets must be further educated
regarding the life-cycle benefits of steel. Wind turbines may also provide an additional market into which steel
could grow.
In the international market, fabricators are driving towards grade consolidation as a means to control cost. Some
foreign steel suppliers provide a single melt chemistry to meet a number of different applications, each with
specific property requirements. The use of a single melt chemistry results in simplified welding and fabrication
procedures. The different properties are achieved by variations in plate processing that take advantage of the
operational flexibility provided by accelerated cooling.
Fabricators are also looking for improved properties, particularly toughness and weldability at higher strength
levels. Stringent crack tip opening displacement fracture toughness testing is becoming a common requirement.
Customer requests for larger plate sizes are increasing so that the fabricators can minimize the number of welds
in a given structure.
Technological Challenges. The use of accelerated cooling in steel plate production offers significant
advantages to manufacturers of large diameter pipe, but the accelerated cooling process remains fairly
undeveloped in most domestic plate mills. Line pipe is currently produced to high strength levels using
controlled rolling and cooling practices. These micro-alloy steels must meet strict toughness and weldability
requirements. Upper shelf toughness values as measured by a Charpy impact test are often in excess of 200-250
ft-lbs which is well beyond the validity of the test method. The traditional fracture prevention methodologies
based on Charpy impact results are being challenged, particularly for high-grade pipeline applications.
Pipe customer specifications are becoming increasingly stringent with respect to ultrasonic inspection
requirements for plate. This trend is true particularly for international large-diameter pipeline projects. The
current automated plate inspection technologies are not sufficiently developed to meet the criteria currently
specified.
The biggest concern of the underground steel tank market is buckling (a geometric bearing property). There is
currently no simple, affordable stiffening element that can be introduced into any size diameter tank. Other
technological barriers include the lack of coatings that eliminate the need for blasting and the lack of more
economical methods of tank enhancements to meet fire code requirements.
Technological challenges in the bridge market include the maintenance of high toughness levels (through lowcarbon, low sulfur, clean steel practices) in new steel grades to eliminate fracture critical requirements and,
therefore, reduce fabrication and design costs. Although high performance steels offer improved weldability,
new welding consumables and practices that need little or no preheat requirements are necessary to keep pace
with new steel developments and to optimize fabrication cost reductions. Also, while most new bridge steels
have weathering characteristics, there are restrictions on its use in environments exposed to seaside or road salt.
135
New and Emerging Technologies. The use of accelerated cooling and direct quenching is being advanced to
increase toughness and refine grain structure for high strength steels up to 120 ksi. However, toughness
properties in plate thickness over 1 inch must be maintained and demonstrated for application in several product
areas.
5.2.3
Construction Research and Development

Yield Strength
Increased R&D is needed to determine allowable limits and the placement of those limits on the bending and
forming of low ductility steel. More knowledge is needed on the occurrence and extent of micro-fissures through
the curved formed portion or radii created by high-speed roll-forming.
Thermal
Continued research will be directed towards building practices, geometry, physical stud configuration, and
measuring practices of the thermal effects of steel. Research should take a whole house approach, reflective
of actual, instead of theoretical, conditions.
Coils
The industry should take steps to ensure that quality is protected when buying coils. Coils should be properly
treated and wrapped to protect them from corrosion. Tightening the variations in coil shape would better
facilitate rollforming practices and reduce scrap.
Coatings
The industry could improve its involvement in the protective coatings area with more technically based answers
to typical coating issues. Painted steel could be assigned the same status (in terms of R&D) as coated steel
(note: this does not mean that galvanized and painted products are being equated). Future market dynamics will
increase the pressure on this issue. The industry should also consider the following opportunities:
Paint bonding performance (compatibility) to oiled or dry steel and to oiled or dry chemically treated
galvanized steel
Corrosion-protective expectation of marginal (low-cost) coatings and the long-term corrosion effects
(i.e., prime painted roof deck structural diaphragm through the service life of the building)
Job-site storage problems in the elements (i.e., investigation of anaerobic corrosion caused by
condensation at dew point)
The thermal properties of steel will continue to limit industry growth by adding costs to the building process in
certain climates. The ability to develop a coating on steel that has the sacrificial performance of zinc coupled
with the ability to deter thermal transfer would be a breakthrough of enormous magnitude.
136
Load Application Standards

National standards are needed for methods of
applied loading (part of the load equation).
Diaphragm load testing and analysis of test
results should be standardized. This would
ultimately lead to less conservative designs and
better economics.
<
Cold Reducing and Forming Effects
<
<
<
R & D Needs
If the boundaries of acceptance or equivalence

for secondary effects are developed, such as for
the equivalent yield strength increase developed
by rollforming (work hardening), specifiers can
better understand the performance of steel as
applied to particular applications.
Construction Products
Fire Testing
<
<
<
<
<
The importance of the floor and roof assemblies

testing sponsored by the AISI Residential
Advisory
Groups Subcommittee on
Technological Research cannot be overstated.
Continuing focus on the market impact must be
analyzed as the research progresses.
<
<
<
Allowable limits and the placement of limits on

the bending and forming of low ductility steel
Research on building practices, geometry,
physical stud configuration, and measuring
practices of steel's thermal effects
Protection of coils
More technically based answers to typical
coating issues
Improved paint bonding performance to oiled or
dry steel and to oiled or dry chemically treated
galvanized steel
Corrosion-protective expectation of marginal
coatings and the long-term corrosion effects
Coating with sacrificial performance of zinc and
the ability to deter thermal transfer
National standards for methods of applied
loading
Boundaries of acceptance or equivalence for
secondary effects
Continued floor and roof assembly testing
Improved steel framing techniques for residential
construction
Better residential construction methods for
areas of high wind and seismic loading
Other Light-Gauge R&D Needs

Additional work is needed in the following areas:
Cost-effective methods of providing thermally efficient steel framing and roof/ceiling assemblies for
residential construction.
Cost-effective, prescriptive residential construction methods for areas of high wind and seismic loading.
Industry standards for the design, fabrication, erection, and inspection of light-gauge steel trusses. It
may also be prudent to develop industry-standard truss chord and web sections to improve product
availability and simplify training.
Pipe
Improved as-cast microstructures will allow for decreased reduction ratios in heavier plate and will help to
address the higher operating pressures designed in future pipelines. Related pipe-fabrication and fieldconstruction issues, such as pipe welding and bending, must be demonstrated as part of these design and material
advancements. Precise chemistry control and clean steel practices will be important to achieving specified
properties that meet weldability needs. New welding consumables that match the base steel performance will
also be required for constructing high-strength pipelines.
137
Pipe
<
R & D Needs
<
<
<
<
<
<
Improved as-cast microstructures for plate,

including improved segregation control
Pipe fabrication and field construction issues,
such as welding and bending
Improved precision of chemistry control and
clean steel practices
New welding consumables that match the base
steel performance
Definitions for issues, such as compressive yield
strength determination, and dimensional
considerations for severe offshore pipeline
requirements
Comprehensive database and modeling
techniques for plate finishing
Fracture propagation/arrest models for
high-operating-pressure pipelines
For severe offshore pipeline requirements,

further work is needed to define issues such as
compressive yield strength determination,
residual stresses in the finished pipe, and yieldto-tensile-strength ratio and dimensional
considerations to accommodate the high lay
stresses and collapse risks in these deep-water
applications.
The development of a comprehensive database
and modeling techniques for plate finishing will
help manufacturers predict final pipe properties
and potential variabilities due to pipe forming
and processing.
Tanks and Pressure Vessels
For tanks, the development of an economical

steel that retains its strength during a two-hour
fire test at 2,000oF would eliminate the need for
insulation and satisfy present fire-code
requirements. To address the lack of qualified
welders, the industry requires new and efficient
methods of automating the different welding
processes that take place in a steel fabrication
shop.
R & D Needs
The key issue for tank construction is improvement in plate surface quality in order to eliminate costly blasting
processes necessary for painting. The development of high-strength grades with better ductility offers the
potential for improved structural performance in
tanks, while tighter finishing tolerances are
necessary to reduce scrap waste generated during
Tanks and Pressure Vessels
the fabrication process. Furthermore, the as< Improved plate surface quality to
rolled carbon steel plates that are cut-to-length
reduce/eliminate blasting
from coils must meet precise planar dimensions
<
High-strength alloy grades with better ductility
to allow direct use in fabrication. The coil
< Tightened finishing tolerances
processing equipment must also produce a very
< Ability to cut-to-length from coiled carbon steel
flat plate with good surface finish and no coil
plates that meet precise planar dimensions
memory. Plates for cryogenic tanks will require
< Coil processing equipment capable of producing
very flat plate with good surface finish and no coil
heat-treated carbon and alloy steels with tight
memory
dimensional control.
<
<
<
<
<
138
Heat-treated carbon and alloy steels with tight

dimensional control
High-strength alloy grades that meet multiple
specifications
Steels for processing vessels with low sulfur
levels, inclusion control, and residual element
control to resist temper and creep
embrittlement
New and efficient methods of automating the
different steel fabrication welding processes
Economical steel that retains its strength during
a two-hour fire test at 2,000 o F
In the manufacturing of pressure vessels, future needs exist for high-strength alloy grades capable of meeting
multiple specifications in order to increase standardization and reduce inventory and design costs. The toughness
levels required by processing vessels mean not only low sulfur levels and inclusion control, but also residual
element control (P, Sn, Sb, As) to resist temper and creep embrittlement. Although these steels use carbon and
alloy additions to meet ambient and service-strength requirements, steelmakers will be required to produce these
steels to very tight chemistry ranges so that the most cost-effective welding practices can be used.
Construction and Industrial Equipment and Machinery

Construction Equipment and Machinery
<
R & D Needs
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
Improved methods to produce high carbon, high

alloy steels
Improved uniformity of quality and properties for
very thick carbon steel plates
Steels with yield strength of 130 to 160 ksi
Quenched and tempered steels for structural
use with excellent toughness and weldability
Matching or near-matching strength level
welding electrodes and practices
Improved control of microstructures of as-rolled,
high-strength grades
High-hardness, wear-resistant plates with
increased thickness, good toughness, and good
weldability
Understanding of fatigue of welded joints
Rail car steels at 80 ksi minimum yield strength
thin plate
The industrial machinery market presents a

diverse range of requirements for thick carbon,
alloy, and stainless steel plate. For example,
mold, tool, and die applications require improved
internal cleanliness where surface quality is as
important as in plastic injection molds. Other
applications may require improved machinability
that dictates controlled sulfur additions. Tool
steels are increasingly being produced from plate
and are saw-cut to various bar widths. Producing
these high-carbon, high- alloy steels continues to
be a challenge for plate producers. The
machinery market also requires very thick carbon
steel plate (to 25 inches) produced from ingots,
and there is a need to improve the uniformity of
quality and properties of these steels with
enhanced hot-topping systems and ingot mold
design.
While yield-strength levels of 100 ksi are typical today, strength levels to 130 and 160 ksi will be required in the
future. Quenched and tempered steels for structural use must provide excellent toughness (CVN 25 ft-lbs at 40oF) and weldability. Matching or near-matching strength level welding electrodes and practices will also be
developed. As-rolled, high-strength (80-100 ksi) grades will find continuing applications for equipment
manufacturers, but will need more stringent control of microstructures in order to achieve through-thickness
properties and better segregation control.
The development of high-hardness, wear-resistant plates is essential for industrial equipment. These nominal
400 and 500 Brinell hardness steels will increase in thickness (up to 4 inches) and continue to demonstrate good
toughness and weldability. Tighter hardness ranges will be required in order to demonstrate more uniform
performance.
A final area of research needed for industrial equipment and machinery is the fatigue of welded joints. These
requirements are applied to high-strength steels and are used in such applications as rail cars and trucks.
139
Building and Bridges

Building and Bridges
<
<
R & D Needs
New high-performance steels from 3/8 to 4-inch

thickness need enhancement to provide high
strength levels (70 to 100 ksi yield strength) with
improved weldability and excellent toughness
(CVN 30 ft-lbs at -10oF). The building block of
these steels appears to be a low-sulfur steel
(0.005% maximum or lower) with inclusion shape
control and carbon content of 0.11% maximum.
Most bridge steels specify weathering-grade
characteristics and, thus, levels of Cu, Cr, Mo,
and Ni will be required. Although these steel
grades have been designed using a quench and
temper process, newer versions that can be
produced non-quench and temper are needed to
allow for longer plates to reduce the number of
splices in bridge girders.
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
High-performance steels from 3/8" to 4"

thickness to provide high strength, improved
weldability, and excellent toughness
Weathering grades of steel that can be
produced without a Q & T process
Improved weldability of plate through more
stringent hydrogen controls
Improved high-strength welding consumables
that do not require preheating of base materials
Use of adhesives to bridge fabrication
Weathering steel to achieve improved corrosion
resistance, particularly in harsh salt
environments
Steels for seismic-resistant building that specify
lower yield-to-ultimate-tensile-strength ratios
Steel plate for offshore platforms capable of
meeting stringent toughness requirements
Methods of producing control-rolled steels with
low carbon and carbon-equivalent levels
cost-effectively (shipbuilding)
New high-strength steel grades offering improved

weldability should be pursued through more
stringent hydrogen controls. Similarly, new highstrength welding consumables are desired for use
without the preheating requirements of its base materials. As a future alternative, the use of adhesives may be
considered for bridge fabrication to replace or reduce the amount of welding in steel bridge structures.
Further advances in weathering steel, along with additional education on detailing, are necessary to achieve
improved corrosion resistance, particularly to harsh salt environments. Although this challenge may be
impossible to meet, improvements to weathering steel compositions have been reported from foreign steelmakers.
New steels for seismic resistant buildings may specify lower yield-to-ultimate-tensile-strength ratios. Designers
may also require that low yield-strength steels have strength levels at the lower range of the specification to allow
predictable performance of connections in structures during a seismic event.
Steel plate for offshore platforms need to meet stringent pre-qualification, heat-affected-zone toughness
requirements, and steelmakers will be challenged to produce these 50-60 ksi minimum yield strength steels to
tighter chemistry controls. Although as-rolled and normalized steels are traditionally used for these applications,
future strength, toughness, and weldability requirements will dictate the use of quenching and tempering
processes and new interrupted-cooling practices.
Shipbuilding
In order to support the expansion of the commercial shipbuilding effort, particularly for double-hull tankers, costeffective production of control-rolled steels will be required. These steels must display low carbon and carbonequivalent levels to allow welding with limited or no preheat.
140
5.3
Automotive
Over the course of the last century, steel maintained its position as the preeminent construction material for the
automotive market. The highly visible introduction of non-ferrous materials for specific applications has had
a minimal influence on the overall steel content of the average mass-produced vehicle. However, innovation and
improvements in steel will be required to secure the continued dominance of steel.
Over the last 20 years, the fuel efficiency of passenger cars has doubled from 14 to 29 mpg. However, due to
the large number of SUVs, pick-up trucks, and minivans, overall fuel economy has fallen. Since 1978, vehicle
mass has been reduced by some 10%, as shown in Figure 5-1, with the majority of the weight savings achieved
through vehicle downsizing. This occurrence coincided with the changeover from a frame-based method of
construction to that of a unibody, in which external panels have load-bearing responsibilities.
While there has been an increase in the content of both aluminum and composites, this increase has, to a great
extent, not been at the expense of steel, but rather of other materials. Further vehicle weight reductions have
been sought through the use of aluminum and polymer-based vehicle structures. In 1996, the Materials Systems
Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology conducted a study of the manufacturing costs of
aluminum versus steel. They concluded that the cost of gasoline would have to increase to $2.30 to offset the
life-cycle cost advantages of steel (F.Field and J. Clark, 1996). Table 5-1 shows that manufacturing cost
advantage of steel-body design over aluminum auto-body design.
Figure 5-1. Materials Content of the AverageFamily Car, 1978 - 2000
141
Cost is not the only barrier to the use of aluminum in auto structures and closures. A recent fleet-based life cycle
analysis (S. Das, August 2000) indicates that aluminum intensive vehicles would take over 18 years to achieve
life cycle equivalence with the UltraLight Steel Autobody (ULSAB) developed by an international consortium
of steel suppliers.
As a result, the average steel content of vehicles has remained fairly constant around 55% since the mid-1980s.
Steel has maintained its position in safety- and performance-critical applications because of its high strength-toweight ratio, particularly for crash worthiness of flat products in the chassis and body and for long products in
the performance power train and chassis components. The growth of high- and medium-strength steels for auto
applications, which has outpaced the growth of aluminum as shown by Figure 5-2, reflects this trend.
Figure 5-2. Steels and Aluminum Used in the Average Family Car, 1978 - 2000
142
The most promising strategy for developing more fuel efficient vehicles is improved powertrains: hybrid drives
or fuel cells. However, the use of lighter and stronger steels provide incremental weight reductions The
challenge is to incorporate the benefits of steel at the design stage, which will broaden the manufacturing
advantage that steel holds over alternative materials.
Trends and Drivers. There are four main categories of trends and drivers for the automotive products market:
governmental regulations and environmental issues, customer satisfaction, cost and affordability, and
globalization. Each has several associated sub-categories as shown.
Governmental regulations/environmental issues:
Emissions
Fuel economy
Recyclability
Safety
Customer satisfaction
Noise, vibration, and harshness reduction

Price/performance
Warranty/service/life
Safety
Cost/affordability
Materials
Manufacturing processes
Globalization
Engineering
Sourcing
Market growth
Competition
Trade policies
Two key forces in North America are driving the substitution of alternative materials for steel. They are the
Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) and Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
regulations.
The PNGV Program is a Consortium made up of the U.S. government, National Laboratories, and the Big 3 U.S.
automakers. The mission of this program is to develop a prototype vehicle by the year 2004 that will exhibit the
following:
up to 80 mpg fuel efficiency capability

same attributes/amenities of current mid-size cars
cost-effectiveness (no cost increases)
143
The CAFE regulations define the average vehicle fuel consumption in a fleet, and does so by weight class.
Reducing vehicle mass has a direct effect on fuel economy and can keep a vehicle in a specific weight class or
even place the vehicle into a lower weight class. Given the aggressive fuel efficiency goals of PNGV and the
penalties for exceeding CAFE limits, there is a powerful incentive to reduce vehicle mass. These powerful
external imperatives have resulted in a great deal of attention being focused on lower-density, non-ferrous
materials.
Initial PNGV considerations claimed that the amount of weight reduction possible through part by part
substitution of high strength steels for existing steel designs resulted in maximum mass reductions of about 10%.
However, more recent studies by the ULSAB Consortium have indicated that the use of optimized steel in the
body-in-white can achieve weight savings on the order of two to three times the initial estimates.
The automobile manufacturing industry is undergoing severe changes. The industry has about 25% excess
capacity, and many new vehicle types and models are sold in the United States with a declining market share for
the big 3 U.S. automakers. These trends will result in lower prices and force car makers to build vehicles on
global platforms while decreasing the development time and offer low-volume niche models. Therefore, the steel
industry should promote R&D that will reduce vehicle manufacturing costs and promote less capital-intensive
manufacturing techniques. These will help reduce the economies of scale, making it possible for the automobile
companies to remain profitable at lower prices and lower unit sales.
5.3.1
Sheet Steel
Technological Challenges. Technological challenges for sheet steels can be placed into two categories:
Cost reductions
Weight reductions
The cost reduction category can be further subdivided into the following categories:
Raw materials costs

Steel conversion costs, including steel consistency, press productivity, and assembly
Development costs
Several issues are examined in the area of weight reduction. Essentially, the ULSAB Consortium has shown that
the application of holistic design principles (which to a large extent considers the optimum dispersion of crash
energy) can result in a significant weight savings of the automotive body-in-white. Furthermore, these optimized
steel design approaches lend themselves readily to existing or very near reach manufacturing assembly schemes.
In addition to placing the correct steel mass to disperse crash energy (and to provide stiffer designs), the ULSAB
has made use of such enabling technologies as tailor welded blanks, composite steel laminates, hydroforming,
and laser assembly welding. Many of these enabling technologies are now fairly mature and routinely used for
production vehicles. In a follow-up program on Ultra Light Steel Auto Closures, sheet hydroforming was
demonstrated. This technology is at an immature stage, but has the potential to provide significant mass
reduction for sheet components, especially in difficult to form grades of steel.
144
Raw Materials Costs

Current raw material prices (steel typically $0.37/lb, aluminum sheet average $1.25/lb, and structural composites
like carbon fiber $8/lb) clearly favor steel. Steel is also significantly less expensive than magnesium and
titanium, two other suggested substitutes. However, it has been estimated that a reduction in the price of sheet
aluminum to $1/lb might give aluminum a greater advantage, especially if vehicle life cycle costs (or a
government-mandated weight reduction at any cost) were to be considered (Davis 1996). Therefore, further
optimization of steel raw materials costs is important.
Steel Conversion Costs -- Steel Consistency, Press Productivity, and Assembly
The costs associated with converting steel into a finished component are concerned mainly with material
consistency, press productivity, and assembly.
The formability of steel, compared with alternative materials, along with modern continuous casting/processing
allow manufacturers to minimize conversion costs. The key issue is material consistency to assist with press
productivity.
While major strides to enhance material consistency have been made in terms of gauge, mechanical properties,
and coating weights, further enhancement is needed, especially for high-strength steels.
Due to increase safety requirements, more and more parts are designed for strength, not stiffness. This is
especially true for body structures. For these applications, higher strength steels facilitate weight savings through
downgauging. One of the difficulties faced in using high-strength steels is springback, a phenomenon associated
with gauge and strength variations.
Currently, automotive steel thicknesses are typically within 5% of ordered minima. Further advances to the level
of 2% across the full width of auto sheet are needed to combat springback. Additionally, the yield strength
variation inherent in coils of high strength steels has a typical range of 10 ksi. Reduced variation (by 20 to 50%)
along with gauge control (related to specific parts) and more precise strip temperature control/measurement,
would effectively reduce springback.
In the case of gauge variation, technologies are available to achieve this level of control, and auto steels are
routinely supplied to these standards. For strength variation, achieving 5 to 8 ksi range of properties will not be
so simple, given the mode of specification (minimum yield strength) currently used in North America, and may
require a greater emphasis on alternative strengthening mechanisms than precipitation-hardenable HSLA grades.
In some instances, depending on the steel chemistry and process control, post-coating or post-annealing temper
rolling is utilized to achieve a minimum yield strength level, especially for HSLA grades. This additional
processing can degrade material formability, especially n value. An alternative specification scheme, nominal
tensile strength level, is practiced in Japan. Given the inherently greater uniformity of tensile over yield
strengths, this mode of specification enables greater predictability of stamping performance.
To facilitate this change of specification is probably outside the realm of the steel industry because it requires
non-trivial changes in computer codes. However, since springback is primarily related to variations in gauge
and yield strengths, specifications of tensile strength will not be sufficient to eliminate springback considerations.
It is the predictability and control of springback that is the key consideration, and this will become increasingly
important as further generations of Advanced High Strength Steels are developed, specified, and used.
145
Press productivity has been shown to be primarily a function of process control. Materials contributions are
usually associated with the consistency factors referenced above, frictional conditions, and press downtime
resulting from surface defects present on the virgin surface or formed as a result of buildup in the die.
Frictional performance is aided by the use of in situ lubricants such as prelubes and prephosphates. These serve
to enhance steel formability and are widely used on coated steels and aluminum sheet. Further use of these
products is anticipated, especially those processed in-line at steel coating units.
Surface defects often cause problems in class 1 (exposed) automotive panels. As the overall level of sheet steel
performance increases, the sensitivity of steel to manufacturing defects will increase. The need for better
understanding of the origin and effect of surface defects is required, along with new reliable inspection devices
to monitor the quality of steel and stampings, ensuring that detrimental manufacturing flaws do not enter the
stamping or vehicle assembly processes.
The drive more and more HSS and UHSS combined with reduced thicknesses creates issues in assembly as well.
This holds for both spot welding and laser welding.
Development Costs
The principal issue with development costs is associated with time. Major strides have been made to ensure
smooth part launches through early joint vendor activities that optimize the tool and material to manufacture the
part. This effort has shortened vehicle development time.
Increasingly, computer simulations of formability, structural integrity, and crash worthiness are used to reduce
development times. These simulations have the potential to provide significant cost reductions. However, the
input data for these simulations need to be updated. The conservative designs resulting from the use of these data
may not adequately represent the full potential of steel.
Weight Reduction
Issues to be considered in the area of weight reduction include the following:
Hydroforming
Tailor welded blanks
Lower cost die materials and construction methods
Assembly joining technologies
Alternative steels
Optimized component design

Hydroforming (both tubular and sheet) is currently receiving a great deal of attention in an effort to reduce both
weight and costs of automotive components. This technology is currently being investigated/specified for use
in single component applications (e.g., engine cradles) where previously numerous components were used as a
subassembly. Because much of the technology is experience-based, there is a lack of fundamental knowledge
of materials properties related to hydroforming. There is a need for a reliable method of computer simulation
of hydroforming tube with which tailored tube forming may be possible. This is less critical in sheet
hydroforming where the material experiences fewer processes. In sheet hydroforming, the main hurdle is cycle
time. If the cycle time can be reduced, this technology offers potential for medium to high production volumes.
146
Tailor welded blank (TWB) technology is mature and is routinely specified for a growing number of automotive
applications. The technology essentially enables a reduction in mass through optimum location of steels of
different strength levels and gauge. The reduction of engineered scrap also benefits cost reduction. However,
despite the technologys maturity, methods to determine optimum weld locations and to predict weld-line
movement for non-linear welds need improvement and standardization. In addition, the methodologies of
patch-type TWBs need to be further explored. Another application being discussed is the use of TWBs in
outer body applications (an invisible seam is required).
Current die materials and construction methods contribute to the high cost and time for sheet forming die
development. While the wide-scale communication of die making practices typical of Asian auto manufacturers
was instrumental in improving the costs of North American auto OEMS, more work is needed in materials and
manufacturing methods. New die materials are also being developed. How these materials will react with the
newest steel grades is unknown.
For tubular components, traditional resistance spot welding requires flanges to achieve a satisfactory bondoneside resistance spot welding has yet to be completely developed. The preferred emerging method for joining
such components is laser welding. However, there is a lack of alternative assembly joining technologies.
Improved joining technologies would provide flexibility in the selection of steels with poor conventional
weldability, joints not amenable to conventional welding, and/or designs that offer improved performance/lower
costs.
Increasing complexity in body component design will require alternative steels that can provide continuous
improvement in sheet steel formability, particularly in the high-strength grades. Current production-ready steels
include bake hardenable, rephosphorized, and solution-strengthened interstitial-free steel. Near term solutions
include dual-phase, complex-phase, and transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steels. Development activities
are underway at the integrated steel manufacturing sites, and many products, are production-ready, especially
the low cost surface-coated variety. However, more work is needed in the area of higher formability, highstrength steels, especially from the perspective of optimizing their weldability and characterizing the materials
durability and crash performance properties.
The TRIP steels derive their properties by forming. Current electrogalvanizing lines stretch the steel during
coating, while hot dip galvanizing lines provide a cooling cycle. Both interfere with property evolution in TRIP
steels. Therefore, research into existing lines is needed to adapt them to TRIP steels.
Increasing the elastic modulus of sheet steels would enable the use of even higher strength, lighter gauge steels.
Although a high-risk project, this program could have significant value if successful. One approach proposes
the use of ceramic particles and texture control to enhance the elastic modulus. Alternative approaches based
on radically different chemistries (>5% additions) using low density alloying additives also offer the potential
of significant mass reductions. These types of chemistries are difficult (perhaps impossible) to use in
conventional integrated steel processes. However, the promise of radically different microstructures developed
in thin strip casting could conceivably render such steel products feasible.
Post-processing of formed sheet steel components is currently used in several automotive applications, including
heat-treated side impact beams and bumper inserts. This approach will probably grow in influence as the
demands of additional crash protection and formability of conventionally-processed sheet steels reach their peak.
Better understanding of the process routes required to provide surface coated press-hardened steels is desirable.
147
The ULSAB design effectively considers the whole body structure to achieve the mass reductions. However,
optimizing component design or groups of components in terms of their geometry has a significant potential to
provide further weight reductions. Although a database of impact and torsional performances of a range of
components manufactured from a variety of steels and joint designs is currently being developed, access to this
database is restricted because it was developed under commercial sponsorship. Therefore, a more accessible
database is needed.
5.3.2
Bar Steel
Bar steel (or Long products) are used in the auto industry for power train components, such as engine crank
shafts and gears, and for chassis components, such as suspension springs and control arms. In many cases,
design issues are not simply a matter of reducing the weight of the component. The amount of power transmitted
is also important. Material improvements have led to better power density, permitting a smaller component to
transmit the same power or the same sized component to transmit more power. Effective application of power
density can reduce vehicle weight while maintaining or increasing performance (Figure 5-3).
The application of power density requires a thorough review of the total process chain from raw material to
finished components in order to optimize the cost/benefit relationship. Power density has had limited success
to date outside high performance racing and aerospace applications. Figure 5-3 illustrates the necessity of
achieving cost-effective, high-volume process advancements. The technical challenges and R&D needs
encompass alloy selection and design, steelmaking and finishing processes, manufacturing processability, and
ultimate performance and customer satisfaction.
Figure 5-3. Objective of Power Density
148
Technological Challenges. Similar to sheet steel, bar steels have the main technological challenges of cost and
weight reduction. Those can be further divided into the following factors:
C
C
C
C
Raw material
Design /application knowledge database (consistent design parameters)
Material processing
Material performance
5.3.3
Automotive Research and Development

Sheet Steel
efforts to develop cost-effective automotive

qualities must be made. Given the sensitivity of
automotive steels to minor elements, direct
coupling of these technologies to traditional
steelmaking (i.e., liquid-metal-based), and more
environmentally benign approaches, embodied in
direct iron- and steel-making, need to be
encouraged.
Automotive Steel Sheet
R & D Needs
Developments in non-automotive steels, such as thin

strip or thin slab casting, must continue, and stronger
<
<
<
<
Higher formability, high-strength steels using

innovative process technologies
Sheet steels with a higher elastic modulus
Metallurgical strengthening beyond that
achievable through paint baking
Database of impact and torsional performance
of components
Alternatively, maximizing asset management (through such strategies as using jumbo coils through process
units and slitting to ordered dimensions at the final unit) has an enormous impact on raw materials costs. These
strategies are, however, essentially known so that research in technological advances are not warranted.
Nevertheless, advances in reliable information systems could be viewed as an enabling technology where further
work is warranted.
Cost Reductions
The following R&D is needed to reduce development costs:
Better (more accurate) information on mechanical properties (full stress-strain curves) of as-produced steel.
This information will more accurately simulate stamping performance. The data should be generated by
producing mills.
R & D Needs
Automotive Steel Sheet: Cost Reduction
<
<
<
<
Better information on mechanical properties of

as-produced steel
High strain rate data to more accurately
simulate crash performance
Fatigue characteristics of steels currently used
in automotive applications
Modern, formable mid- and high-strength coated
steel sheets
149
High strain-rate data to more accurately

simulate crash performance. The follow-up
program to ULSAB, that is the ULSABAdvanced Vehicle Concepts, will use steel
properties measured at elevated rates of strain.
Confirmatory work has verified that because the
strength of all steels increases at higher strain
rates, incorporation of these properties has a
significant impact on design. In particular, the
higher strain rates result in changes of locations
of peak crash strains and stiffer structures.
Obviously, this enables a potential lightweighting initiative via downgauging. The majority of integrated steel
manufacturers now have such data available to provide to auto designers. However, the missing link is the
correlation between computer simulation and an actual full vehicle crash.
Fatigue characteristics of steels currently used in automotive applications. The fatigue characteristics of steels
used for endurance simulations usually relate to materials no longer used. The Auto-Steel Partnership has
recognized this deficiency, and a program has been initiated to develop modern, formable mid- and high-strength
coated steel sheets. Parallel evaluation of fatigue behavior in real world (i.e., prestrained, thin gauge)
situations, component design, and fatigue performance are also needed.
Improvement in computer models. While the computer models are showing greater degrees of sophistication and
predictability, improvements are still needed. One of R&D needs is the prediction of springback, the control of
which becomes increasingly difficult at higher strength levels. Tight control of springback is essential to
maintain close part fit-up tolerances and is one of the anticipated deliverables of the Advanced Technology
Program referenced earlier.
Weight Reduction
Further optimization of enabling technologies, such as tailor welded blanks, composite steel laminates,
hydroforming, press-hardened steel and laser assembly welding, is needed to achieve the maximum potential of
steel. Additional study areas include the need for higher strength/more formable steel and a deeper
understanding of the performance of optimized components. These advances will result in further weight
reductions. A higher-risk but potentially lucrative line of study would be the application of alternate shaping
technologies.
Automotive Steel Sheet: Weight Reduction
<
R & D Needs
A more fundamental understanding of the strain

developed during tube prebending, compression,
and expansion (associated with hydroforming)
will avoid the costly trial-and-error
methodologies routinely employed to select the
correct steels to achieve finished-part strength
requirements. This understanding is needed to
make better use of existing finite element analysis
models to simulate the hydroforming process.
<
<
<
Optimized enabling technologies such as tailor

welded blanks, hydroforming, and laser assembly
welding
Alternate shaping technologies
More fundamental understanding of the strain
developed during tube prebending, compression
and expansion (associated with hydroforming)
Use of tailor welded blanks for hybrid materials
or for hydroformed components
Additional methods for materials and
manufacturing, especially for short-run tooling
Optimized alternative joining methods
While mature, tailor welded blank technology

<
should be further studied to achieve cost
<
reductions, develop deeper understanding of
optimum weld locations in the blank, and
evaluate weld impact on component fatigue
behavior. The use of tailor welded blanks for
hybrid materials (steel/alternative materials) or for hydroformed components should also be examined for
potential weight reduction opportunities.
Other R&D needs include the following:
Additional developments in materials and manufacturing methods, especially for short-run tooling used
in niche applications.
150
The development and optimization of alternative joining methods, without sacrificing mass. These
methods could include adhesive bonding, weldbonding, high-speed solid state/induction/electron beam
welding, or mechanical fastening. For all these processes, advanced process control technologies are
needed to ensure consistent joint quality in production.
Further development of higher formability, high-strength steels by using innovative process technologies
(e.g., ultra rapid annealing or using the zinc bath as a quenching medium). In the development of these
steels, particular attention must be focused on their weldability. Ideally, the steels and welding processes
will co-evolve with steel designers considering weldability and welding engineers who adapt processes
to work with new steels.
Development of sheet steels with a higher elastic modulus, which would enable the use of even higher
strength, lighter gauge steels. Although high risk, this project could have significant value if successful.
One proposed approach suggests the use of ceramic particles and texture control to enhance the elastic
modulus.
Metallurgical strengthening beyond that achievable through paint baking.
The development of a database of impact and torsional performances of a range of components of

different designs, manufactured from a variety of steels and joint designs.
Bar Steels
One currently underdeveloped area related to

long products is design. Design has two parts:
selecting the best alloy for the application and
determining the availability of current parameters
or material factors that could be used in the
design process. It would be beneficial if the
parameters were available in a user-friendly
database that could be queried based on the
application.
Automotive Bar Steel
<
<
<
<
<
R & D Needs
Due to increased performance demands on

critical powertrain and chassis components, the
amount of steel used in automotive applications
will increase up to 6% over the next ten years.
However, steel must be alert to the challenge of
competing materials and continue to reduce costs
through raw materials, alloys, and energy. As
discussed earlier in this roadmap, continued
R&D in the area of alternate iron sources is
needed to keep cost pressures on the primary raw
material, scrap. Alloy cost is important, so work
to improve design or lower cost would be
beneficial, especially in the more scarce alloy
elements. Finally, any improvement in the use of
electrical or thermal energy would be beneficial.
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
151
Alternate iron sources

Improved alloy design or lowered cost of alloys
Databases for selecting the best alloy for an
application and for design
Better understanding and improved method of
processing steel
Causes of defects and how steel processing can
be controlled to minimize them
Reduced contamination and reoxidation
Cost-effective hot- and cold-rolling measurement
and gauging systems to detect and control to
levels of quality previously not attained
Improved systems to detect inclusions in semifinished products in the liquid or solid state
Improved understanding of induction heating
control systems and distortion control factors
Benefits of cost-effective finishing processes
quantified
Improved die and roll materials; improved
coatings and lubricants used in die and roll
systems
Alternative free-machining steels, improved
machining equipment and systems
Improved tooling and coolants
The next area of need is that of material processing. More information is needed to understand and improve how
the steel is processed. For example, steel is being processed to much more demanding defect conditions. More
needs to be known and understood about the causes of defects, such as cracks and inclusions, and how steel
processing can be controlled (through systems, materials, etc.) to minimize, if not eliminate them. This is true
not only for steelmaking, but also for downstream processing, including forming, machining, and heat treating.
Improved process control techniques are needed to monitor thermal, load, and dimensional properties throughout
the manufacturing process, including the internal and surface quality at the hot or liquid stages.
As noted, demands on the internal, surface, and dimensional quality of steel are increasing. More R&D is needed
to understand how to extend steel performance limits. Such needed developments include new steel alloys as
well as improvement of those currently in use. In addition, R&D is needed in cost-effective on-line measurement
and gauging systems to detect and control at unprecedented levels. Specific needs include on-line hot inspection
and cold assessment of hot-rolled products for surface and internal microstructure. Material characteristics need
to be understood and manipulated to create an inclusion- and defect-free steel product that has improved size
control and toughness.
152
Notes
AISI, 1994a. Annual Statistical Report. American Iron and Steel Institute.
AISI, 1994b. AISI Collaborative Unit 2 -- Removal of Hydrocarbons from Ironbearing Wastes, Final
Report.
AISI, 1981. AISI Task Force on Solid Waste, Final Report. (This report includes in Section 8, a review of
recycling technologies up to 1981 by Donald R. Fosnacht of Inland Steel with an extensive bibliography.)
AISI, 1999. Annual Statistical Report 1998. American Iron and Steel Institute.
Arthur D. Little, Inc. 1993. Electric Arc Furnace Dust - 1993 Overview, prepared for the EPRI Center for
Materials Production.
Baker Environmental, Inc., 1992. Report on Steel Industry Waste Generation, Disposal Practices, and
Potential Environmental Impact, prepared for the American Iron and Steel Institute.
Balajee, S.R. et al, 1995. "Production and BOF Recycling of Waste Oxide Briquettes at Inland Steel."
Iron and Steel Maker, August.
Burke, Lisa, and Marc Liebman, 1993. Steel Production By-product Wastes A Regional
Perspective, 12th PTD Conference Proceedings.
Caputo, 1996. Telephone conversation with Dennis Caputo of Proler International on May 3.
CMP, 1992. "Application of Microwaves to the Separation of Oil-Water Sludges." Center for Materials
Production, Electric Power Research Institute. CMP Report No. 92-6, July.
CMP, 1993. Electric Arc Furnace Dust; 1993 Overview. Center for Materials Production, Electric
Power Research Institute. CMP Report No. 93-1.
CMP, 1994. "Microwave Separation of Oil-Water Sludges I: Application to Industrial Waste Sludges."
Center for Materials
Production, Electric Power Research Institute. CMP Report No. 9403, March.
CMP, 1995. "Microwave Separation of Oil-Water Sludges II: Application to Polymer-Treated Sludges."
Center for Materials Production, Electric Power Research Institute. CMP Report No. 9504, October.
Daiga, V.and Horne, D. "Production of Crude Zinc Oxide from Steel Mill Waste Oxides Using a Rotary
Hearth Furnace", Fourth International Symposium on Recycling of Metals and Engineered Materials,
(October 2000), TMS, Proceedings, pp. 361-368.
DOE, 1983. Steel Mill Residue Recycling Processes; An Energy and Economic Analysis. U.S.
Department of Energy, Report 88286, January.
153
EC Report, 1988. "Improved Utilization of Blast Furnace and Steelworks Slags." EC Report, EUR
11681.
EC Report, 1990. "Examination and Assessment of Application Possibilities of Various Processes for
Treatment of Iron and Steelworks Residual and Waste Materials." EC Report, EUR 12613.
EC Report, 1991. "Investigation of the Connection between Test Results Found in the Laboratory on
Volume Stability and the Values Found in Practice for LD Slags." EC Report, EUR 13430.
Edgar, Bill, 1996. Personal communication.
Field, Frank and Joel Clark, 1996. MIT Technology Review.
Fray, D. and Tee, J. "Removing Impurities From Steel Scrap Using Air and Chlorine Mixtures", Journal
of Metals, TMS, August 1999, pp. 24-27.
Fruehan, Richard J., 1996. Input material to the technology roadmap.
Fruehan, R.J. , J-Y. Ryu, and R. T. Morales, "Kinetics of Phosphorous Vaporization From Slag", I&SM,
ISS Transactions, (1999) January, pp. 59-68.
Fruehan, R., Fortini, O., Paxton, H., and Brindle, R, 2000. Theoretical Minimum Energies to Produce
Steel for Selected Conditions. Prepared for the U.S. DOE.
Glassman, I. 1996. Combustion, Third Edition. Academic Press.
Hamling, Jerry, 1996. Personal communication.
Iron and Steelmaker, 1996.
IISI, 1994. "The Management of Steel Plant Ferruginous By-Products." IISI Committee on
Environmental Affairs and Committee on Technology. Brussels, 1994.
ISRI, 1994. "Turning White to Green: Appliance Recycling Spins Toward 21st Century." Pamphlet
produced by the Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, Inc.
Kochihira, G., K. Sato, M. Kojima, H. Ueki, S. Miyamoto, "Dust Treatment Facilities and Operation in
Kashima Steel Works of Sumitomo Metal Industries", Pretreatment and Reclamation of Dusts, Sludges
and Scales in Steel Plants, McMaster University Symposium No. 21, (1993) pp. 116-130.
Kolarik, Bob, 1996. Personal communication.
Koros, P.J. "Hot Metal Pretreatment", Chapter 7, "Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel", AISE, 1998
and "Hot Metal Pretreatment -- An Overview Summary," Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, ISS, 67
(1984), 361-365; also in, Iron and Steelmaker, ISS, 11 (1984), 32-35.
Koros, P.J., J. S. Bajaj, V. R. Daiga and V. S. Hegde, "Treatment of Steelmill Waste Metal Oxides", US
Patent 6,120,577, September 19, 2000.
154
Kuhn, M., P. Drissen, J. Geiseler and H-J. Schrey, "A New BOF Slag Treatment Technology",
Proceedings, 2nd European Oxygen Steelmaking Congress, 1997, pp. 445-453.
Lehigh University, 1982. Characterization, Recovery and Recycling of Electric Arc Furnace Dust,
Section VI (Task D), Final Report.
Linley, B.D., 1976. "Recycling of Tin and Tinplate," Proceedings, First International Tinplate
Conference, International Tin Research Institute, Publication No. 530, London.
Little, Arthur D., Inc., 1983. Steel Mill Residue Recycling Processes: An Energy and Economic Analysis.
U.S. Department of Energy Report, January.
Lynn, J., T. Easterly and W. Berquist, "Waste Management at the Bethlehem Steel Burns Harbor
Division", Proceedings ENCOSTEEL Conference, IISI, June 1997, pp. 108-124.
Marsosudiro, Phil J., 1994. Pollution Prevention in the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry and its
Potential Role in MACT Standards Development, prepared for the U.S. EPA.
McManus, George J., 1996. "Integrated Steel Producers Race the Recycling Clock." Iron and Steel
Engineer, January.
Mulrine, Phil, 1995. Unpublished information on emissions and controls for iron and steel mills,
collected by the U.S. EPA.
Pollack, 1993. "Alternate Iron Sources for the EAF -- A Review of the 16th Advanced Technology
Symposium." Iron and Steel Maker, July.
Power, 1995. "Mass-burn WTE Plant Takes Trash Burning into New Era. Power, April.
Rinker, F.G. and Daiga, V.R. "Value Added Iron Units", Ironmaking Conference Proceedings, M58
(1999) pp. 375-380.
Rostik, L., 1996. Zero Waste Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Steelmaking, presented at the Conference on
Waste Minimization/Pollution Prevention, June.
Rostik, L.F. "Towards Zero Waste", Advanced Technology Symposium on New Melting Technologies,
May 1997, St. Petersburg Beach, FL, ISS, and "Reduction of Critical Waste at Chaparral Steel",
Proceedings ENCOSTEEL Conference, IISI, June 1997, pp. 241-246.
Sack, T.J. "Rotary Hearth Furnace Operation at Jackson, TN", Electric Furnace Conference Proceedings,
ISS, 57 (1999) pp. 625-629.
Sarma, B., K. B. Downing and E. Aukrust, "Recovery of Iron, Carbon, and Zinc from Steel Plant Wastes
Using the AISI-DOE Post Combustion Smelting Technology", Ironmaking Conference Proceedings, 55
(1996) pp 671-688.
Schmitt, R., 1996. Personal communication.
Sloop, J. "EAF Dust Recycling at AmeriSteel", Fourth International Symposium on Recycling of Metals
and Engineered Materials, (October 2000) TMS, Proceedings, pp. 421-426.
155
SRI, 2000. All figures and estimates in the section on oil filters were generated by the Steel Recycling
Institute based on surveys and other data collected from AISI, the U.S. Bureau of Mines, manufacturers,
and other trade associations.
Southwick, L. M. and Associates, 1995. Confidential Report to Ausmelt Technology Corporation.
Presentation at the Electric Arc Furnace Dust Treatment Symposium V, sponsored by EPRI's Center for
Materials Production, January.
Stephens, Goldin, and Southwick, 1996. "Recycling EAF Dust Using Ausmelt Technology."
Steiner, B.A. 1976. Air-pollution control in the iron and steel industry. International Metals Reviews
(September).
Stubbles, J., 2000. Energy Use in the U.S. Steel Industry: A Historical Perspective And Future
Opportunities, Prepared for the U.S. DOE.
Szekely, J., 1995. "A Research Program for the Minimization and Effective Utilization of Steel Plant
Wastes," Iron and Steel Maker, January.
Szekely, J., 1995a. Steelmaking and Industrial Ecology: Is Steel a Green Material?, the 1995 Yukawa
Memorial Lecture.
Tillman, D., 1991. The Combustion of Solid Fuels and Wastes, Academic Press.
U.S. EPA, 2000. Development Document for the Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
Standards for the Iron and Steel Manufacturing Point Source Category, EPA 821-B-00-011.
U.S. EPA, 1995. Profile of the Iron and Steel Industry, EPA 310-R-95-005.
U.S. EPA, 1995a. Draft Iron and Steel Regulatory Review, 40 CFR Part 420, Effluent Limitations
Guidelines and Standards for the Iron and Steel Manufacturing Point Source Category.
U.S. EPA, 1995b. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Vol. I: Stationary Point and Area
Sources, AP-42, Fifth Edition.
U.S. EPA, 1993. National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900- 1992, EPA-454/R-93-032.
U.S. EPA, 1990. Report to Congress on Special Wastes from Mineral Processing -- Summary and
Findings, PB90-258493.
Weidner, T.H. and J.D. Lynn, 1993. Integrated Plant-Wide Waste Management Planning, presented at
the Conference on Pretreatment and reclamation of Dusts, Sludge, and Scales in Steel Plants.
Young, R.D. "Method and Apparatus for Using Steelmaking Slag in Cement Clinker Production", US
Patent 5,421,880, June 6, 1995.
Zunkel and Schmitt, 1996. "Review of Electric Arc Furnace Dust Treatment Regulations and Processes."
Presentation at the Electric Arc Furnace Dust Treatment Symposium V, sponsored by EPRI's Center for
Materials Production, January.
156
Glossary
Baghouse
Gas clean-up device consisting of a chamber or room in which bag filters trap
solids that have temporarily combined with gases
Billets
Starting stock of a forging or extrusion operation
Blooms
Semifinished product, similar to a billet
Briquette
An agglomerate of steel plant waste material that is sufficiently compressed to

be fed to a furnace
Coke
The carbon residue left when the volatile matter is driven from coal by hightemperature distillation; coke breeze consists of undersized coke particles
recovered from screening and quenching
Delist
Process of having a listed hazardous waste ruled to be non-hazardous
Descaling
Process of removing scale from the surface of steel
Dewater
To remove the water from a pulp or sludge by mechanical or evaporative

methods
Flux
In liquid metal processing, a nonmetallic material that is used to protect the

metal and remove impurities
Galvanized
Having a zinc coating; normally applied to finished, cold-rolled sheets or to

fabricated parts made from strip products
Heat
A quantity of steel manufactured in a BOF or an EAF on a batch basis
Hydrocyclone
Apparatus that extracts suspended particles from flowing liquid; used

especially to classify solids in mineral pulp
Hydrometallurgical
A chemical metallurgical process that depends on water action
Iron Unit
Iron contained in steelmaking by-products or scrap; iron contained in iron ore,

direct reduced iron, etc.
Mill Scale
The iron oxide scale that breaks off of heated steel as it passes through a rolling
mill
Oxidize
To chemically combine with oxygen
PCB
Polychlorinated biphenyl
157
Pickle
Chemical or electrochemical removal of surface oxides
Pyrometallurgical
A chemical metallurgical process depending on heat action
Refractory
Describing a material that has a high softening point and a very high melting
point
Scrap
Iron or steel discard or cuttings, or junk metal that can be reprocessed
Sinter
In blast furnace usage, lumpy material that has been prepared from iron ore
fines, flue dust, other iron-bearing materials, limestone, and coke breeze
Slabs
A flat metal or alloy shape that is thicker than a plate but thinner than an ingot
Slag
Vitrified mineral waste removed in the reduction of metals from their ores
Sludge
Solid matter produced by a water treatment process that is precipitated or

settled out
Swarf
Chips, shavings, and other fine material produced during a grinding operation
Tundish
A rectangular, lined vessel that provides a stable flow of metal from the ladle
into the continuous caster
For further information, please refer to the authoritative industry text:

W.T. Lankford, Jr. et al, Eds. The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel, Tenth Edition. Association of
Iron and Steel Engineers, Pittsburgh, 1985.
158

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Steel Industry

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3 Iron Unit Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steelmaking - Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Steel Technology Roadmap

Nitrogen Oxides and Steelmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steel Technology Roadmap

Total Suspended Solids

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steel Industry Energy Targets

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steel Technology Roadmap

Iron Unit Recycling

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steel Technology Roadmap

Chapter 2: Process Development

Figure 2-1. Overview of Steelmaking Processes

Chapter 2: Process Development

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steel Technology Roadmap

Chapter 2: Process Development

New technologies include the following:

Particulates are emitted during the charging and

Chapter 2: Process Development

Research and Development Needs and

Sealed, continuous coking process

Steel Technology Roadmap

Steel Technology Roadmap

Chapter 2: Process Development

Chapter 2: Process Development

Steel Technology Roadmap

There is a lack of effective uses of process gas and sequestration of CO2.

Steel Technology Roadmap

Chapter 2: Process Development

Chapter 2: Process Development

Steel Technology Roadmap

RHF - Rotary Hearth Furnace

RKF - Rotary Kiln Furnace

Midrex Technologies, Inc. 2000 World Direct Reduction Annual Statistics

Steel Technology Roadmap

Chapter 2: Process Development

Chapter 2: Process Development

Steel Technology Roadmap

Ironmaking Research and Development

Investigation of factors limiting coal injection and

Along with continuing research of the direct

Steel Technology Roadmap

Chapter 2: Process Development

Coal based direct reduction process that has

Understanding of and methods to increase post

Control models and methodology improvements

Other iron smelting needs include improved

2.3 Basic Oxygen Furnace Steelmaking

Chapter 2: Process Development

Steel Technology Roadmap