Table of Contents

History.................................................................................................................. 2
Introduction.......................................................................................................... 4
Application........................................................................................................... 7
Analysis/Procedure............................................................................................... 8
Cannabis
. 8
LSD
..10
Cocaine
.12
Alcohol
..14
Interpretation of Results..................................................................................... 15
Discussion.......................................................................................................... 16
Recommendations.............................................................................................. 19
Conclusion.......................................................................................................... 21
Appendix............................................................................................................ 22
References......................................................................................................... 26

The Analysis of Drugs and Pharmaceuticals

History

The early discovery of drugs started thousands of years ago. Individuals are unsure of the
date of the early use of drugs for therapeutic purposes; however, the first form of drugs came
from natural sources such as herbs, plants, roots, vines and fungi. The past 120 years has
seen a revolution on the use of therapeutic drugs; that is, researchers found that medicine
extracts from natural sources cured diseases and relieve man of unwanted pain and suffering.
The increase of these medicines has led to an increase in the misuse and abuse on some of
these drugs that later forced law enforcement to introduce laws governing the control and
circulation of these drugs. The year 1898 marked the discovery of Heroin, first thought to be
non-addictive but later found the potential for harm, hence the plea for its monitoring. In
1899, Aspirin was the first safe and effective drug introduced into the medical field that was
not addictive. Chloral Hydrate was the first synthetic drug to be discovered in 1869 as a
sedative hypnotic, still in use to date but drug synthesis from organic materials was fullblown after World War II. The advent of the 20th century belonged to the production of
opium, morphine and cocaine in numerous patent medicines that lead to serious addiction
problem and death. An example of this is Mrs. Winslows Soothing Syrup containing
morphine as the primary ingredient without the populations awareness, causing death in
children due to over dosage. Barbiturates were introduced initially as a hypnotic that
replaced most toxic bromides used for headaches and stress; as it is understood that
bromides were addicting agents as well. The United States signs international agreement to
limit the spread and use of narcotics. In 1919, the Web et al versus the United States case
concluded that pharmacist and physicians should restrict the issuing of addicted drugs to

addicts. Due to the enforcement of the Harrison Act, the illegal transshipment of narcotics
began. A decade after, alcohol sort to have medical use but researchers realized the threat to
be abused, so it was banned. Five years later, there was a decrease in the profit being made
on the liquor business, so organized crime groups made smuggling a full blown enterprise.
Later on, Law Enforcement diminished the use of cocaine, opiates and marijuana.
Amphetamines were introduced into the United States during World War II to assist soldiers
in staying awake during days of combat. There was an increase its use following World War
II. The Marijuana Tax Act passed where it was brought under federal control. After World
War II there was an amazing increase in the development and circulation of medicinal drugs;
penicillin, amphetamines, barbiturates and synthesized opioid products were all a part of the
development of the drug and pharmaceutical development from 1950s to the 1970s. The
post war era brought with it affluence, social change and mass use of medicines that led to
National marketing of these medicines. It was also at this time that sedatives, stimulants and
tranquilizers were misused. Provided is a timeline showing the history of drugs from 1951
to 2007 in the Appendix section showing the dates when most prescription drugs came
onboard. This practice continued until the mid-twentieth century, where the invention of
synthetic drugs became a profit making industry. This new invention proved significant at
the time because bacteria started developing resistance to naturally occurring medicines.
Therefore, the modification of these naturally occurring substances creating analogs were
the best bet of fighting resistant strains. However there were many diseases that the
introduction of therapeutic interventions seemed useless; this, rather encouraged scientists to
optimize and refine the activity of these existing drugs that would stand a better chance of
fighting the battle with diseases and infections.

Introduction

The US Food and Drug Administration (2012) defines a drug as being any article recognized
in the official United States Pharmacopeia designed for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation,
treatment or prevention of disease in man or animals; an article, other than food, intended to
affect the structure of any function of the body of Man or animal. The two main categories of
Drugs are controlled substances and pharmaceuticals. A controlled substance is any substance
where it is widely used in the medicinal field but poses a threat to humans health that it has to be
circulated under law enforcement surveillance. Pharmaceuticals are compounds manufactured
solely for the purpose of being a medicinal drug. Drugs are classified based on their similarities
within their molecular structure and the effect being elicited on the human body. These are
broken down into four main headings namely, stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens and
narcotics. However, in some cases, the sub-categories are not definite for a particular drug as
may elicit more than type of response; for example, Cannabis may be considered as a stimulant
but in high doses it can be classified as a hallucinogen.
It is with keen importance that Pharmacists, Chemists or anyone relating to an area similar
in the specialized field have a thorough understanding of the physiochemical properties of
organic functional groups that is comprised of in any given structure. Examples of these
properties are the degree of ionization, acid-base strengths and the water solubility content of
that particular compound. Being equipped with such knowledge, it aids in the understanding of
the clinical properties of the compound being investigated and those in pre-clinical trials. The
fundamental knowledge of the compounds chemical structure and its behavior serves as a prerequisite when choosing the most suitable sampling procedure. This is considered the most
critical aspect of an analysis. Before analysis, methods are discovered and classified based on the

materials and active ingredients present. This consists of intermediates, drug products,
degradation products and biological samples containing their metabolites. The analytical
investigation of the drug material must therefore be determined before proceeding. Synthetic
drugs are the modification of the natural extract from existing sources; as a result, there is a
possibility that these drugs will have an approximation of impurities present within their compact
structure that serves as the foundation under which this project will underline.
The famous adage, to err is human to forgive divine literally means that it is only natural
for people to make mistakes. During an analysis, there is a definite possibility of errors being
made that analysts should give account of. There are three main classifications of errors; they are
Determinate Errors, Instrumental Errors and Personal Errors. Determinate Errors speaks to the
incorrect graduation read out by an analyst. Instrumental Errors deals with the frequency of
calibration of instruments before the proceeding of an experiment. Finally, Personal Errors solely
refers to the incapacity of the analyst. This aspect is pertinent during an analysis of drugs and
pharmaceuticals because errors outside the suitable range may cause serious problems to the
health of an individual. Statistical evaluation will also be considered throughout the content of
this project as it tells the tale of a particular drug in terms of its accepted dosage, efficacy and
potency. The type of analysis is significant as the purpose of the determination can be either
quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative Analysis refers to the testing of a substance to acquire the
amounts and proportions of its chemical constituencies. Qualitative analysis speaks to testing of
substances or mixtures to identify chemical constituencies. These determinations employ
different types of instrumentations that will be mentioned throughout the depth of this project.
The knowledge of the different schedules of drugs is pertinent; as a result, this feature will be

highlighted throughout the compilation of this project accompanied with the most appropriate
examples of drugs.
Throughout the completion of this project, some of the major drugs will be dealt with as it
relates to sampling procedures, methods of analysis and the interpretation of results obtained
from the different instrumentations used. Application techniques will be highlighted throughout
the completion of this project as well as meaningful recommendations for the future where drug
and pharmaceutical analyses are concerned.

Application

The identification, quantification, qualification, and control of impurities are a critical

part of the drug development process. The ultimate safety of the final pharmaceutical product is
based on the quantity of impurities found in a drug. Impurities found in drugs may arise during
drug synthesis, or from sources such as starting materials, intermediates, reagents, solvents,
catalysts and reaction by-products. Impurities in drug product development may be formed as a
result of the inherent instability of drug substances; which could be as a result of the drug being
incompatible with the added excipients, or the drug interacting with the packaging material. The
first stage known as the discovery stage is to discover a new, safe and active chemical entity
(NCE) that will cure diseases. An example of this is the parallel synthesis of potential lead
compounds, using combinatorial chemistry. The products produced are then identified by fast
LC-MS methods and screened by in-vitro bioassays and/or pharmacological or chemical tests to
allow a selection of a few chosen drug candidates. Pharmacological studies are done after the
lead compounds are selected. HPLC coupled to tandem mass spectrometry is selected due its
high sensitivity and selectivity.
In the development stage, some of the HPLC methods that are utilized in the subsequent
manufacturing stages are developed, validated and then transferred.
In the manufacturing stage, HPLC is used in the identification test to confirm the identity
of the active pharmaceutical ingredient inside the samples of either drug substance or drug
product. In this test two independent tests are needed; example one for chromatographic and one
for spectroscopic. Therefore a chromatographic run with a diode-array or MS detector will
provide both parameters, the retention time in the chromatogram and the spectrum UV or MS of
the eluting peak, matched against a known standard.
7

Analysis/Procedure

The analysis of drugs entails a series of operations such as sampling via measurements to
evaluation leading to the analysis result. Appropriate methods, procedures and practices have to
be designed and applied to ensure that the end result will meet the experiments requirements.
Various analytical techniques such as titrimetric, chromatographic, spectroscopic,
electrophoretic, and electrochemical and their corresponding methods have been applied in the
analysis of pharmaceuticals. These analytical techniques assess the quality of the drugs and
ensure that these drugs serve their purpose.
Cannabis
The concentration and interplay of certain phytocannabinoids are dictated by both the
medicinal effects and the adverse health effects of cannabis. The cannabinoid responsible for
most of the psychoactive effects of cannabis 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and negligible
levels of cannabidiol (CBD), and other trace cannabinoids, that have therapeutic potential and
may counteract some of the unpleasant effects of THC.
Sample Preparation
The female buds are used for the analysis of cannabis in order to reduce variation that
may occur as a result of sampling bias. A forced ventilation oven is used to dry the samples for
24 hours at 35C. The samples are homogenized by crumbling, grounding and mixing. 2000mg
of the fine homogenized powder are then weighed in a glass vial and extracted with a 10ml
mixture of methanol/chloroform (v/v:9/1) by sonification for 30 minutes. This extract was then
filtered and diluted in an amber vial. 100L aliquot of the dilution was evaporated under a
8

nitrogen stream and re-dissolved in a 100L of a mixture of water/acetonitrile (v/v: 5/5)

containing diazepam (50 mg/L) as an internal standard. Two separate extractions were performed
on each sample, and these were separately assayed and compared.
Detection
Cannabis is detected via urine tests and blood tests. The urine tests are able to detect
marijuana for days to weeks after use. The non-psychoactive metabolite (THC-COOH) stays in
the body for days and weeks with no impairments. Due to its long elimination time, urine tests
are more sensitive to marijuana than other commonly used drugs (table 2).
Blood test confirms the presence of the active ingredient THC. High levels are indicative
of recent use while low levels may persist for hours or days. These tests are invasive and difficult
to administer, hence, they are not frequently used. They are more frequently used in
investigations to indicate whether the subject was actually under the influence (example in
accidents or injuries of DUIs).
Hair test detects the non-psychoactive form of the drug that remains in the hair for
months afterwards so they are not used to detect recent drug use. The drug residues are absorbed
and does is not detected in the hair until after 7-10 days after first use; after which they cannot be
removed by shampoos. Hair tests are most likely used to detect regular than occasional use of
marijuana.
The saliva testing method for the detection of cannabis in the body is a more recent and
less proven technology. In the case of marijuana, its sensitivity is yet to be established. Theory
states that cannabis is detected in recent drug use and this may range from several hours to over a
day. Their purpose is to detect secretions from inside the oral tissues that cannot be washed out
9

with mouthwash. The industry has been eager to develop urine tests because they are less
intrusive than urine or blood tests.

Presumptive Test
The Duquenois-Levine Test provides a description of cannabis resin with vanillin and
acetaldehyde in a hydrochloric medium by forming the violet coloured product which can be
extracted with chloroform. The chloroform products of cannabis products (hashish and
marihuana) reacts with fast blue salt B in a basic milieu by forming the coupled product (purplered), which is soluble in the organic layer (Kovar and Laudszun, 1989).

Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)

LSD is the most famous drug of a fungal origin. It is known to be one of the most potent
hallucinogen and is classed as a schedule 1 drug according to FDA (outlined in the appendix).
Initially it was used experimentally to treat mental disorder but has not been used in this way for
some 30 years.
Sample Preparation
A series of complex reaction is used to prepare LSD from lysergic acid. Careful
monitoring and control of this reaction is necessary. The materials may be added to inert
substrates, sugar cubes, or mixed with molten gelatin which is then cooled and cut into small
pieces containing the appropriate dose. These latter are known as window panes. However,
these dose forms suffer from great inhomogeneity and the vast majority of LSD observed in
10

forensic science laboratory today is encountered in the form of blotter acid (figure 2). In this
form an absorbent paper is dipped into a solution of LSD, and then dried. This allows even
distribution of the drug through the paper. The blotter acid procedure includes a count of the
number of dose units, the size of each of the dose units (length breadth), whether they fit
together, the number and depth of the perforations of the dose units and a note of the pattern and
whether it covers all, some, or single dose units (Cole, 2003).
Extraction of LSD Prior to Analysis
Cole went on to say that since the drug is impregnated onto a paper substrate, it is
necessary to extract the material prior to analysis. This extraction can simply be achieved by
mixing the test sample for 30 seconds with sufficient methanol to achieve a sample concentration
of 1 mg LSD ml-1. Alternatively, a methanol/water (1:1) mixture has been reported to extract the
LSD more efficiently. Any solid material should be removed from the extract prior to any
chromatographic analysis. This can either be achieved by centrifugation or by passing the extract
through a 5m filter. If quantitative analyses are to be carried out, it is necessary to completely
extract the LSD from the paper. This can be achieved by suspending the material in a large
volume (15ml suggested) of 1% tartaric acid solution in a separatory funnel. The mixture is
extracted three times with an equal volume of chloroform and then aqueous layer is basified with
1M NaHCO3. The resulting mixture should be extracted, three times, with an equal volume of
chloroform, and the chloroform extracts combined, filtered or centrifuged, and evaporated under
a stream of nitrogen. The residue should then be reconstituted in a known volume of solvent.

11

Presumptive test
Due to LSDs fluorescing properties, fluorescence testing can be used during the
identification process. The procedure includes the original dosage form, or a drop of methanolic
extract from the dosage form being placed on a filter paper and allowed to dry. UV-light (360nm)
is then used to observe the material which will fluoresce if LSD is present. A negative control
shows that the fluorescence, if seen, is as a result of the drug extracted in the methanol. On the
other hand, the positive control provides a reference colour reaction and gives an idea of the
intensity of the fluorescence that might be observed.

Cocaine
Cocaine is made from coca leaves and is known to be a white or off-white crystalline
powder which is often fine, and rarely damp. The drug is usually adulterated and transformed for
trafficking purposes by adding uncontrolled substances like caffeine, procaine or sugars.
However, this does not affect its physical appearance much since these adulterants are of the
same colour and description (fine dry white powders). Crack cocaine which is a flaky hard
material is made by combining ammonia or sodium bicarbonate and water to cocaine
hydrochloride and heating the resulting precipitated powder. The term crack which is the street
name given to freebase cocaine, refers to the crackling sound produced when the mixture is
heated.

12

Extraction
The sample is immersed for a short while in boiling ethanol which produces effective
extraction of ecgonine-type alkaloids and minimizes the breakdown of cocaine. A short
extraction at room temperature is adequate if quantitative extraction of the alkaloids is not
required. The leaves may be pounded with ethanol or methanol in a mortar. The alcoholic extract
is subjected to TLC or GC-MS for qualitative analysis of the coca leaf.
Presumptive Test
The Scotts test is a popular colour test for cocaine. In this procedure 1.0g of cobalt
thiocyanate is dissolved in 50ml of 10% (v/v) acetic acid, 50ml of glycerine is then added.
Concentrated HLC and chloroform can also be used as reagents in step 2 and 3 respectively. A
small amount of the suspected material is placed in a test tube, 5 drops of reagent 1 then is
added, the test tube is then shaken for 10 seconds. A blue precipitate and a blue solution indicate
the presence of cocaine. In step 2 a drop of HCL (reagent 2) is added to the material and shaken
for a few seconds. The blue solution formed in step 1 should turn pink. In step 3, 5 drops of
reagent 3 (chloroform) is added and shaken. If cocaine is present the lower chloroform layer will
develop an intense blue colour, while the upper layer will be pink. At each stage, a positive result
is required in order to be considered a positive test for cocaine.

13

Alcohol
Sampling/Extraction
Alcohols can be prepared by the hydration of alkenes or by the reduction of aldehydes,
ketones, acids, and esters.
Detection
The tests for alcohol are available in two different forms, an oral or saliva alcohol tests
and a breath alcohol test. The breath alcohol test checks human breath for traces of alcohol. The
oral alcohol test examines human saliva for traces of alcohol. The amount of beer or liquor, the
weight, how long ago it was consumed and the metabolism of will affect the amount alcohol that
is detected.

14

Interpretation of Results

Knowledge of the biotransformation of drugs plays an integral role in aiding in the

analyses of drugs. Once analyses of drugs are done the following can then be answered:

The route of administration

The administered dosage
Whether or not the concentration of the drug present was sufficient to cause death
or alter action of the individual to cause his or her death.

The part that is found to be contained with the highest concentration of the drug is
generally given as the site of administration. For example, a lot of drug in the GI tract and liver
indicates oral ingestion while high concentration in lungs indicates inhalation.
The metabolites that are excreted aid in the interpretation of the drugs and pharmaceuticals.
Metabolites are often what provide the only evidence that a drug was being administered.
For example amphetamine is metabolized into methamphetamine. The reverse from
methamphetamine to amphetamine does not take place in the body. Cocaine is metabolized into
benzoylecgonine. The amount of drug that is detected will be based on the amount that was
ingested.

Discussion

Drugs are being tested to determine whether an individual uses a particular drug in
question, by evaluating biological samples in the form of urine, blood or saliva. Drugs can be
detected in hair samples up to six months, although urine samples are used for most workplace
drug screening tests. Examples of drugs that can be detected in hair-testing include alcohol,

15

marijuana, cocaine, and amphetamines. The amount of drug that is detected will be based on the
amount that was ingested. Drugs with a long half-life, such as diazepam, may also stay in the
system for a prolonged period of time. Many drugs stay in the system from 2 to 4 days. The
chronic use of marijuana can allow the drug to stay in the system of an individual between 3 to 4
weeks or even longer after the drugs last use.
There are other types of synthetic and semi-synthetic drugs that are extracted, analyzed,
and interpreted:

Narcotic Analgesics display pain killing or pain relieving effects.

Hallucinogenic drugs act as agents that affect perception, emotion and mental process
of an individual. Other hallucinogenic drugs may include: LSD (Lysergic Acid
Diethylamide), PCP (Phencyclidine), Mescaline and Psilocybin. These result in short
term effects on the body such as psuedo which is also referred to as hallucination
(not genuine), feelings of depersonalization, alterations of mood and distortion of
sense of direction, distance and time. Long Term Effects of this type of drug consist
of flashback or spontaneous recurrence of an LSD experience, amotivational

Syndrome (Anti-social), LSD precipitated psychosis (Schizophrenia).

Stimulants which are referred to as drugs which excite or speed up the central nervous
system incorporates drugs such as cocaine, ecstasy, caffeine and nicotine which is
found in tobacco. Stimulants induced short term effects such a sense of super
abundant energy, suppression of appetite and increased motor and speed activity.
Long term effects induced by these stimulants include: chronic sleep, problem poor,

appetite rapid and irregular heartbeat and mood swing.

Depressants such as alcohol, sedative hypnotics like barbiturates and benzodiazepines
tend to slow down or reduce the work of the central nervous system. Euphoria,
16

impaired concentration, poor motor coordination, poor judgment, slurred speech and
blurred vision as well as are all short term effects given by depressants. Long term
effects include depression, chronic fatigue, poor memory and judgment, decreased
attention span, chronic sleeping problem and impaired sexual function

Volatile Solvents such as petroleum products and hydrocarbons exhibit short term effects on the
body such as slurred speech, euphoria, hallucinations, staggering gait and sudden death.
Psychosis, permanent brain damage and liver, kidney and heart damage are classified as long
term effects of those agents.
Other drugs of abuse such as drugs being used for medicinal purposes that do not fall
within the above mentioned categories include:
-Muscle Relaxants
- Pain Killer
- Anti-histamines; prescribed for allergies
-Anti-emetics
-Anti-Depressants/ Anti-psychotics

Irrespective of the Drug abused, they all lead to similar results such as: psychiatric
problems, physical deterioration, intellectual Impairment and personality deterioration.
These lead to the increased risks of causing accidents, unprotected sex and use of
unsterile needles.

17

Recommendations

In the analysis and identification of drugs, the strictest interpretation of the scientific
method and observations need to be made. In the analysis of the drugs itself, observations of the
physical properties of the substances should be analyzed by a series of presumptive tests,
separation tests and also confirmation tests.
In the analysis of evidence that may possibly contain controlled substances, the
observation of not only physical properties is enough. Presumptive tests along with separation
tests should also be performed. Presumptive tests establish if a sample is definitely not a certain
substance or if it probably is the substance. The report from these tests is considered final when
the result is negative and hence no confirmatory test is necessary. Confirmatory tests are only
used when the presumptive test report is positive for the substance. The use of presumptive tests
alone, are not generally reliable as there can generate false positive results. Hence the
confirmatory tests alleviate this discrepancy by providing assurance that the results are in fact
reliable. For drug and pharmaceutical analysis, the most commonly preferred or recommended
method to be used is Gas chromatography- mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Data for organic
compounds could be combined with quantitative and also qualitative data in order to arrive at a
more powerful profiling method. This profile can identify parameters that are useful in
discriminating between samples. Examples of these parameters are the origin of the sample and
the drug content of tablets, for example, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide tablets.
It should also be considered by laboratories to validate their methods, establish a linear
range and limits of detection and quantitation. This is viewed as good laboratory practices.
Operational laboratory guidelines have been established by the Society of Forensic Toxicologists

18

and the American Academy of Forensic Sciences. Forensic laboratories are urged to follow these
guidelines.

19

Conclusion

The dose separates a drug from a poison. The advent of semi-synthetic and synthetic drugs
introduces impurities that is important for researchers to examine their properties and discover,
if any, newly formed compounds. Sample preparation is the most critical step during the
analysis of drugs and pharmaceuticals and the idea of the chemical composition and property of
the compound determine the most appropriate analytical technique employed.
The analysis of Cannabis, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD), Cocaine and Alcohol were
analyzed and interpreted emphatically while other drugs of potential abuse were mentioned.
Typical analysis of drugs will introduce errors that causes an underestimation or overestimation
of results obtained. Therefore, it is significant that experimenters are equipped with the intended
information they wish to eradicate from these results; as well as the most appropriate statistical
calculation essential during the experiment.
The last 20 years, the cost of using chromatography and immunoassay instrumentation have
become affordable, and most laboratories now have the equipment essential to aid in successful
laboratory examination. The last decade has seen a rapid development in new and improved
immunoassays that are more specific and more sensitive to target drugs. Laboratory techniques
are evolving from high-volume workplace drug testing research and development has been
integrated into most forensic laboratories, thus improving accuracy, reliability, and efficiency.
Meaningful recommendations were suggested that can be an asset to present and future scientists
that has the potential of discovering new drugs and pharmaceuticals.

20

Appendix

Table 1

Figure 1
Timeline of the History of Prescription Drugs
1951 Durham Humphrey Bill sets up prescription and non-prescription categories for all medicines. This arrangement of
prescription vs. OTC is in place by policy and is then made law. It also sets up limits on the number of times a prescription can be
refilled.
1956 Narcotics Control Act updates restriction and penalties for smuggling and distribution of marijuana and narcotics.
Eliminates the suspension of sentences or probation if convicted.
The Harrison Narcotics Act set up a schedule using letters to indicate the degree of potential abuse a medicine has. The schedule
uses A, B and X in a decreasing level of potential abuse. This product dates from the 1950s.
1960s The Manufacturing Act. Its purpose is to tighten controls and restrictions over legally manufactured narcotic medicines.
This law requires that manufacturers are licensed and creates quotas for classes of both natural and synthetic medicines.
Bureau of Drug Abuse Control is formed in the Food and Drug Administration to control non-narcotic medicines that are being
abused. FDA undercover agents, dressed as truck drivers investigate abuse of amphetamines by truck drivers. In 1968, that

21

bureau merges with the Federal Bureau of Narcotics to form the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs in the Department of
Justice.
Advertisements in popular magazines assure the patient that potent medicines are safe to use.
1962 White House Conference on Narcotic and Drug Abuse was a response to increase narcotic medicine and drug abuse. The
conference eventually leads to the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970.
1963 Presidents Advisory Commission on Narcotic and Drug Abuse produces the 1965 Federal Drug Abuse Control
Amendments. The new rules require registration of manufactures, wholesalers, and other establishments. These entities, plus
pharmacists and physicians are required to increase record keeping of controlled substances. Marijuana is placed on the same
level as narcotics.
1970 Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act is a United States federal law that, with subsequent
modifications, requires the pharmaceutical industry to maintain physical security and strict record keeping for certain types of
medicines. Controlled substances are divided into five schedules (or classes) on the basis of their potential for abuse, accepted
medical use, and accepted safety under medical supervision. The medicine bottles have a C with the schedule number on the side
and can be seen on the medicine containers exhibited above.
1973 The Drug Enforcement Administration is formed in the Department of Justice from other existing enforcement units in the
U.S. Government. Many agents from these other agencies move to the DEA.
1970s The Office of Compliance, started in 1971, is renamed the DEA Office of Diversion Control.
1988 Anti-drug Abuse Act. In order to better coordinate the United States Governments efforts to
control drug abuse and medicine diversion, a position is created in the White House the Director of
National Drug Control Policy. This individuals popular title is the Drug Czar. In 2007 the Drug Czar is
John Walters.
1992 The DEA form 222 is required when a pharmacist orders Schedule II medicines. This paperwork
closely monitors the movement and sale of this potently diverted medicine. This type of three-part
order form has been required since 1914.
2000 The rise of the Internet to fill prescriptions or receive controlled substances is a growing
problem. Illegitimate rogue web sites are filling orders for controlled substances without a prescription.
The DEA sets up special units to monitor and shut down such illegal pharmacies, like this one for
steroids.
2005 The Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005 - In order to cut off the supply of
precursor chemicals to make methamphetamine, this act nationalizes restrictions on retail sales of
ephedrine and pseudoephedrine by requiring these products to be kept behind the pharmacy counter
or in a locked case. It requires purchasers to buy no more than 3.6 grams a day and 9 grams a month,
show I.D. and sign a sales log. The act increases the monitoring of imported precursor chemicals and

22

imposes quotas on manufacturers for production and importing of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine.
2006 Diversion and misuse of steroids, growth hormones and stimulants by athletes becomes a
national scandal. The same problem has arisen in other parts of the world and at the Olympic Games.
The misuse of these medicines casts a shadow on all sporting events.
2007 It is the responsibility of the pharmacist to be confident that the prescription presented to
her/him is authentic and that the medicine being prescribed is used in acceptable medical ways.
Non-medical use of medicines is now greater than the abuse of cocaine, hallucinogens and inhalants.
Among adults 26 or older, 6.3 percent reported non-medical use of prescription medicines in 2005. In
children 12 or older, 2.2 million reported non-medical use of prescription medicines, mainly pain
relievers and tranquilizing medicines.

Figure 2
Below is a description of the different schedules in which drugs are placed based on Drug Enforcement Administration
(DEA)

Schedule I - category of drugs not considered legitimate for medical use. Included are heroin, lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD), and marijuana.
Schedule II - category of drugs considered having a strong potential for abuse or addiction but that also have legitimate
medical use. Included are opium, morphine, and cocaine.
Schedule III - category of drugs that have less potential for abuse or addiction than Schedule I or II drugs and have a
useful medical purpose. Included are short-acting barbiturates and amphetamines.
Schedule IV - medically useful category of drugs that have less potential for abuse or addiction than those of Schedules
I, II, and III. Included are diazepam and chloral hydrate.
Schedule V - medically useful category of drugs that have less potential for abuse or addiction than those of Schedules
I through IV. Included are antidiarrheal and antitussives with opioid derivatives.

Table 2 showing the basic drug tests type and their approximate detection time.
Urine
Marijuana - Single Use

Blood

Hair

Saliva

1-7+ days 12-24 hrs Doubtful

Marijuana - Regular Use 7-100 days 2-7 days

Amphetamines

1-3 days

24 hours

Cocaine

1-3 days

1-3 days

Heroin, Opiates

1-4 days

1-3 days

Not validated
Months

(0 -24 hours?)

PCP

23

Figure 3 illustrating an LSD Blotter Acid

24

References

Alcohol Drug Test Oral Saliva and Breath Alcohol UA Tests. Retrieved from the website:
http://uatests.com/types-of-drug-tests/alcohol-drug-tests/

A Short History of Drug Discovery (2011). Retrieved October 26, 2014 from:
http://pharmsci.uci.edu/history.php

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