UNIT I

Syllabus
Introduction: Introduction to communication system, need for modulation,
Review of Semiconductor Physics
classification of modulations.
Amplitude Modulation: Time domain and frequency domain description; Single tone
and multi tone AM modulation; Power and current relations in AM wave; Generation of
Energy band in solids :
AM Waves Square Law Modulator, Switching Modulator. Detection of AM wave:
Square Law Detector, Envelope Detector.
1. INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:
Communication is the process of establishing connection or link between two points
for information exchange (or) communication is the process of conveying message at
a distance (or) communication is a basic process of exchanging information.
The electronic equipments which are used for communication purpose are called
communication equipments. Different communication equipments when assembled
together form an electronic communication system.
The block diagram of a basic electronic communication system is as shown in the
figure:

In the block diagram the information source produces the required message which has
to be transmitted. The transducer converts the information into electrical in nature.
The transmitter modifies the information (or message) signal for efficient
transmission. This process is called as modulation. The channel is the media which is
used for transmitting the information from source to destination. The process of
transmitting the information from source to destination is called as transmission.
During the process of transmission the signal gets distorted due to noise introduced
by the system. At the destination a receiver is used to reproduce the message signal in
electrical form from the distorted received signal. The process of recovering message
from received modulated signal is called as demodulation. Output transducer is used
to convert an electrical message signal into its original form.
According to type of media used as channel, electronic communication may be
divided into:
Line communication: In this method the transmitter and receiver are connected
through a wire or line. Ex: land line telephone systems, optical communication etc.
Wireless or radio communication: In wireless communications, a message is
transmitted through open space by electromagnetic waves called as radio waves. Ex:
radio, TV, satellite communication etc.

Depending upon the message signal, communication may also be classified as:
Analog communication: Analog communication is a type of communication in
which the message or information signal to be transmitted is in analog nature (or)
continuous nature with respect to time.
Digital communication: In digital communication, the signal to be transmitted is in
digital nature (or) discrete nature with respect to time.
2. MODULATION:
Modulation is a process in which characteristic of a carrier is varied in accordance
with a modulating wave. Modulating signal means message signal/baseband
signal/information/intelligence signal.
Modulations are two types:
Analog modulation: A continuous signal (Pulse or Sinusoidal signal) is used as
carrier.
Digital Modulation: A discrete (or digital) signal is used as carrier.
3. NEED FOR MODULATION:
Frequency Translation:
It means translation of the signal in the frequency domain, from one region to another
region. For example, the band limited signal in the range from f1 to f2 can be
translated to the range f1 to f2. The new signal in the range f1 to f2 bears the same
information as that in the signal from f1 to f2.
Frequency multiplexing:
Suppose several different signals are required to transmit along a single
communication channel. All these signals need to be separately recoverable and
distinguishable from each other at the receiving end. The single channel may be a
single pair of wires or the free space that separates one radio antenna from another.
Such multiple transmissions, i.e., multiplexing may be achieved by translating each
one of the original signals to a different frequency range.
Practicability of antennas:
When free space is the communication channel, antennas radiate and receive the
signals. In such case antennas operate effectively only when their dimensions are of
the order of magnitude of the wavelength of the signal being transmitted.
For example a signal of frequency 1 KHz (an audio tone) corresponds to a
wavelength of 300,000m, by relation c f . Since an antenna of 300,000m is
impractical, it can be reduced by translating the audio tone to a higher frequency.
Narrow banding:
Suppose the audio range extends from, say 50Hz to 10 KHz. In such case the ratio of
the highest audio frequency to the lowest is 200. Therefore, an antenna suitable for
use at one end of the range would be entirely too short or too long for the other end.
Suppose if it is translated so that it occupies the range from (10 6+50) Hz to (106+ 10 4)
Hz. In this case the ratio of highest to lowest frequency would be only 1.01. Thus
with the process of frequency translation, wideband signal can be changed to
narrowband signal which is more conveniently processed.

Common Processing:
When number of different signals occupying different spectral ranges is there for
transmission, it is necessary to adjust the frequency range of processing apparatus. So
the processing apparatus is made elaborate to operate in same fixed frequency range
instead to translate the frequency range of each signal.
Reduction of Noise and Interference:
The effect of noise and interference cannot be completely eliminated in
communication system. However it is possible to minimize their effects by using
certain types of modulation schemes. These schemes generally require a transmission
bandwidth much larger than the bandwidth of the message signal. Here bandwidth is
traded for noise reduction.
4. CLASSIFICATION OF SINUSOIDAL MODULATIONS:
If a sinusoidal signal is used as carrier in analog modulation, then that type of
modulation is called as sinusoidal modulation.
Usually in sinusoidal modulation, the modulating frequency is considerably lower
than the carrier frequency but in exceptional cases the carrier frequency may be lower
than modulating frequency.
Let the sinusoidal carrier voltage represented as: vc t Vc Cos c t c
Therefore three types of modulations are possible sinusoidal carrier modulation:
i) Amplitude modulation (AM) (Change in Ac with respect to modulating signal)
ii) Frequency modulation (FM) (Change in c with respect to modulating signal)
iii) Phase modulation (PM) (Change in c with respect to modulating signal)
In the above FM and PM are commonly known as angle modulation.
5. SINGLE TONE AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
In case of amplitude modulation, a modulating signal may be translated to a new
spectral range by multiplying the signal with a carrier sinusoidal signal, as shown in
the figure.

Consider a sinusoidal signal (modulating signal) given by:

V
vm t VmCos mt VmCos 2 f m t m e j 2 fm t e j 2 fm t
2
Where Vm is the amplitude and f m is the frequency of modulating signal.

The two sided spectral pattern is shown in fig. below, which consists of two lines
V
each with amplitude m , each located at f f m and f f m .
2

Consider carry signal as:

Vc j 2 fc t
e
e j 2 f c t
2
Where Vc is the amplitude and f c is the frequency of modulating signal.
vc t Vc Cosc t Vc Cos 2 f c t

Time domain representation:

Since in AM, the amplitude of carrier varies with time in accordance with instaneous
value of modulating signal, which is given by expression:

v(t ) Vc k a VmCos mt
Instaneous value of modulated carrier wave is given by:

v AM vt Cosc t Vc k a VmCosm t Cosc t

kV

Vc 1 a m Cos mt Cos c t Vc 1 ma Cos mt Cosc t

Vc

maVc
mV
Vc Cosc t
Cos c m t a c Cos c m t
2
2
Where ma is called as modulation index of AM signal.
The corresponding time domain representation (envelop) of AM is as shown in the
figure:

The above equation reveals that the amplitude modulated carrier voltage consists of
three sinusoidal voltages of frequencies:
Original carrier signal of frequency c of amplitude Vc .
maVc
.
2
mV
Upper sideband signal (USB) of frequency c m of amplitude a c .
2

Lower sideband signal (LSB) of frequency c m of amplitude

Frequency domain representation:

The new spectral pattern of AM is as shown below:

It is very clear that original spectral lines of message signal have been translated, both
in the positive frequency direction by amount f c and also in the negative frequency
direction by the same amount.
With this, four spectral components are resulted in two sinusoidal waveforms, one at
VV
f c f m and the other at f c f m , with spectral component of each of amplitude m c .
4
The bandwidth of AM signal is:
BWAM f c f m f c f m 2 f m

6. MULTI TONE AMPLITUDE MODULATION:

Consider the number of sinusoidal components defined at sharply frequencies which
are non-periodic, finite energy signal is represented in the frequency domain in terms
of its Fourier transforms.
The spectral density of such non-periodic, finite energy signal is represented in the
frequency domain in terms of its Fourier transforms.
If the modulating signal m(t ) be band limited to the frequency range 0 to f H , its
Fourier transform is M .
After multiplication with Cosct , the spectral density is given by:
m(t )Cosct 1 M c M c
2
The operation of multiplying a signal with a carrier signal is called mixing or
heterodyning.

In the translated signal, the part of the signal which consists of spectral components
above the carrier signal in the range f c to f c f m is called upper sideband signal.
The other part in the range f c f m to f c is called the lower sideband signal.
7. MODULATION INDEX IN SINGLE TONE AM:
The ratio between amplitude of modulating signal and the amplitude of carrier signal
is called as modulation index or modulation factor or depth of modulation of AM.
V
ma m
Vc
In practical cases modulation index is proportional to the ratio between amplitude of
modulating signal and the amplitude of carrier signal.
V
V
ma m ma k a m
Vc
Vc
If the envelop of the AM given as:

From the above figure:

V Vmin
Vm max
2
V Vmin
Vc max
2
Vmax Vmin Vmax Vmin
2Vm
ma

Vmax Vmin
2Vc
Vmax Vmin

If the value of ma is less than 1, then the AM is called as under modulated AM and
if it is greater than 1, then that AM is called as over modulated AM.

8. MODULATION INDEX IN MULTI TONE AM:

Let V1, V2, V3 be the simultaneous modulating voltages (rms). Then total effective
(rms) modulating voltage is given by:
Vt V12 V22 V32

V12 V22 V32

Vt
V2 V2 V2
ma

12 22 32
Vc
Vc
Vc Vc Vc
m12 m22 m32
9. POWER/CURRENT RELATIONS AM:
The total power in the AM modulated wave may be expressed as:
V2
V2
V2
Pt = Pc + PLSB + PUSB Carrier LSB USB
R
R
R
Where all the three voltages are r.m.s. values and R is the resistance in which the
power is dissipated (load resistance).

V
P

Vc2
2R

m V

2 2
m2 V 2
a c
R
8R
2
2
2
2
2
m2
V
m V
V m
Pt c a c c 1 a Pc 1 a
2R
4R
2R
2
2

Pt ma2 I t2 R I t2
1

Pc
2 I c2 R I c2
PLSB PUSB

It I c 1

ma2
2

10. AM MODULATORS:
The process of modulation translates the frequency spectrum. Hence the response of
modulator contains frequencies that are different from those present in the input
signal. It is therefore impossible to produce modulation by using linear time
invariant systems, because the response of such systems cannot contain frequencies
other than those present in the input signal. So the modulation can be achieved by two
methods only:

Linear modulator (Linear time variant system)

Non linear modulator

11. NON LINEAR MODULATOR TO GENERATE AM WAVES (SQUARE LAW

DIODE MODULATOR):
Square law diode modulator circuits make use of non linear V I characteristics of
diode. This method is useful at low voltage levels because of the fact that V I
characteristics of a diode is highly non linear in the low voltage region.
When carrier and modulating voltage are applied simultaneously at the input of diode
as shown in the figure, then the diode current has different frequency components. If
this current is passed through a tuned circuit which is tuned to carrier frequency and
has a narrow band width just to pass two sidebands along with the carrier, then the
voltage drop across tuned circuit is similar to an AM signal.

Mathematical Analysis:
Let:
vc Vc Cosc t
vm Vm Cos mt
The total a.c. voltage across diode is given by:
v D Vc Cosc t Vm Cos mt
Due to non linear relationship in diode characteristics, the diode current is given by:
iD a b vD c vD2
a b Vc Cosc t Vm Cosm t c Vc Cos c t Vm Cos mt 2

cV 2

cV 2 cV 2
cV 2
a c m bVc Cosc t bVmCos mt c Cos 2c t m Cos 2 mt
2
2
2

cVcVm Cosc m t Cos c m t

If we use a narrow band tuned circuit, which is centered about c , then the current
passes through tuned circuit will be:
iD bVc Cosc t cVcVm Cos c m t Cosc m t
bVc Cos c t cVcVm 2Cosc t Cosm t
2cVm

bVc 1
Cos m t Cos c t bVc 1 ma Cos m t Cosc t
b

The equation for iD is similar to an AM signal.

12. LINEAR MODULATOR METHOD

(SWITCHING MODULATOR):

TO

GENERATE

AM

WAVES

A linear modulator, in general, may be described as a system whose gain (or transfer
function) is varied with time by applying a time varying signal at a certain point as
shown in the figure.

The linear time variant modulator is also called as switching modulator or chopping
modulator. This method is useful at high voltage levels because of the fact m(t ) Vc .
The schematic diagram of switching modulator is as shown in the figure.

Mathematical Analysis:
We know that:
v1 t Vc Cosc t m(t )
Where m(t ) Vc
The output voltage v2 (t ) can be represented as:
v (t ) c(t ) 0
v 2 (t ) 1
c (t ) 0
0
That is, the load voltage v2 (t ) varies periodically between the values v1 (t ) and zero at
a rate equal to the carrier frequency f c .
We can express the equation for v2 (t ) , mathematically as:
v2 t Vc Cosc t m(t ) g p (t )
Where g p (t ) is a periodic pulse grain of duty cycle equal to one half and
period T0 1 f 0 . Representing the g p (t ) by its Fourier series, we have:

1 2 1
1 2

Cos2n 1c t Cosc t odd harmonic components
2 n1 2n 1
2
n1

g p (t )

Vc
4
m(t ) Cosc t unwanted terms
1
2 Vc

The first term in the above equation is the desired AM and the unwanted terms are
removed from v2 (t ) by using band pass filter.
v2 t

13. DEMODULATION OF AM WAVES:

The process of detection or demodulation contains in recovering the original
modulating voltage from the modulated carrier voltage. Thus detection is a reverse
process of the modulation.
To demodulate AM waves two methods are normally used.
Square law diode detector
Linear diode detector (or envelop detector)
14. DEMODULATION OF AM WAVES (SQUARE LAW DIODE DETECTOR):
Square law diode detector utilizes non linear (square law) portion of the dynamic
V _ I characteristics of a diode. It differs from the linear diode detector is that in this
case the applied input carrier voltage is of small magnitude.
The figure gives the basic circuit of a square law detector. The diode is biased
positively to shift the zero signal point to the small current non linear region of
the diode. The capacitor and resistor combination is acting as a load.

By super imposing the AM signal on non linear region of V I characteristics of

the diode, the o/p current waveform has its lower half compressed and this results the
average current as shown in the figure.
We know that AM wave is expressed as:
v AM Vc 1 ma Cos mt Cosc t
Due to non linear characteristics of the diode, the diode current is given by:
2
id aVc 1 ma Cos mt Cos ct bVc 1 ma Cos mt Cosc t
This diode current contains a DC component and AC components at the frequencies
m , c , 2 m , 2c , c m , 2c m etc . The shunt capacitor C bypasses
all the higher radio frequency components and leaving only the m component to

flow through the load resistor R providing the desired detected output.
15. DEMODULATION OF AM WAVES (LINEAR DIODE DETECTOR):
Linear diode detectors are extremely popularly used in commercial radio receivers.
However, a linear diode detector for satisfactory operation requires modulated carrier
amplitude of 5V or more. So for this voltage the operation may be considered to be
taking place over the linear portion of diode V I characteristics of curve.

In this method detector diode utilizes rectification characteristics. In the circuit the
modulated carrier voltage is applied to the series combination of diode and the load
impedance consisting of R in shunt with capacitor C. Since applied voltage of
large magnitude, the diode conducts during the positive half cycle of the carrier and it
does not conduct during negative half cycle. The presence of capacitor modifies the
output. During positive half cycle, diode conducts, thereby charging the capacitor C
to positive peak value of the carrier voltage. During the negative half cycle, the diode
does not conduct and hence the capacitor discharges. This output voltage curve is of
spiky nature but it traces almost envelope of the carrier voltage and hence it is
nothing but the original modulation voltage. The deviation of output voltage curve
from original modulation voltage may be reduced by proper choice of R and C,
depending upon ma and f m .
16. CHOICE OF TIME CONSTANT FOR RC IN LINEAR DIODE DETECTOR:
The time constant RC cannot be chosen either too high or too low. If the time
constant RC is quite low, the discharging curve is almost vertical which results in
large fluctuations in output voltage. Whereas, if the time constant RC is very large,
the discharging curve is almost horizontal and it then misses several peaks of the
rectified output voltage as shown in the figure. Therefore, with high time constant
RC the circuit is not able to handle larger depths of modulation and the signal
becomes clipped at the negative peaks.

Hence, it may conclude that the time constant used must be as large possible subject
to clipping does not taking place. The maximum allowable value of time constant is
such that the rate of discharge of capacitor C is the same as the rate of decrease of
the modulation envelope.
The equation for amplitude (or envelop) of AM modulated voltage is given by:
v Vc 1 maCosm t

dv
Vc m ma Sin mt
dt
The relation for capacitor voltage while it is discharging is:
vc vo e t t0 RC

dvc
v
o e t t0 RC
dt
RC
Where the time t t0 is time when the capacitor C just starts discharging through
the resistor R. Then at that time:
dv
Vc m ma Sinmt 0
dt t t0

v
V
dvc

o c 1 ma Cos mt 0
RC
RC
dt t t0
If clipping is to be avoided clipping at time t t0 , the slope of capacitor voltage

vc should be less than or equal to the slope of the envelope voltage.

dvc
dv

dt t to dt t to
Vc
1 ma Cosmt 0 Vc m ma Sinmt 0
RC
1
m Sinm t0

m a
RC 1 ma Cos mt 0
ma Sinm t0
The maximum possible value of
is given by:
1 ma Cos mt0

d ma Sin mt

0 Cosm t ma and
dt 1 ma Cos mt

Sinmt 1 ma2

Therefore at t t0 , the time constant RC is given by:

 m ma 1 ma2
1

RC
1 ma ma

1
m
m a
RC
1 ma2

17. PROBLEMS:
1) A 400W carrier is modulated to a depth of 75%. Calculate the total power in
the modulated wave.
m2
0.752
Pt Pc 1 a 400 1
512.5 W
2
2

2) A certain transmitter radiates 9kW with the carrier modulated and

10.125kW when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the
modulation index. If another sine wave corresponding to 40% modulation is
transmitted simultaneously, determine the total radiated power.
P

m2
Pt Pc 1 a ma2 2 t 1 0.25 ma 0.5
2

Pc

ma m12 m22 0.52 0.42 0.64

m2
Pt Pc 1 a 10.84kW
2

3) The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8A, when only the carrier is

sent, but it increases to 8.93A when the carrier is modulated by a sine wave.
Find the percentage of modulation.

I 2
ma2
It I c 1
ma 2 t 1 0.701 (or) 70.1%
2
I c

4) A 1000KHz carrier is simultaneously amplitude modulated with 300Hz,

800Hz, and 2kHz audio sine waves. What will be the frequencies present in
the modulated signal and bandwidth?
(i)
1000kHz
(ii)
1000kHz 300Hz = 1000.3kHz and 999.7kHz
(iii)
1000kHz 800Hz = 1000.8kHz and 999.2kHz
(iv)
1000kHz 2kHz = 1002kHz and 998kHz
(v)
Bandwidth 2 f mmax 4kHz
5) A transistor class C amplifier has maximum permissible collector dissipation
of 20W and collector efficiency of 75%. It is collector modulated to a depth of
90%. Calculate (i) the maximum unmodulated carrier power, (ii) the
sideband power, (iii) if the maximum depth of modulation is now restricted
to 70%, calculate the maximum sideband power.
(i)
Since permissible collector dissipation is 20W and it is corresponding to
25%.
Therefore the total power = 20 X 4 = 80W
m2
Pt
Pt Pc 1 a Pc
56.9W
2
ma2

1
2

(ii)
(iii)

Sideband power = (Total power Carrier power)/2 = 11.53W

Pt
Pc
64.26 W
ma2
1
2
Sideband power = 7.87W

6) The tuned circuit of the oscillator in AM transmitter uses 50H coil and a
1nF capacitor. Now if the oscillator output is modulated by 8kHz signal, find
the frequency range occupied by the sidebands.
1
fc
712kHz
2 LC
LSB = 704 kHz and USB = 720 kHz.
7) A diode detector with a load resistance R = 250 k in parallel with a
capacitor C = 100 pF is used to detect an amplitude modulated carrier with
60% modulation. Find the highest carrier frequency that can be detected
without excessive distortion.
m
1
m a
RC
1 ma2
m

1 ma2
63,333
ma RC

f m 10kHz

Prepared by: Dr. A. S. Srinivasa Rao

Prof. (ECE) & Dean (FS)