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Article history:
Received 15 February 2014
Accepted 16 May 2014
Keywords:
Low heat rejection engine
Thermal barrier coating
Thermal spraying technique
Engine performance
Exhaust emission
Biodiesel
a b s t r a c t
Internal combustion engine with its combustion chamber walls insulated by thermal barrier coating
materials is referred to as low heat rejection engine or LHR engine. The main purpose of this concept
is to reduce engine coolant heat losses, hence improve engine performance. Most of the researchers have
reported that the thermal coating increases thermal efciency, and reduces exhaust emissions. In contrast to the above expectations, a few researchers reported that almost there was no improvement in
thermal efciency. This manuscript investigates the contradictory results in order to nd out the exact
scenario. A wide range of coating materials has been studied in order to justify their feasibility of implementation in engine. The inuence of coating material, thickness, and technique on engine performance
and emissions has been studied critically to accelerate the LHR engine evolution. The objectives of higher
thermal efciency, improved fuel economy, and lower emissions are accomplishable but much more
investigations with improved engine modication, and design are required to explore full potentiality
of LHR engine.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The increased impact of global warming on Earth, limited efciency of automotive engines, and stringent anti-pollution laws
imposed in certain countries have created a stimulus to explore
more efcient engine with acceptable emission level. The fast
depletion of fossil fuels and rapid increase in fuel price also
increased interest in alternative fuels for automotive engines, in
recent years. In this context, low heat rejection engine operation
on biodiesels and vegetable oils can be an important subject matter
to explore [14].
Internal combustion (IC) engine with its cylinder head, walls,
valves, pistons etc. insulated by thermal barrier coating (TBC)
materials is referred to as LHR engine [5]. TBC materials have been
successfully applied to IC engines, in particular to the combustion
chamber walls. In an IC engine, approximately one third of the total
supplied fuel energy is converted to the useful work. Since the
working gas in a practical engine cycle is not exhausted at ambient
temperature, a major part of the energy is lost as engine exhaust
heat. In addition, another major part of the fuel energy is lost via
Corresponding author. Address: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel.: +60 149901927; fax: +60 3
79675317.
E-mail addresses: joynul06me@yahoo.com, joynul06me@siswa.um.edu.my
(M.J. Abedin).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.05.065
0196-8904/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
174
Nomenclature
Abbreviation
LHR
low heat rejection
TBC
thermal barrier coating
PSZ
partially stabilized zirconia
YSZ
yttria stabilized zirconia
surface roughness have a direct inuence on unburned, and partially burnt hydrocarbons due to surface quenching, and retention
residual in the pores [20]. The durability of TBC materials is limited
by two basic failure mechanisms: one is oxidation of the bond coat,
and other one is thermal expansion mismatch between top coat
and bond coat [21,22]. The inuence of these TBC materials and
bond coating materials on engine performance and emissions has
been investigated thoroughly in this paper.
The most popular thermal spraying method to deposit TBC in
the engine cylinder walls is plasma spraying method due to its
ability to melt the substrate at high temperature. Besides, high
bond strength (1525 MPa), lower porosity (17%), and wide range
of coating thickness (3001500 lm) is attainable in this process
[23]. A brief description of this method has been provided in
Section 2.2. The inuence of thermal spraying methods on engine
performance and emissions has been studied in this manuscript.
LHR engine combustion is signicantly different from uncoated
engine combustion. The four major deviations in Combustion characteristics of LHR-diesel operation from uncoated-diesel operation
are: [24]
a. Ignition delay period shortens.
b. Pre-mixed burning phase decreases and diffusion burning
phase increases.
c. Total combustion duration increases.
d. Heat release rate during the diffusion burning phase
decreases.
A lot of studies have been carried out since 1978 on LHR engine
development, performance, emissions and durability [25].
Although the use of LHR engine concept is found to be promising,
the reported studies showed contradictory results. Most of the
researchers [6,14,2630] have reported that the thermal coating
reduces coolant heat loss, increases thermal efciency, reduces
emissions (except NOx), and increases exhaust energy availability.
In contrast to the above expectations, a few researchers reported
that almost there was no improvement in thermal efciency
[31,32]. Since the temperature in the combustion chamber is
higher in the LHR engines than that of uncoated engines, it is possible to use lower cetane number fuels in LHR engine [24,3335].
The objectives of this review article are: to study the conversion
process of diesel engines into LHR engines; to nd out the feasibility of using new alternative TBC materials for engines; to investigate the LHR engine combustion, performance, heat losses, and
emission characteristics using diesel, biodiesels, and vegetable oils;
to study the reasons behind the contradictory results.
2. LHR engine preparation
2.1. Suitable bond coating and TBC materials for IC engines
The TBC system consists of a TBC, a bond-coat, and a substrate.
The bond-coat relaxes the thermal stresses due to the mismatch of
the coefcient of thermal expansion (CTE) between the TBC and
the substrate. The bond-coat has been also employed for the
CTE
IC
CI
TDC
Table 1
Physical properties of some suitable coating materials for IC engines [9,14,33,44].
Thermal
conductivity
(W/m K)
Thermal
expansion
coefcient
(1/k]*10 6)
Density
(kg/m3)
Specic
heat
(J/kg K)
Poissons
ratio
Youngs
modulus
(GPa)
78% YSZ
10.9
5650
620
0.25
13.8
15
2.17
3.3
5.8
19
16
15.3
9.4
9.6
8000
452
0.25
0.3
0.25
0.28
0.26
80
86
21
283
30
Al2O3 + 40%TiO2
Al2O3 + 40%ZrO2
CeO2
Mullite
1
8
2.77
3.3
1.3
7.5
13
5.3
3000
4000
800
825
470
0.24
0.23
0.270.31
0.25
8
84
172
30
1.56
9.91
9.1
490
0.28
149.3
175
BaZrO3
3.42
8.1
450
181
LaPO4
1.8
10.5
0.28
133
1.7
10.1
860
Advantages
Disadvantages
Used in
engine?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Not yet
Not yet
Yes
Not yet
Not yet
Not yet
Not yet
Material
175
176
quality is usually assessed by measuring its porosity, oxide content, macro and micro-hardness, bond strength and surface roughness [45,46]. This process is usually applied to protect metal parts
from corrosion, erosion, wire and high temperature by improving
its properties and also for repairing damaged and worn parts. Coating materials available for thermal spraying include metals, alloys,
ceramics, plastics and composites [47]. There is a wide range of
spraying processes and coating materials that can be deposited
so that the thermal spraying technique has found its application
in almost all industrial elds.
The thermal spraying techniques can be divided into several
processes that differ according to the thermal energy source and
the respective kinetic energy of the sprayed particles (Fig. 2).
Plasma spraying method is the most popular technique to deposit
TBC in engine due to its higher porosity [36,50]. This method is
suitable to apply in a surface which melts at a very high temperature. A plasma spray system consists of a power supply, gas source,
gun, and powder feeding mechanism (Fig. 3). An arc is formed
between an electrode and spray nozzle, which acts as a secondary
electrode. A pressurized inert gas is passed between the electrodes
where it is heated to a very high temperature (>16,000 C) to form
plasma jet [51]. The material to be deposited (feedstock) can be a
powder, liquid, suspension or wire and is introduced into the
plasma jet by emanating from a plasma torch. For a deposition rate
of 15 kg/h, particle velocity reaches 200300 m/s, porosity is
reduced to 510% and oxide content to 13%. In the jet, the material is melted and propelled toward a substrate. Therefore, the molten droplets atten, rapidly solidify and form a deposit. This
process has been extensively used to apply thermal barrier materials, such as zirconia and alumina, and wear resistant coatings such
177
Table 2
Properties of biodiesels and crude vegetable oils which have been used in this study [5564].
Properties
Density at 15 C (kg/m3)
Cetane number
Diesel
ASTM No. 2 diesel
Jatropha methyl ester (JME)
Rice bran methyl ester (RME)
Pongamia methyl ester (PME)
Cottonseed methyl ester (CSME)
Palm oil methyl ester (POME)
Corn oil methyl ester (COME)
Mohr oil based biodiesel (MOBD)
Sunower methyl ester (SME)
Canola methyl ester (CME)
Honge oil methyl ester (HOME)
Cottonseed oil (CSO)
Sunower oil (SFO)
Waste corn oil (WCO)
Pongamia oil (PO)
Crude rice brawn oil (CRBO)
Jatropha curcas oil (JO)
2.55.7
23.07
3.75.8
4.815.6
4.855.3
44.9
2.954.92
4.174.21
816840
830850
864880
872877
878886
874885
843890
884890
870
877882
837886
870
883876
910
925
934
927
910
4555
4045
4655
51.6
5558
51.255
4965
60.9a
55
4952
4952.9
38
36
51a
48
45
45
4245.9
42.3
38.542
3639.6
35.5636.05
40.3242.73
38.7340.39
39.12
37.5
39.740.56
36.5540.5
36.1
39.47
39.8
39.68
35.6
37.9
38.8539.77
5098
58
163238
153
147180
70110
135259
88192
4.55.9
4.24.5
5.84
2734
31.5
28
38.2
38.8
38
85178
94183
170
218234
234262
285
220
270
235
Cetane index.
Table 3
Comparative peak values of pressure, temperature and heat release rate [53,54,65].
Combustion characteristics
6877.25
14831670
6387
6575.12
15711778
5880.3
6880.79
17191891
6890.12
6878.18
18111823
6689.31
leads to reduction in heat release hence the torque and power [53].
The premixed combustion phase was increased and diffusion combustion phase was decreased in LHR engine for biodiesels due to
shorter ignition delay.
increases with the increase of engine speed for all test fuels in both
engines [29,30,55,69].
4. Performance characteristics
178
Table 4
LHR engine performance compared to standard engine for diesel fuel.
Standard/base engine specications
Coating technique
Operating condition
Engine performance
Ref.
[33]
Power increases by 8%
RP: 51.5KW
CR: 20.6
Ford 6.0: 6-cyl. TC, WC, DI CIE
[21,71]
Plasma spray
SFC decreases by 2%
BSFC decreases by 6%
Plasma spray
[72]
NiCrAlCo + YSZ
[73]
Daihatsu: 3-cyl. In line SI engine CR: Bond coat (0.15 mm) + ZrO2Y2O3 (075%)
(0.45 mm)
9.5
Plasma spray
BSFC reduces
[67,74]
Variable loads
[14]
[14]
[78
81]
[8]
cyl. = cylinder, WC = water cooled, TC = turbo charged, NA = naturally aspirated, DI = direct injection, CR = compression ratio, IT = injection timing, RP = rated power, RS = rated speed, CIE = compression ignition engine,
EGT = exhaust gas temperature.
Table 5
LHR engine performance while operating on biodiesels compared to standard enginediesel operation.
Fuel
JME
Base engine
specications
Operating condition
Constant speed
(1500 rpm)
RP: 3.7kw
CR: 16.5, IT:
23 bTDC, IP: 180 bar
1-cyl., NA, WC, DI CIE
RP: 4.4kw RS:
1500 rpm
CR: 17.5, IP: 200 bar
1-cyl. WC, NA, DI CIE
Kirloskar-TV1: 1-cyl.
WC, DI CIE
RP: 5.2kw RS:
1500 rpm, CR: 17.5,
IP: 220 bar and IT:
23-bTDC
BTE
Volumetric
efciency
Increases by 3% at
full load
[82]
Increases
Increases
[53]
Increases at all IP
190, 230, 270 bar
Increases at all IP
[83]
Decreases by
6.6% for RME100
Decreases by
16.8% for RME20
Increases by 2.3%
for RME100
Increases by 6.8%
for RME20
[10]
Increases for
RME20
[84]
Decreases by
3.2% for PME100
Decreases by
13.7% for PME20
Increases by 1% for
PME100
Increases by 4.9%
for PME20
[7]
Decreases by 4%
for PME100
Decreases by
5.8% for PME40
Decreases by
7.8% for PME20
Increases by 0.8%
for PME100
Increases by 4.5%
for PME40
Increases by 7.8%
for PME20
[85]
Decreases by
6.0% for CSME
100 at all speeds
Decreases by
5.6% for CSME40
at all speeds
Decreases by
3.6% for CSME20
at all speeds
Increases by for
CSME100 at
CSME
Ref.
SFC
Increases by 3.5%
for CSME40 at
2000 rpm
Increases by 6% for
CSME20 at
2000 rpm
PME
Kirloskar-TV1: 1-cyl.
WC, DI CIE
RP: 5.2kw RS:
1500 rpm, CR: 17.5,
IP: 220 bar and IT:
23-bTDC
Kirloskar SV 1: 1-cyl.
WC, DI CIE
RS: 1800 rpm
[30,69]
CR: 18
IP: 200 bar
(continued on next page)
179
180
Table 5 (continued)
Fuel
POME
Base engine
specications
Operating condition
Constant speed of
1500 rpm and
varying load from
0% to 100%
Ref.
Engine power
SFC
BTE
Volumetric
efciency
Little more up to
full load and less
after full load
Increases by 1.5%
at full load
Higher (36%) at
high load
COME
Decreases if diesel
content increases
in blend at high
load
Constant engine
speed (2500 rpm)
and torque (10Nm)
Increases by 5.0%
for COME100
Decreases by for
COME
Decreases by
4.7% for
COME100
Decreases by
4.6% for COME20
Increases by 4.6%
for COME20
Decreases by for
COME
Increases by 7% at
190 bar injection
pressure
Decreases
[87,88]
[29]
Increases by 6.5%
Decreases by 2.6
8.3% at all
operating engine
[28]
Increases by 0.5%
at 80% power
output
Decreases
[57]
[55]
Decreases
Decreases by
5.8% for CME100
Decreases by
8.0% for CME35
Decreases by
4.7% for CME20
Decreases by 1.89.2%
at low engine speeds
(11001400 rpm)
Increases by 9%
at whole speed
range
Increases by 1.84.9%
at medium engine
speeds (1600
2400 rpm)
Decreases by 3.18.4%
at high engine speeds
(26002800 rpm)
RP: 6.25kw
RS: 3600 rpm
CR: 18
IP: 200 bar
SME
Mercedes-Benz/
OM364A: 4-cyl. TC,
DI CIE RP: 66kw RS:
2800 rpm
Max. engine torque
266Nm at 1400 rpm
HOME
Constant speed
(1500 rpm) and
variable IT
RP: 6.25kw
MOBD
[86]
due to its lower caloric value and higher viscosity. Therefore, the
SFC values are higher for biodiesels compared to conventional diesel in both engines because more fuel is required for same output
power. In the Ignition delay (ID) period, the fuel atomizes and
mixes with air. This is a physical delay. Simultaneously the chemical delay occurs due to slow chemical reaction. If the total ID period is longer, the more fuel will be injected into the combustion
chamber. However, shorter ID period in LHR engine affects both
the physical and chemical delay positively. This helps to decrease
SFC for all fuels in LHR engine compared to standard engine
[28,69,85,86].
BSFC decreases with the increase of injection pressure (IP) for
vegetable fuel blends in both LHR and standard engine due to
improved spray characteristics (Table 6). Efcient combustion of
vegetable oils in LHR engine leads to decrease in BSFC compared
to standard engine [26,89,90,92]. Thring [93] stated that there is
no measurable improvement in fuel consumption based on the
thermodynamics involved.
181
EGT increases with the increase of engine speed for all fuels in
both engines. This was due to the fact that fuel burning rate
increases at higher speeds as a result heat release rate increases.
The increase is more pronounced in LHR engine as cooling heat
losses decrease signicantly in LHR engine due to thermal barrier
coating (Table 7) [10,29,69,85,88]. The magnitude of EGT at peak
load decreased with the increase of injection pressure in both versions of the engine with vegetable oil. This was attributed to the
improved atomization characteristics of the fuel and improved
airfuel ratios [8991].
6.2. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emission
NOx forms by chain reactions involving O2 and N2 with the
presence of sufcient temperature. The oxygen concentration and
surrounding temperature are the key inuence factors for NOx
emission. The kinetics of NOx formation is governed by Zeldovich
kinetics and the availability of oxygen [30,98]. The NOx emission
from LHR engine is much higher due to high combustion temperature and long combustion duration. However, engine load, speed,
combustion chamber content, homogeneity, and mixture density
also have signicant effects on NOx emissions. The NO species in
exhaust can be reduced by advancing injection timing, water injection and slower burning rate [53].
Biodiesels showed more NOx emission in both LHR and standard
engine compared to diesel fuel due to higher oxygen contents
(Table 8) [10,30,53,84,86]. At high speeds, NOx emission was lower
in both engines despite higher temperature for all fuels which was
explained by inadequate time for NOx formation [69].
The higher in-cylinder combustion temperature in LHR engine
and higher oxygen content in vegetable oils increase NOx emission.
With the increase of engine speeds, engine gets more homogenous
fuelair mixture. Therefore, NOx emission increases at higher
engine speeds [26,68,91].
6.3. Hydrocarbon (HC) emission
Hydrocarbon emission from LHR engines is more likely to be
decreased due to shorter quenching distance and leaner ammability limit associated with LHR engine combustion. Most of the
investigators have reported lower HC emission [10,84,86,99]. High
in-cylinder gas temperature and wall temperature in LHR engine
assist the oxidation reactions to proceed close to completion. However, some investigators have found opposite result too. According
to them, deterioration in diffusion combustion is liable for higher
182
Table 6
LHR engine performance while operating on vegetable oils compared to standard enginediesel operation.
Fuel
Operating condition
Variable speed
Variable speed
JO + M60
SFC
BTE
Volumetric
efciency
Decreases
[26]
Decreases
[23]
BSEC decreases
by 5% at 190 bar
BSFC decreases
Increases up to
7% at 190 bar
Decreases
at all loads
[89]
ZrO2 ()
Increased
[68]
Increases
Decreases
at all loads
[90]
Peak BTE
increases
[91]
Peak BTE
increases by
21%
Engine power
Ref.
Coating characteristics
BSEC decreases
CSO
Table 7
LHR engine exhaust emissions compared to standard engine while operating on diesel fuel.
TBC material (insulation thickness)
Coating technique
Operating condition
Exhaust emissions
Ref.
[33]
NiCrAl bond coat + cylinder head and valveCaZrO3 (0.15 mm) + piston- MgZrO3 (0.35 mm)
Plasma spray
[21,71]
Plasma spray
[72]
1-cyl. WC DI CIE
NiCrAlCo + YSZ
EGT increases
[73]
Plasma spray
[67,74]
[76,77]
[78
81]
1-cyl. WC CIE
Standard/base engine
specications
[8]
183
Fuel
JME
Operating condition
Kirloskar: WC, DI
CIE
RP: 3.7kw, CR:
16.5, IT: 23 bTDC,
IP: 180 bar
1-cyl., NA, WC, DI
CIE
RP: 4.4kw RS:
1500 rpm
CR: 17.5
1-cyl. WC, NA, DI
CIE
RP: 3.68kw RS:
1500 rpm, CR: 16,
IT: 27 bTDC, IP:
190 bar
Constant speed
(1500 rpm)
Coatings
Ref.
EGT
NOx
CO
HC
Decreases by 33%
at full load
Increases by
23% at full load
Decreases by
37% at full load
[82]
Very high
[53,54]
PSZ (500 lm) for cylinder head and superni-90 (Ni alloy) for
piton and liner
Decreases at all
IP
Decreases at peak
load
Increases
[83]
Increases by
27% for
RME100
Increases by
20.6% for
RME20
Smoke: Decreases
by 35.9% for
RME100
Decreases by 43.2%
for RME20
Increases by
26.2% for
RME100
Increases by
10.8% for
RME20
Increases
Decreases by
26.47% for
RME100
Decreases by
47% for RME20
[10]
Decreases by a
considerable
amount for
RME20
[84]
Increases by
25% for
PME100
Increases by
18.3% for
PME20
Smoke:
Decreases by
14.7% for
PME100
Decreases by
41.2% for PME20
-
[7]
CSME
Lombardini 6LD
400: 1-cyl. AC, NA,
DI CIE
RP: 6.25kw
Increases by
7.4% for
PME100 x
Increases by
7.4% for
PME100
Increases by
10.3% for
PME40
Increases by
20% for PME20
Decreases by 27.2%
for PME100
Increases by
8.0% for
CSME100 at all
speeds
Increases by
6.2% for
Smoke: Decreases
by 8.0% for
CSME100 at all
speeds
Decreases by 5.2%
for CSME40 at all
Decreases by 32.2%
for PME40
Decreases by 34.9%
for PME20
Increases
by28.6% for
PME100
Increases by
12.9% for
PME20
Increases by
12.8% for
PME100
Increases by
30.9% for
PME40
Increases by
32.6% for
PME20
Increases by
4.5% for
CSME100 at all
speeds
Increases by
6.5% for
[85]
Decreases by
18.0% for
CSME100 at all
speeds
Decreases by
21.0% for
[30,69]
RME
Base engine
specications
184
Table 8
LHR engine emissions while operating on biodiesels compared to standard engine- diesel operation.
CSME40 at all
speeds
Increases by
7.8% for
CSME20 at all
speeds
speeds
CSME40 at all
speeds
Increases by
7.4% for
CSME20 at all
speeds
CSME40 at all
speeds
Decreases by
17.0% for
CSME20 at all
speeds
Smoke: decreases
by 45.74%
Increases
Decreases
Decreases
[86]
Increases by
5.0% for
COME100
Increases by
6.6% for
COME20
Smoke: Decreases
by 6.6% for
COME100
Decreases by 8.3%
for COME20
Increases by
7.4% for
COME100
Increases by
8.8% for
COME20
Decreases by
22.0% for
COME100
Decreases by
15.0% for
COME20
[55]
Decreases by 8.8%
for CSME20 at all
speeds
CR: 18
IP: 200 bar
POME
COME
Lombardini 6LD
400: 1-cyl. AC, NA,
DI CIE
RP: 6.25kw
Constant speed of
1500 rpm and varying
load from 0% to 100%
Constant engine
speed (2500 rpm) and
torque (10Nm
MOBD
PSZ (500 lm) for cylinder head and superni-90 (Ni alloy) for
piton and liner
Increases
Smoke Decreases
by 11% at 190 bar
injection pressure
Increases
[87,88]
Increases by
5.2% for
CME100
Increases by
4.9% for CME35
Smoke: Decreases
by 4.7% for
CME100
Decreases by 8.2%
for CME35
Increases by
5.3% for
CME100
Increases by
7.3% for CME35
Decreases by
22% for CME100
[26]
Increases by
5.4% for CME20
Decreases by 7.5%
for CME20
Increases by
4.8% for CME20
Decreases by
23% for CME20
Higher
Decreases
Decreases
Decreases
Decreases
[57]
HOME
Lombardini 6LD
400: 1-cyl. AC, NA,
DI CIE
RP: 6.25kw RS:
3600 rpm, CR: 18,
IP: 200 bar
Constant speed
(1500 rpm) and
variable IT
Decreases by
24% for CME35
185
186
Table 9
LHR engine emissions while operating on vegetable oils compared to standard-diesel operation.
Fuel
CSO
Operating
condition
Coating characteristics
Ref.
PM, soot and
smoke intensity
NOx
CO
HC
Reduces
Increases
Decreases by
a
considerable
amount
Decreases by a
considerable
amount
[26]
Reduces
Increases
Decreases
Decreases
[23]
Decreases by 10%
at 190 bar
[89]
Lower
Higher
Lower
Considerably
lower
[68]
[89]
Higher
[91]
PO
Decreases with
increasing IP in LHR
engine
Varying
speeds from
1000 to
2750 rpm
ZrO2 ()
Decreases with
advancing IT and
increasing IP at peak
load
Decreases by a
signicant amount
Decreases by 58%
Increases
Decreases with the increasing percentage of
M M60 in LHR engine showed almost same
result like M35-standard engine
EGT
187
The most important research gap of this survey is to nd a suitable TBC which will enhance engine performance as well as enable
biodiesel usage efciently in LHR engines. There are some alternative TBCs and bond coating materials found which can be used
effectively such as CeO2, Mullite, and La2Zr2O7. Though, a few of
the TBCs are not possible to deposit by plasma spray method but
they can be deposited by other techniques. Only a few articles have
studied the combustion characteristics of LHR engine. More experimental investigations need to be performed in different engine
188
189
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