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Abstract
Tests were performed on a six cylinder, direct injection, turbocharged Diesel engine whose pistons were
coated with a 350 lm thickness of MgZrO3 over a 150 lm thickness of NiCrAl bond coat. CaZrO3 was
employed as the coating material for the cylinder head and valves. The working conditions for the standard
engine (uncovered) and low heat rejection (LHR) engine were kept exactly the same to ensure a realistic
comparison between the two congurations of the engine. Comparisons between the standard engine
and its LHR version were made based on engine performance, exhaust gas emissions, injection timing
and valve adjustment. The results showed that 18% reduction in brake specic fuel consumption could
be achieved by the combined eect of the thermal barrier coating (TBC) and injection timing. On the other
hand, NOx emissions were obtained below those of the base engine by 11% for 18 BTDC injection timing.
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Low heat rejection; LHR engine; Thermal barrier coating; Diesel engine; Performance; Exhaust gas emissions; Injection timing
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 264 346 03 53; fax: +90 264 346 03 51.
E-mail address: ebkaya@sakarya.edu.tr (E. Buyukkaya).
0196-8904/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2005.06.021
1299
1. Introduction
Insulating the combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine theoretically results in improved thermal eciency according to the second law of thermodynamics. However, this may not
be the case practically due to the complex nature of the internal combustion and the mechanical
and thermal limitations of the insulation material and lubricants. Several investigators have reported, based on their own test results, that the overall thermal eciency of a low heat rejection
(LHR) Diesel engine could be lower or higher than the uninsulated one depending upon the engine conguration, test conditions, and methods used [15]. Dickey [6], for example, investigated
the eect of LHR on engine performance, emissions and combustion characteristics and concluded that the LHR engine had lower thermal eciency with higher smoke, particulates and full
load CO emissions compared to the standard cooled engine. He attributed the lower eciency to
the degraded combustion and lower compression ratio. Undoubtedly, injection characteristics
may also play an important role. Kamo et al. [5] aimed at experimental determination whether
a thin layer thermal barrier coated engine could improve its performance when a high pressure
injector unit was used and found that the current trend toward high pressure fuel injection system
was apropos, while they underlined that a thermal barrier coating (TBC) oered higher eciency
by 56% compared to the standard engine. They also reported signicant improvement in fuel
economy by insulating the Diesel combustion chamber. TBCs for Diesel engines have generally
been accepted to improve engine thermal eciency and reduce emissions as well as specic fuel
consumption because of their ability to provide thermal insulation to the engine components.
The generally known principle that increased operation temperatures in energy conversion systems lead to an increase in eciency, fuel savings and reduced emissions as particles, carbon monoxides (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) and limited reductions of NOx have, over many decades,
promoted R&D activities in the eld of TBCs development [7].
Mechanical properties of ceramics and ceramic design technology have improved to the point
that we can use ceramics as structural parts of engines. Ceramics have a higher thermal durability
than conventional metals, making it unnecessary to cool them as much. Low thermal conductivity
ceramics can be used to control temperature distribution and heat ow in a structure. Other
ceramics have both low thermal capacity and low thermal conductivity. When these other ceramics are used as the inner surface material of a cylinder (where the temperature and density of the
working uid changes cyclically and rapidly), they can change the heat transfer between the working uid and the cylinder walls [8].
A lot of works have been done to utilize these ceramic properties to improve thermal cycle eciency by reducing heat losses and to improve engine eciency by eliminating cooling systems.
When cylinder cooling losses are reduced, more of the heat is delivered to the exhaust system.
Thus, ecient recovery of energy of the exhaust improves the thermal eciency of a low heat
rejection engine. However, installing heat recovery systems needs considerable eort. A lot of
changes are necessary in the engine conguration. Even without heat recovery systems, some of
the heat is converted to piston work and increases thermal eciency. Therefore, LHR engines
without exhaust heat recovery systems are worth studying [9].
Application of thick plasma sprayed coatings has a number of disadvantages, namely adhesion
of coatings thicker than 500 lm is poor, temperatures of combustion chamber walls raised to
excessive values reduces the volumetric eciency and creates additional problems with adequate
1300
lubrication at the higher end of the piston stroke. Typically, carbon deposits on the combustion
chamber surface possess thermal properties comparable with ceramics. Exhaust emissions and
specic fuel consumption decrease due to higher combustion chamber temperatures, but nitric
oxides increase [10]. There are a lot of potential techniques for its reduction from Diesel engines,
such as exhaust gas recirculation, water injection, slower burn rate, reduced intake air temperature and particularly retarding injection timing [1113]. A detailed literature review would reveal
that the major considerations associated with insulated Diesel engines are: (i) engine performance,
(ii) low exhaust gas emissions, (iii) injection timing and (iv) compression ratio. However, there is
no notable study dealing with the eect of valve adjustment for LHR engines. Despite the fact that
the eects of TBCs on a Diesel engine have been studied for many years, and the necessity for the
reliable data is ever increasing, an exact procedure or method to predict these eects does not currently exist. Therefore, the test data taken from various working conditions of dierent coating
properties and numerical simulations must be relied upon to aid in the developments of new predictive models.
In the present study, experiments have been conducted to study the eects of the TBC on exhaust gas emissions and performance of a turbocharged Diesel engine. The performance characteristics, valve adjustment, emission properties and injection timing were considered as the key
parameters for the LHR and standard cases over the experimentation. The results showed that
18% reduction in brake specic fuel consumption could be achieved by the combined eect of
the TBC and injection timing. On the other hand, NOx emissions were obtained below those of
the standard engine by 11% for 18 BTDC injection timing.
1301
11
Flue outlet
7
10
Turbine
Air
flow
meter
Intercooleer
6
Air
intake
Compressor
9
1
3
ENGINE
4 5 2
Oil cooler
Clean oil
12
Bremse
Waste oil
Fuel tank
Water cooling
exchanger
Water
tank
Control cabin
Waste oil
tank
Clean oil
tank
Water
cooling
tower
by a digital thermocouple (PT100) which can measure up to 1000 C. Particulate emissions were
measured by RTT 100/110 type emission measurement device. This device provides an emission
analysis with an accuracy better than 1 mg/m3 of full scale. The emission values were measured
from the exhaust manifold at one meter distance. The engine speed was measured by a digital
tachometer with a resolution of 1 rpm up to 10000 rpm. NOx emissions were measured by
employing MRU 95/3 CD type gas analyser with an accuracy of 300 ppm 5% of full scale.
1302
Table 1
Measured parameters and their locations
Label
Unit
Measurement range
and accuracy
Device type
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Engine speed
Oil inlet temperature
Oil outlet temperature
Water inlet temperature
Water outlet temperature
Intercooler inlet
Intercooler outlet
Manifold pressure
Turbine inlet temperature
Turbine outlet temperature
Emission measurement
12
Fuel consumption
rpm
C
C
C
C
C
C
mbar
C
C
ppm
mg/m3
cm3
010000 1
0150 1
0150 1
0150 1
0150 1
0150 1
0150 1
07 0.1
01000 1
01000 1
04000 5
01966 1
0250 5
Digital tachometer
PT-100
PT-100
PT-100
PT-100
PT-100
PT-100
ST2100G2
PT-100
PT-100
NOx (MRU 95/3 CD)
Particulate (RTT 100/110)
Graduated cylinder
Table 2
Engine specications
Engine type
Number of strokes
Number of cylinders
Cylinder diameter (mm)
Stroke (mm)
Compression ratio
Maximum power (kW)
Maximum speed (rpm)
Displacement (cm3)
Firing order
Injection timing (BTDC)
4
6
104.77
114.9
16.5/1
136 (at 2400 rpm)
2780
5947
153624
20
Before the insulating process, a 500 lm thickness was removed from the surfaces of the pistons,
valves and cylinder head parts of the standard engine. These parts were, then, coated with ceramic
materials of the same thickness and installed in the engine. As a result, each of the ceramic coated
pistons resulted in the same compression ratio (16.5/1).
The experimental work consisted of three stages. For the rst stage, the standard engine was
run at dierent speeds, changing from 1000 to 2400 rpm with an interval of 200 rpm and with load
ranging from 15 kp to 55 kp by an increment of 5 kp in order to determine the BSFC, exhaust gas
temperatures and the particulates and NOx emissions. At the second stage, the same experimental
measurements were repeated, as with the rst stage, on the LHR version of the same engine all of
whose parts in contact with the combustion gases were coated with the ceramic material. Care was
taken to ensure that all original dimensions were kept the same after the coating process to produce the same compression ratio. In other words, both the standard engine and its LHR version
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had the same dimensions. At the nal stage, the injection delay timing of the LHR engine was
lowered from 20 BTDC to 18 BTDC and, after that, to 16 BTDC, successively. The performance tests of the LHR engine were repeated for those settings of injection delay timing. Also,
in order to ascertain the eect of valve adjustment, its original setting (0.46 mm) was set to
0.38 mm, and the performance tests were conducted for both 20 BTDC and 18 BTDC of injection delay timing of the LHR engine.
BSFC (g/kWh)
240
230
220
210
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
Fig. 3. Variation of BSFC (uncertainty of 2.61%) with engine speed at full load.
1304
Volumetric
efficiency
100%
90%
80%
70%
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
Fig. 4. Variation of volumetric eciency (uncertainty of 3.82%) with engine speed at full load.
500
SE 8.17 bar
CE 8.17 bar
Exhaust
temperature (oC)
475
450
425
400
375
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
Fig. 5. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with engine speed at full load.
1305
55%
CE 8.17 bar
SE 8.17 bar
Particulate
(g/kWh)
45%
35%
25%
15%
5%
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
place for some particular LHR engines. For instance, Alkidas [8] obtained both increased and decreased particulate emissions. In the optimized engine conguration, there were notable decreases
in both particulates and smoke number over the operating range, though the reductions in particulates were not as great as the decrease in smoke number.
The higher NOx emissions from the LHR engine, in comparison to the SE, are attributed partly
to the higher combustion temperatures and partly to the shorter combustion durations in the
LHR engine. Increasing the combustion duration increases the fraction of the fuel that burns later
in the cycle and, consequently, decreases the emissions index of NOx [16]. The higher NOx emissions from the LHR engine agree with the ndings of other studies [3,17]. For the same brake
mean eective pressure, the present LHR engine produced substantially more NOx emissions than
the corresponding LHR engine of the earlier study [18], but it also had a lower BSFC. In the present study, it has been found that the LHR engine provided almost no advantage at relatively low
loads and speed conditions in terms of NOx emissions and only about 2.44% of the reduction in
the NOx emissions could be recorded. However, at higher loads, when operating at low speeds,
the NOx emission was measured at about 9% more in comparison to the standard engine. This
is presumably due to the high gas temperatures caused by higher loads (Fig. 5). On the other
hand, for full load at high speeds, this value reduced to 5.5% in parallel with the deterioration
in the overall volumetric eciency (Fig. 7).
3.3. Eects of injection delaying timing and valve adjustment
Combustion characteristics in Diesel engines are the most important factors aecting engine
output power, specic fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions as well as vibration and engine
noise. Combustion characteristics, on the other hand, depend largely upon ignition delay. However, since the temperature and the pressure of the combustion air increase as it is compressed in
the cylinders, the delay in ignition timing usually decreases. Furthermore, the temperatures in the
combustion chamber of the supercharged, ceramic coated Diesel engine would be considerably
higher than those of an uninsulated engine, which normally result in shorter ignition timing.
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NOx (g/kWh)
16
12
4
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
Fig. 7. Variation of NOx emission with engine speed for 201816 BTDC injection timings of ceramic engine (CE)
and 20 BTDC of standard engine (SE) at full load.
Therefore, the retardation of the ignition timing would be impractical for LHR engines. As a potential alternative, fuel injection timing can be delayed [5,19]. In the present study, the fuel injection timing of the standard engine was 20 BTDC, and this value was varied as 18 and 16 BTDC
for the LHR engine. Meanwhile, the valve adjustment was reduced from its original value of 0.46
0.38 mm. The eect of such settings on the specic fuel consumption and NOx emission were
experimentally investigated.
For 18 BTDC injection delay timing, a relative reduction of 12% in the specic fuel consumption was recorded. In addition, at higher speeds and full load, the deterioration in the fuel consumption for 20 BTDC was seen to disappear for 18 BTDC as shown in Fig. 8. However,
further reductions in the injection timing have been observed to increase these two crucial para-
245
BSFC (g/kWh)
235
225
215
205
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
Fig. 8. Variation of specic fuel consumption (uncertainty of 2.61%) with engine speed for 201816 BTDC
injection timings of ceramic coated engine (CE) at full load.
1307
meters, and we concluded that the 18 BTDC could be regarded as the optimum setting for the
ceramic coated engine as illustrated in the same gure (Fig. 8).
Fig. 9 shows the variations of specic fuel consumption and particulate emission with engine
speed for 20 and 18 BTDC injection delay timings of the ceramic coated engine (CE) at nearly
full load. It is clearly seen from Fig. 9 that an 18 BTDC injection timing resulted in almost 15%
reduction (at relatively low engine speeds) in the particulate emissions, while 12% reduction (over
the full range of engine speed and at full load) in the specic fuel consumption was maintained.
However, at higher engine speeds (over 1800 rpm), the particulate emissions were seen to approach the original value (20 BTDC) of the ceramic coated engine (LHR). It is, therefore, concluded that there was almost no remarkable advantage of changing the injection timing from 20
260
45
BSFC (g/kWh)
250
CE 20 deg BTDC
CE 18 deg BTDC
CE 20 deg BTDC
CE 18 deg BTDC
35
240
25
230
15
220
210
1000
Particulate
(g/kWh)*1/100
BSFC,
BSFC,
Particulate,
Particulate,
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Engine speed (rpm)
2200
5
2400
Fig. 9. Variations of specic fuel consumption (uncertainty of 2.61%) and particulate emission with engine speed for
2018 BTDC injection timings of ceramic coated engine (CE) at full load.
250
BSFC (g/kWh)
240
230
220
210
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
Fig. 10. Variation of specic fuel consumption (uncertainty of 2.61%) with engine speed for 0.46 mm and 0.38 mm
valve adjustments, and 20 and 18 BTDC injection delay timings of ceramic coated engine (CE) at full load.
1308
NOx (g/kWh)
14
12
10
6
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
Fig. 11. Variation of NOx emission with engine speed for 0.46 mm valve adjustment and 20 BTDC injection delay
timing of SE and 0.46 mm and 0.38 mm valve adjustments with 18 BTDC injection delay timing of ceramic coated
engine (CE) at full load.
to 18 BTDC for engine speed over 1800 rpm, and 18 BTDC could be regarded as the optimum
injection timing when considering both fuel economy and particulate emissions.
Figs. 10 and 11 show the eects of various valve settings and injection delay timings on the specic fuel consumption and NOx emissions. It is clearly seen that such modications have almost
no eect on the fuel economy of the engine, and therefore, it can be concluded that optimization
of the injection system and injection timing would play a remarkable role for LHR engines. However, it has been observed that the delay in injection timing without modication in the valve
adjustment reduced both the specic fuel consumption and NOx emission. Similar conclusions
were also reported in the literature [1821].
In the present study, up to 27% reduction in the NOx emissions have been provided depending
upon engine speed. At higher engine speeds and loadings, the HC emissions have been observed to
be the same with the ceramic coated engine (LHR) with 20 BTDC injection timing, while better
results have been obtained compared to the base engine with the same injection timing. It can be
concluded that optimization of the fuel system and injection timing could be considered the key
issues for Diesel engines with TBC.
4. Conclusions
1. Almost 65 C increase in the combustion gas temperature has been observed for the LHR
engine compared to the standard engine working under the same conditions.
2. The brake specic fuel consumption (BSFC) values of the LHR engine were found to be
lower by about 6% than those of the standard engine.
3. The emission characteristics of the insulated engine at moderate and full loads appeared to
be attractive. Particulate emissions decreased clearly in the LHR engine. These reductions
were up to 40%.
1309
4. The NOx emission levels were found to be higher by about 9% compared to those of the standard engine because of the higher exhaust gas temperatures for the LHR engine.
5. Delaying the injection timing in the LHR engine from 20 to 18 resulted in a reduction of 1
2% in the specic fuel consumption. On the other hand, 16 BTDC injection timing exhibited
almost the same fuel consumption as that of the standard engine.
6. NOx emissions were observed to be lower by 11% for 18 BTDC and by 26% on average for
16 BTDC injection timings in comparison to the standard engine.
7. In terms of specic fuel consumption, considerable deteriorations have been observed for
0.38 mm of valve adjustment.
8. Reducing the valve adjustment for the LHR engine from 0.46 mm to 0.38 mm gave generally
lower NOx emissions regardless of considering the injection timing. However, 0.38 mm of
valve adjustment was observed to be a remarkable increase as compared to its original value
(0.46 mm).
Acknowledgement
This study has been nancially supported by The Scientic and Research Council of Turkey
(TUBITAK-MISAG-30). TUBITAKs support is greatfully acknowledged.
References
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1310
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