Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
I. Introduction
II. General Properties
A. Structure
B. A role as molecular switches
C. Localization
III. Ras Proteins as Regulators of Gene Expression
A. Outline
B. Ras protein cycle: activation/inactivation
C. Raf protein kinase activation by Ras proteins
D. Modifiers of the Ras protein-induced Raf protein kinase activation
E. Other effectors of Ras proteins
F. Transport of newly synthesized Ras proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum
to the plasma membrane
G. Ras proteins and cancer
H. Rap proteins
I. Ral proteins
J. Other Ras family members
IV. Rho/Rac/Cdc42 Proteins as Regulators of Both Cytoskeletal Reorganization and Gene Expression
A. Outline
B. Reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton
C. Rho/Rac/Cdc42 protein cycle: cyclical activation/inactivation
D. Mode of action of Rho proteins in cytoskeletal reorganization
E. Mode of action of Rac/Cdc42 proteins in cytoskeletal reorganization
F. Mode of action of Rho/Rac/Cdc42 proteins in gene expression
G. Other functions of Rho/Rac/Cdc42 proteins
V. Rab Proteins as Regulators of Vesicle Trafficking
A. Outline
B. Vesicle trafficking
C. Localization of Rab proteins
D. Rab protein cycle: cyclical activation/inactivation and translocation
E. SNAREs and tethering proteins in vesicle targeting/docking/fusion
F. Mode of action of Rab proteins in vesicle targeting/docking/fusion
G. Rab3A in Ca2-dependent exocytosis
H. Rab proteins and cytoskeleton
I. Rab proteins in vesicle budding
VI. Sar1/Arf Proteins as Regulators of Vesicle Budding
A. Outline
B. Coat proteins and vesicle budding
C. Arf protein cycle: cyclical activation/inactivation and translocation
D. Arf proteins in vesicle budding
E. Arf6 in endocytic recycling and cytoskeletal reorganization
F. Sar1 as a regulator of vesicle budding
VII. Ran Function in Nucleocytoplasmic Transport and Microtubule Organization
A. Outline
B. Nucleocytoplasmic transport
C. Ran cycle: cyclical activation/inactivation and translocation
D. Mode of action of Ran in nucleocytoplasmic transport
E. A role for Ran in microtubule organization
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Takai, Yoshimi, Takuya Sasaki, and Takashi Matozaki. Small GTP-Binding Proteins. Physiol Rev 81: 153208,
2001.Small GTP-binding proteins (G proteins) exist in eukaryotes from yeast to human and constitute a superfamily consisting of more than 100 members. This superfamily is structurally classified into at least five families: the
Ras, Rho, Rab, Sar1/Arf, and Ran families. They regulate a wide variety of cell functions as biological timers
(biotimers) that initiate and terminate specific cell functions and determine the periods of time for the continuation
of the specific cell functions. They furthermore play key roles in not only temporal but also spatial determination of
specific cell functions. The Ras family regulates gene expression, the Rho family regulates cytoskeletal reorganization and gene expression, the Rab and Sar1/Arf families regulate vesicle trafficking, and the Ran family regulates
nucleocytoplasmic transport and microtubule organization. Many upstream regulators and downstream effectors of
small G proteins have been isolated, and their modes of activation and action have gradually been elucidated.
Cascades and cross-talks of small G proteins have also been clarified. In this review, functions of small G proteins
and their modes of activation and action are described.
I. INTRODUCTION
Small GTP-binding proteins (G proteins) are monomeric G proteins with molecular masses of 20 40 kDa.
The Ha-Ras and Ki-Ras genes were first discovered as the
v-Ha-Ras and v-Ki-Ras oncogenes of sarcoma viruses
around 1980 (111, 660). Their cellular oncogenes were
then identified in humans, and their mutations were furthermore found in some human carcinomas (146, 252,
499, 561, 626, 661). The mutated forms were subsequently
shown to stimulate proliferation and transformation of
cultured cells (71, 84, 182, 681). Moreover, the mutated
forms were shown to induce cell differentiation in neuronal cells (41, 249, 523). These findings drew the attention
of many scientists not only in the cancer research field but
also in many other fields. Finally, these Ras proteins were
shown to be related to the heterotrimeric G proteins, such
as Gs and Gi, and G proteins involved in protein synthesis,
such as elongation factor Tu (EF-Tu) (222, 644, 659).
The Rho gene was discovered as a homolog of the
Ras gene in Aplysia in 1985 (421); the YPT1 gene, which
had been discovered as an open reading frame between
the actin and tubulin genes in the yeast Saccharomyces
cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) in 1983 (208), was identified to
encode a small G protein in 1986 (641); Arf protein, which
was purified as a cofactor for the cholera toxin-catalyzed
ADP-ribosylation of Gs in 1984 (326), was identified to
encode a small G protein in 1986 (327). The SEC4 gene,
which had been isolated as a gene involved in secretion in
the yeast in 1980 (527), was identified to encode a small G
protein in 1987 (623). These results suggested the presence of a big family of Ras-like small G proteins. Actually,
many small G proteins were systematically isolated by
molecular biological (100, 101, 105, 551, 573) and biochemical (291, 337, 344, 534, 535, 793, 797) methods.
Now, more than 100 small G proteins have been
identified in eukaryotes from yeast to human, and they
comprise a superfamily (60, 250, 701). The members of
this superfamily are structurally classified into at least five
families: the Ras, Rho, Rab, Sar1/Arf, and Ran families
(Table 1 and Fig. 1). In the yeast S. cerevisiae, sequence
analysis against complete genomic sequence has revealed
that there are 4 Ras family members, 6 Rho family members, 11 Rab family members, 7 Sar1/Arf family members,
and 2 Ran family members (210, 383). The functions of
many small G proteins have recently been elucidated: the
Ras subfamily members (Ras proteins) of the Ras family
mainly regulate gene expression, the Rho/Rac/Cdc42 subfamily members (Rho/Rac/Cdc42 proteins) of the Rho
family regulate both cytoskeletal reorganization and gene
expression, the Rab and Sar1/Arf family members (Rab
and Sar1/Arf proteins) regulate intracellular vesicle trafficking, and the Ran family members (Ran) regulate nucleocytoplasmic transport during the G1, S, and G2 phases
of the cell cycle and microtubule organization during the
M phase. Many upstream regulators and downstream effectors of small G proteins have been identified, and
modes of activation and actions have gradually been elucidated. In this review, functions of small G proteins and
their modes of activation and action are described. However, this review may not cover all detailed information
regarding each small G protein; readers may refer to other
recent excellent reviews (3, 49, 58, 80, 82, 139, 325, 417,
420, 428, 483, 491, 519, 536, 630, 713, 744, 758).
As to nomenclature, the term small GTPases is often
used, but small G proteins is used here because small G
TABLE
155
SMALL G PROTEINS
January 2001
Mammal
Ha-Ras
Ki-Ras
N-Ras
R-Ras
M-Ras
RalA
RalB
Rap1A
Rap1B
Rap2A
Rap2B
Tc21
Rit
Rin
Rad
Kir/Gem
Yeast
Ras1
Ras2
Rsr1
Yct7
Rheb
B-Ras1
B-Ras2
Rho Family
RhoA
RhoB
RhoC
RhoD
RhoE/
Rnd3/
Rho8
RhoG
RhoH/
TTF
Rac1
Rac2
Rac3
Cdc42
Rnd1/
Rho6
Rnd2/
Rho7
Tc10
Rho1
Rho2
Rho3
Rho4
Cdc42
Yns0
Rab Family
Rab1A
Rab1B
Rab2
Rab3A
Rab3B
Rab3C
Rab3D
Rab4
Rab5A
Rab5B
Rab5C
Rab6
Rab7
Rab8
Rab9
Rab10
Rab11A
Rab11B
Rab12
Rab13
Rab14
Rab15
Rab16
Rab17
Rab18
Rab19
Rab20
Rab21
Rab22
Rab23
Rab24
Rab25
Ypt1
Sec4
Ypt31/
Ypt8
Ypt32/
Ypt9
Ypt51/
Vps21
Ypt52
Ypt53
Ypt6
Ypt7
Ypt10
Ypt11
Rab26
Rab27A
Rab27B
Rab28
Rab29
Rab30
Rab31
Rab32
Rab33A
Rab33B
Sar1/Arf
Family
Ran
Family
Arf1
Arf2
Arf3
Arf4
Arf5
Arf6
Sar1a
Sar1b
Arl1
Arl2
Arl3
Arl4
Arl5
Arl6
Arl7
Ard1
Ran
Arf1
Arf2
Arf3
Sar1
Arl1
Arl2
Cin4
Gsp1
Gsp2
proteins have both GDP/GTP-binding and GTPase activities. In many cases, the GTPase activity is necessary for
the termination of the functions of small G proteins, but
not essential for them to perform their functions. From
this point of view, the term GTPase is misleading. G
proteins represent heterotrimeric G proteins and small
GTP-binding proteins should be used, but just for simplicity small G proteins is used here. G proteins used
here include heterotrimetric G proteins (223), G proteins
involved in protein synthesis (338), and small G proteins.
Guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) is often used,
but guanine nucleotide exchange protein (GEP) is used
here, because all GEFs thus far found are proteins and
GEPs is a more correct term.
II. GENERAL PROPERTIES
A. Structure
A comparison of the amino acid sequences of Ras
proteins from various species has revealed that they are
conserved in primary structures and are 30 55% homologous to each other. Among Ras proteins, each protein
shares relatively high (50 55%) amino acid identity,
whereas Rab and Rho/Rac/Cdc42 proteins share 30%
amino acid identity with Ras proteins (250, 742). Nevertheless, like other G proteins, all small G proteins have
156
FIG.
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1. Dendrogram of the small G protein superfamily. [Modified from Garcia-Ranea and Valencia (210).]
January 2001
SMALL G PROTEINS
FIG. 3. The COOH-terminal structures and posttranslational modifications of small G proteins. The COOH-terminal regions of small G
proteins are classified into at least four groups (1 4). The Cys-A-A-X
structure is furthermore subclassified into two groups (1a and 1b). A,
aliphatic acid; X, any amino acid; P, palmitoyl; F, farnesyl; GG, geranylgeranyl.
157
-subunits of both enzymes are identical (648). Geranylgeranyltransferase II consists of three subunits, originally termed component A but recently renamed Rab
escort protein I (Rep1), and - and -subunits (289, 645,
646, 672). Rep1 binds unprenylated Rab proteins, presents
them to the catalytic -subunits, and remains bound to
Rab proteins after the geranylgeranyl transfer reaction
(20). In cells, Rab GDP dissociation inhibitor (GDI) (see
below) may dissociate this product from Rep1, allowing
multiple cycles of catalysis. The human Rep1 gene has
been identified by positional cloning as that responsible
for choroideremia, which is an X-linked form of retinal
degeneration (131, 132, 187). Loss of Rep1 activity causes
the reduced prenylation of Ram/Rab27, which is expressed at high levels in the retinal cell layers, and the
degeneration of this protein in the progression of this
disease (647). Palmitoyltransferase that palmitoylates HaRas has been purified (406), but it is not yet known
whether this enzyme is the one that functions in vivo.
Methyltransferases that transfer the methyl moieties to
small G proteins having Cys-A-A-X, Cys-A-A-Leu, and CysX-Cys structures have not been well characterized. A
protease, Rce1, that removes the A-A-X and A-A-Leu portions of Ha-Ras, N-Ras, Ki-Ras, and Rap1B, has recently
been identified (345, 557).
B. A Role as Molecular Switches
According to the structures of small G proteins, they
have two interconvertible forms: GDP-bound inactive and
GTP-bound active forms (60, 250, 701) (Fig. 4). An upstream signal stimulates the dissociation of GDP from the
GDP-bound form, which is followed by the binding of
GTP, eventually leading to the conformational change of
the downstream effector-binding region so that this region interacts with the downstream effector(s). This interaction causes the change of the functions of the downstream effector(s). The GTP-bound form is converted by
the action of the intrinsic GTPase activity to the GDPbound form, which then releases the bound downstream
effector(s). In this way, one cycle of activation and inactivation is achieved, and small G proteins serve as molecular switches that transduce an upstream signal to a
downstream effector(s).
Thus the rate-limiting step of the GDP/GTP exchange
reaction is the dissociation of GDP from the GDP-bound
form. This reaction is extremely slow and therefore stimulated by a regulator, named GEP (also called GEF or
guanine nucleotide releasing factor), of which activity is
often regulated by an upstream signal. GEP first interacts
with the GDP-bound form and releases bound GDP to
form a binary complex of a small G protein and GEP.
Then, GEP in this complex is replaced by GTP to form the
GTP-bound form. Most GEPs, such as Son of Sevenless
(SOS), a Ras GEP, and Rab3 GEP, are specific for each
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FIG.
Volume 81
pathway, such as neurons, neuroendocrine cells, and exocrine cells (140, 183, 476, 477, 625). Rab17 is detected in
epithelial cells (413). Most small G proteins are localized
either in the cytosol or on membranes. Ran is localized
either in the cytosol or in the nucleus. Each small G
protein is localized to a specific membrane. Ras proteins
are localized at the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane. This localization is mediated by the posttranslational modifications with lipid. The farnesyl moiety of
Ha-Ras and Ki-Ras alone is not sufficient for their binding
to the membrane (256). In the case of Ha-Ras, both the
farnesyl and palmitoyl moieties are necessary, whereas in
the case of Ki-Ras, both the farnesyl moiety and the
neighboring clustered polybasic amino acids are necessary. The farnesyl and palmitoyl moieties may interact
with the acyl moieties of the phospholipids, whereas the
polybasic amino acids may interact with the polar head
groups of the acidic phospholipids. The methyl moiety
also contributes markedly to efficient membrane association (255). Rap1 is geranylgeranylated and has clustered
polybasic amino acids. Most Rab proteins have either a
Cys-X-Cys or Cys-Cys structure of which Cys residues are
both geranylgeranylated. These small G proteins are localized at the cytoplasmic faces of distinct membrane
compartments. It has not been experimentally clarified
how Rap1 and Rab proteins exactly interact with the
membranes, but it is likely that both the prenyl moiety
and the polybasic region or two prenyl moieties are necessary. In contrast, Arf proteins have one myristoyl moiety and Sar1 has no lipid moiety, but they interact with the
cytoplasmic faces of membranes. Arf proteins interact
with membrane lipids by its myristoylated and amphipathic NH2-terminal helix (21, 47). In the case of Sar1, it
may interact with the phospholipid through only peptide
region. Small G proteins, such as Rho/Rac/Cdc42 and Rab
proteins, located on the plasma membrane and the cytosol are translocated between these two sites. Ran is also
translocated between the cytosol and the nucleus through
the nuclear pore complexes (NPCs).
III. RAS PROTEINS AS REGULATORS
OF GENE EXPRESSION
C. Localization
A. Outline
Small G proteins as well as heterotrimeric G proteins
are present only in eukaryotes from yeast to human,
although G proteins involved in protein synthesis such as
elongation factors exist in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Most small G proteins are widely distributed in
mammalian cells, and most cells have the Ras, Rho, Rab,
Sar1/Arf, and Ran families, although expression levels of
their members may vary from one type to another. A few
members show tissue-specific expression; for instance,
Rab3A is expressed in cells having a regulated secretion
January 2001
SMALL G PROTEINS
159
FIG. 5. Mode of action of Ras proteins in gene expression. Ras, Ras proteins.
160
been discovered to date. The first GEP for Ras, Cdc25, has
been identified genetically in S. cerevisiae (67, 81, 605).
Cdc25 has a GEP domain that is required for its catalytic
activity, located in its COOH-terminal region. In addition,
Cdc25 has an SH3 domain in the NH2-terminal region. In
higher eukaryotes, in addition to mammalian Cdc25
(mCdc25), two different types of proteins with homology
to Cdc25 have been found. The first group includes SOS.
SOS was first identified in Drosophila. Genetic studies
have shown that SOS is downstream of Sevenless, a receptor tyrosine kinase, which is homologous to the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (609, 669). One
human and two murine homologs of SOS have been
cloned. SOS has one pleckstrin homology (PH) domain
that may interact with a membrane phospholipid, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), to determine its
localization (62, 98). In addition, SOS has a GEP domain
that is required for its catalytic activity in the middle
portion and a GRB2-binding site in its COOH-terminal
region. The second GEP group includes p140 Ras GRF
that is primarily expressed in neural tissues (667). p140
Ras GRF has also a PH domain and a GEP domain. In
addition, p140 Ras GRF contains an IQ motif that is
regulated by calcium-bound calmodulin (178). Ras GRP, a
GEP also predominantly expressed in brain, binds Ca2
directly through a structure similar to the calcium binding
EF hand; moreover, Ras GRP is regulated by direct binding of diacylglycerol (166). SOS is active on Ha-Ras and
Ki-Ras but not on R-Ras, whereas Ras GRF is active on
Ha-Ras and N-Ras but not on RalA or Cdc42 (56, 75,
507, 667).
p120 Ras GAP is the first GAP to be characterized at
a molecular level (221, 727, 728, 755). p120 Ras GAP is
active on Ha-Ras, Ki-Ras, N-Ras, and R-Ras, but not on
Rho/Rac/Rab proteins (56, 221, 727). It contains a hydrophobic NH2 terminus, two Src homology-2 (SH2) domains, one Src homology-3 (SH3) domain, one PH domain, and a region similar to the calcium-dependent lipid
binding region of phospholipase A2. Although it is clear
that p120 Ras GAP acts as a negative regulator of Ras
proteins, it has long been speculated that it also has other
functions. One possible role of p120 Ras GAP is that it is
a downstream effector of Ras proteins (463, 804). However, it now seems unlikely that p120 Ras GAP plays a
major downstream role of Ras proteins. A number of
tyrosine protein kinases have been shown to stimulate
tyrosine phosphorylation of p120 Ras GAP in a variety of
cells (169, 481), although the stoichiometry of these phosphorylations is generally low, and no alteration in the
activity or localization of p120 Ras GAP has been demonstrated upon tyrosine phosphorylation. Protein tyrosine
kinases may control the activity of p120 Ras GAP by
forming a complex with it. In fact, p120 Ras GAP forms a
complex with activated PDGF receptors (332, 339). Two
other proteins have been found to associate with p120 Ras
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January 2001
SMALL G PROTEINS
161
for both its localization and biological activity. Furthermore, lipid-modified Ras proteins have been shown to
more efficiently activate adenylate cyclase in the yeast
system (288, 376). Posttranslational modifications of KiRas are also required for MAP kinase activation in a
cell-free system (309). In addition, posttranslational modifications of Ha-Ras are required for activation of, but not
for association with, Raf protein kinase (392, 547).
The intracellular signals that couple growth factors
to MAP kinase may determine the different effects of
growth factors; for example, transient activation of MAP
kinase by EGF stimulates proliferation of PC12 cells,
whereas sustained activation of MAP kinase by nerve
growth factor (NGF) induces differentiation of PC12 cells.
Activation of MAP kinase by NGF involves two distinct
pathways: the initial activation of MAP kinase requires
Ras proteins, but its activation is sustained by Rap1 (806)
(see below). Rap1 is activated by C3G, a GEP for Rap1,
and forms a stable complex with B-Raf (806). Activation
of B-Raf by Rap1 represents a common mechanism to
induce sustained activation of the MAP kinase cascade.
D. Modifiers of the Ras Protein-Induced Raf
Protein Kinase Activation
In addition to Ras proteins, a protein named 14 3-3
seems to also interact with Raf-1 and activate it (176, 197).
14 3-3 is a specific phosphoserine-binding protein (500).
Raf-1 itself contains two phosphorylation sites that may
interact with 14 3-3. 14 3-3 may have two different roles:
first, 14 3-3 may be required for maintaining Raf-1 in an
inactive conformation, as Raf-1 that is unable to stably
interact with 14 3-3 is activated (467). In response to
signaling events and Ras protein activation, 14 3-3 may
subsequently play a second role in facilitating activation
of Raf-1 and stabilizing activated Raf-1.
The observation that Raf-1 becomes hyperphosphorylated in response to many signaling events (492) has
long suggested that phosphorylation plays a role in regulating Raf-1 activity. Mechanisms by which phosphorylation could regulate Raf-1 function include direct alteration of the intrinsic activity of Raf-1 and alteration of
critical protein interactions, such as with 14 3-3. The
rapid and transient nature of Raf-1 activation further complicates the issue, making it difficult to distinguish between activating and inactivating modifications. Nevertheless, by the use of overexpression systems and
mutational analysis, the phosphorylation of tyrosine residues 340 and 341 has been shown to enhance the catalytic activity of Raf-1 (441). The tyrosine kinases implicated in phosphorylating Raf-1, and thereby enhancing its
activity, include members of the Src kinase family (441,
562, 576).
A novel protein kinase that functions downstream of
162
Ras proteins, kinase suppressor of Ras (KSR), has recently been identified by genetic screening as a suppressor of phenotypes caused by an activated Ras protein in
both Drosophila and C. elegans (366, 694, 717). Epistasis
analysis in Drosophila suggests that KSR functions downstream of Drosophila Ras-1 but upstream or in parallel to
Raf protein (717). Characterization of a mouse KSR homolog suggests that KSR facilitates signal transmission
between Raf proteins, MEK, and MAP kinase (718). In
addition, upon Ras protein activation, KSR translocates to
the plasma membrane, where it forms a stable complex
with Raf proteins (718). Moreover, KSR, via its kinase
domain, forms a stable complex with MEK in the cytosol
of quiescent cells (144). Therefore, in response to an
activated Ras protein, KSR might shuttle MEK from the
cytosol to activated Raf proteins at the membrane.
With the use of a screen for eye development defects in Drosophila, the connector enhancer of KSR
(CNK) protein has been identified as an enhancer of a
KSR dominant negative mutant phenotype (719). Mutation of CNK suppresses the phenotype of activated Ras
proteins or Sevenless but not Raf proteins, suggesting
that it acts upstream of Raf proteins. CNK has several
protein interaction domains. These domains include a
sterile alpha motif (SAM) domain, a PSD-95/Dlg-A/ZO-1
(PDZ) domain, two proline-rich (potential SH3-binding)
domains, and a PH domain; such domains are found in
many proteins involved in signaling and suggest further
interactions of CNK with other proteins and small molecules. In two-hybrid assays in S. cerevisiae, a COOHterminal portion of CNK that contains the PH domain
interacts with the Raf kinase domain (719). Thus the
SAM, PDZ, and novel domains might be available for
other interactions, although it is not known whether
CNK also binds other proteins in the Ras-Raf signaling
pathway. CNK has a molecular structure similar to that
of recently identified rat neuronal proteins, named
MAGUINs, that interact with the PDZ domains of PSD95/SAP90 and S-SCAM (802). MAGUINs interact with
c-Raf-1 but do not affect its enzymatic activity (803).
PSD-95/SAP90 and S-SCAM are neuronal membraneassociated guanylate kinases, and these proteins function as synaptic scaffolding proteins (264). In fact,
PSD-95/SAP90 further interacts with synGAP, which
regulates the activity of Ras proteins (346). Therefore,
MAGUINs may also bind Raf proteins and link it to
PSD-95/SAP90 and S-SCAM in synaptic junctions.
E. Other Effectors of Ras Proteins
A variety of candidate Ras protein effectors have
been reported in addition to Raf proteins. These include
Ral GDS (279, 342, 676), RIN1 (254), and phosphatidylino-
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January 2001
SMALL G PROTEINS
163
tant integrin adhesion amplifier, has been shown to selectively activate Rap1, but not Ha-Ras, R-Ras, or Rap2 (587).
An activated mutant of Rap1 stimulates T lymphocyte
adhesion to intercellular adhesion molecule and vascular
cell adhesion molecule, as does C3G. Thus Rap1 regulates
ligand-induced cell adhesion, and it may play a more
general role in coordinating adhesion-dependent signals.
In contrast to Rap1, little is known about Rap2 (573).
Several distinct second messenger pathways, including those for calcium (194), diacylglycerol (462), phospholipase C- (462), and cAMP (10), and perhaps others
(497a), are able to induce Rap1 activation. Clearly, Rap1
activation is a common event, which suggests a function
that is central in signal transduction processes. C3G is a
Rap1-specific GEP containing a proline-rich domain that
interacts with the SH3 domain of members of the Crk
adaptor proteins, Crk I, Crk II, and Crk L (239, 355). In
general, this association is constitutive, but tyrosine phosphorylation of Crk may disrupt the interaction (546). The
SH2 domain of Crk binds directly to various activated
receptor tyrosine kinases and phosphotyrosine-containing adaptor proteins (355). This association of Crk-C3G
with these complexes may enhance GEP activity of C3G
(301), suggesting that complex formation and dissociation
of C3G regulate Rap1 activation by tyrosine kinases. However, in a human Jurkat T cell leukemia line, T-cell receptor-dependent induction of a Cbl-Crk L-C3G signaling
complex does not activate Rap1 (586). Therefore, more
work will be required to clarify how C3G complex formation is coupled to Rap1 regulation. Recently, two novel
GEPs specific for Rap1, named Epac/cAMP-GEFI and
nRap GEP/PDZ-GEF1/Hs-RA-GEF, have been identified
(147, 148, 335, 402, 540). Epac/cAMP-GEFI has cAMPbinding and Ras GEP domains; thus this GEP activity is
dependent on cAMP (148, 335). nRap GEP has been isolated as a binding partner of S-SCAM, that interacts with
N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and neuroligin
through PSD-95/Dlg-A/ZO-1 (PDZ) domains at synaptic
junctions (540). In contrast to Epac/cAMP-GEFI, nRap
GEP/PDZ-GEF1/Hs-RA-GEF has one PDZ, one Ras association, and one Ras GEP domains as well as one COOHterminal consensus motif for binding to PDZ domains.
However, nRap GEP/PDZ-GEF1/Hs-RA-GEF has an incomplete cAMP-binding domain and its GEP activity is
independent of cAMP. SPA-1, a Rap1 GAP, has been
shown to interfere with Rap1 activation by membranetargeted C3G (729). Overexpression of SPA-1 in HeLa
cells suppresses Rap1 activation upon plating on dishes
coated with fibronectin and results in the reduced adhesion. In addition, overexpression of SPA-1 in promyelocytic 32D cells also inhibited both activation of Rap1 and
induction of cell adhesion by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, suggesting that Rap1 is required for the cell
164
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SMALL G PROTEINS
165
166
Volume 81
FIG. 6. Mode of action of Rho/Rac/Cdc42 proteins in cytoskeletal reorganization. A: mode of action of Rho proteins.
B: mode of action of Rac proteins. C: mode of action of Cdc42. Rho, Rho proteins; Rac, Rac proteins.
SMALL G PROTEINS
January 2001
GEP
Dbl
Vav1
Dbs
Lbc
Lfc
Lsc
Vav2
p115 Rho GEF
PDZ-Rho GEF
Tiam-1
FGD1
Frabin
GAP
p50 Rho GAP
p190 Rho GAP
Graf
myr5
Bcr
n-Chimaerin
3BP-1
Abr
GDI
Rho GDI
D4/Ly-GDI
Rho GDI-3
Reference No.
259, 680
245
778
823
226
226
269
262
204
248
822
532, 738
36, 381
657
271
589
152
152
118
709
206, 732
390, 635
809
167
168
that Rho GDI has a pocket that masks the lipid moieties
of Rho proteins (238), consistent with biochemical analyses (286). More recently, the X-ray crystallographic
structure of the Cdc42/Rho GDI complex has revealed
two major sites of interaction between Rho GDI and
Cdc42 (280). The NH2-terminal regulatory region of Rho
GDI binds to the switch I and II domains of Cdc42, leading
to inhibition of both GDP dissociation and GTP hydrolysis. In addition, the geranylgeranyl moiety of Cdc42 inserts into a hydrophobic pocket within the immunoglobulin-like domain of the GDI molecule, keeping GDP-Cdc42
in the cytosol and permitting the dissociation of GDPCdc42 from membranes.
Although the mechanism by which Rho proteins are
released from Rho GDI has largely been unknown, it has
been shown that ERM, which consists of ezrin, radaxin,
and moesin, has the capacity to displace the GDP-bound
form of Rho proteins from Rho GDI (700). ERM has two
functional domains; the NH2-terminal plasma membranebinding and COOH-terminal F-actin-interacting domains
(30, 730). ERM is translocated to the plasma membrane
probably through the interaction with the cytoplasmic
domain of integral plasma membrane proteins such as
CD44, providing the F-actin binding sites. Rho GDI interacts with the NH2-terminal fragments of ERM, and this
interaction reduces Rho GDI activity (700). The unfolding of ERM may induce Rho GDI interaction with ERM
NH2-terminal regions, causing release of the Rho-GDP
and making it sensitive to the action of each Rho GEP
(699, 700). The interaction of full-length ERM with the
cytoplasmic fragment of CD44 does not induce the association of ERM with Rho GDI (700). However, CD44 and
Rho GDI are coimmunoprecipitated with moesin (274).
It is likely that full-length ERM unfold to permit interactions with Rho GDI and CD44 via ERM NH2-terminal
regions and F-actin via ERM COOH-terminal regions; a
signal from CD44 may trigger this process. These findings
suggest that the activation of Rho proteins is regulated in
a temporally and spatially dynamic manner and is distinct
from that of Ras proteins, which appears to be regulated
in a unidirectional manner.
Little is known about the physiological function of
Rho GDIs in vivo, but microinjection studies have shown
that Rho GDI inhibits several downstream functions of
Rho proteins (303, 352, 475, 521, 630, 705, 706). Rho
GDI-deficient mice have revealed several abnormal phenotypes (722). These mice are initially viable, but they
develop massive proteinuria mimicking nephrotic syndrome in humans, leading to death due to renal failure
within a year. Histologically, degeneration of tubular epithelial cells and dilatation of distal and collecting tubules
are readily detected in the kidneys. Rho GDI-deficient
mice are also infertile and show impaired spermatogenesis with vacuolar degeneration of seminiferous tubules. In
contrast, Rho GDI-deficient mice show normal hemato-
Volume 81
ments has established that Rho proteins regulate complicated cell functions through multiple effectors in a cooperative manner. Another protein having FH domains has
also been found in yeast and named Bnr1 (304). This
protein serves as an effector of Rho4 and binds both
profilin and Aip3 (Bud6), indicating that Rho4 regulates
the actin cytoskeleton at least though Bnr1. Rho2 has 53%
identity to Rho1, and a RHO2 null mutant does not show
any growth defect (422). Hence, it has been assumed that
Rho2 has redundant functions with Rho1, although several lines of evidence suggest Rho2-specific functions
(149, 436). Rho3 and Rho4 are implicated in polarized
growth presumably through regulating the actin cytoskeleton via their interactions with Bni1 and Bnr1 (175, 331a).
Moreover, it has been shown that Rho3 interacts with
Myo2 (type V myosin) and Exo70 (a component of the
exocyst, a multiprotein complex which is involved in
exocytosis) (606), suggesting the involvement of Rho3 in
the polarized secretion.
Numerous downstream effectors of mammalian Rho
proteins have been identified (Table 3). p160ROCK, also
named ROK/Rho kinase, is a recently identified, serine/
threonine protein kinase (307, 395, 451) and a downstream effector of Rho proteins. The activity of this protein kinase is stimulated by GTP-Rho proteins. Many
ROCK/Rho kinase substrates have been identified; these
include the myosin binding subunit of myosin light-chain
phosphatase (347), myosin light chain (13), ERM (202),
and cofilin (425). Of these substrates, myosin light-chain
phosphatase appears to be a physiological substrate
(347). Guanosine 5-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) (GTPS), a
poorly hydrolyzable GTP analog, increases the sensitivity
of smooth muscle contraction to Ca2 (354, 487, 785).
TABLE
Mammal
Yeast
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PI 3-kinase
Phospholipase D
PI 4,5-kinase
Citron
ROK/ROCK/
Rho kinase
MBS
PKN
Rhophilin
Kinectin
Rhotekin
p140mDia
DGK
Pkc1
Fks1, 2,
(glucan synthase)
Bni1
Bnr1
PI, phosphatidylinositol.
Rac Proteins
Cdc42
Reference no.
Effectors
Reference no.
Effectors
Reference no.
812
431
112, 592
423
307, 393, 451
NADPH oxidase
PAK
PI 3-kinase
PI 4,5-kinase
IQGAP
POR1
S6-kinase
MLK2, 3
Sra-1
POSH
DGK
2, 358, 479
439
57, 724
263, 724
65, 374, 458
745
113
502
359
716
725
ACK
PI 3-kinase
PAK
WASP
S6-kinase
IQGAP
MLK2, 3
N-WASP
MRCK
MSE5
Borg
438
820
439
31, 698
113
65, 374, 458
502
470
394
76
318
Ste20
Cla4
Bni1
Skm1
Gic1, 2
819
137
175, 363
446, 652
106
347
14, 768
768
292
588
770
293
330, 525
580, 456
363
304
170
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171
172
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173
174
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Rab2, Rab5A, Rab10, and Rab11. It prefers the lipid-modified form to the lipid-unmodified form as a substrate. A C.
elegans counterpart gene of this mammalian GEP, Aex-3,
has been identified genetically; mutation of this gene
causes a defect in synaptic transmission (310). Rabex-5
forms a tight complex with Rabaptin-5, a Rab5 effector,
and activation of Rab5 by Rabex-5 is likely coupled to
effector recruitment (290). Rabex-5 is homologous to
Vps9, a yeast protein involved in endocytosis (77). In the
yeast, Sec2, a GEP for Sec4, is genetically essential for the
Golgi-to-plasma membrane transport (763). Sec2 shares
sequence homology to Rabin-3 that specifically interacts
with Rab3A and Rab3D (68). However, Rabin-3 has no
detectable GEP activity. These data suggest that each
member or each subfamily of the Rab family could interact with a specific GEP. It is not known whether Rabex-5
and Sec2 require lipid modifications of their small G protein substrates.
Only two GAPs for Rab proteins have been isolated
and characterized in mammalian cells: Rab3 GAP, specific for the Rab3 subfamily members (205, 501) and
GAPCenA, specific for Rab6 (135). Rab3 GAP is ubiquitously expressed and enriched in the soluble synaptic
fraction in brain (205, 501, 543). Rab3 GAP consists of two
subunits, a catalytic and a noncatalytic subunit (205, 501).
It is active at least on Rab3A, Rab3B, Rab3C, and Rab3D
and is inactive on other Rab proteins, including Rab2,
Rab5A, and Rab11 (205). It prefers the lipid-modified form
to the lipid-unmodified form as a substrate. The role of the
noncatalytic subunit of Rab3 GAP is unknown, but Sar1
GAP also consists of catalytic (Sec23) and noncatalytic
(Sec24) subunits (270, 808) (see sect. VI). GAPCenA is
ubiquitously expressed (135). It is mainly cytosolic, but a
minor pool is associated with the centrosome. It forms a
complex with -tubulin and may play a role in microtubule nucleation. In the yeast S. cerevisiae, five GAPs have
been isolated and characterized: Gyp1 (GAP for Sec4 and
Ypt1), Gyp6 (GAP for Ypt6), Gyp7 (GAP for Ypt7), Mdr1p/
Gyp2p (GAP for Ypt6 and Sec4), and Msb3p/Gyp3p (GAP
for Sec4, Ypt6, Ypt51, Ypt31/ Ypt32, and Ypt1) (7, 163, 691,
760). Interestingly, Gyp proteins and GAPCenA (but not
Rab3 GAP) share significant homology to yeast cell cycle
checkpoint proteins, Bub2 and Cdc16, raising a possibility
that these Rab GAPs serve to coordinate membrane trafficking with other events taking place during mitosis, such
as the control of microtubule nucleation.
GAPs terminate the function of Rab proteins, but it is
not yet clear whether GTP hydrolysis is important for Rab
proteins to accomplish their functions. The cycle of GTP
hydrolysis of Rab5 has been shown to be uncoupled to the
Rab5-regulated endosome-endosome fusion (619). Similarly, the GTP hydrolysis of Ypt1 seems dispensable for
the Ypt1-mediated fusion events in the yeast (598). In
these cases, the GTP-bound form seems to be requisite or
even stimulatory for the progression of a vesicle toward
175
176
human Rab GDI gene are responsible for X-linked nonspecific mental retardation (see sect. VG) (138).
E. SNAREs and Tethering Proteins in Vesicle
Targeting/Docking/Fusion
According to the SNARE hypothesis, there are vesicle and target membrane SNAREs (v- and t-SNAREs) and
these two types of SNAREs interact with each other,
resulting in the docking of vesicles with their target membranes (615) (Fig. 10). Recent results suggest that SNARE
pairing cannot be solely responsible for the appropriate
targeting and docking of transport vesicles. For example,
the docking of endoplasmic reticulum-derived vesicles
with Golgi membranes can occur in the absence of
SNARE components (83). Similarly, initial events leading
to the homotypic fusion of vacuoles are not dependent on
SNARE components (632, 740). Moreover, SNARE components can form promiscuous complexes in vitro (799).
These results suggest that SNAREs are not primarily involved in the specific targeting of vesicles.
Evidence is accumulating that targeting/docking
specificity is determined by the collaboration of several
factors. Tethering proteins play key roles in vesicle targeting/docking (571, 771). This group includes Uso1 (83),
TRAPP (620), p115 (505, 620), exocyst (246), and EEA1
(115), all of which bind membranes before the formation
of SNARE complexes. In S. cerevisiae, Uso1 and a large
protein complex named TRAPP are implicated in endoplasmic reticulum-to-Golgi transport (83, 620, 749); the
exocyst, a large protein complex consisting of Sec3, Sec5,
Sec6, Sec8, Sec10, Sec15, and Exo70, is involved in targeting of post-Golgi vesicles to the plasma membrane
(246). A mammalian version of the exocyst has been
identified in mammalian cells, where it may be involved in
targeting of vesicles (or docking with) the basolateral
membrane of epithelial cells (243a, 295). In mammalian
cells, a complex of p115, GM130, and giantin induces the
interaction of Golgi-derived vesicles with Golgi membranes (505, 675), and EEA1 is involved in the homotypic
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SMALL G PROTEINS
177
(787), although the function of this domain remains unknown. Rabkinesin-6 is an effector of Rab6, and a member
of the kinesin family (167). This protein displays a conventional kinesin structure with an NH2-terminal motor
domain, followed by a region predicted to form an helical coiled-coil stalk and a tail domain. Rab6 may regulate microtubule-dependent retrograde transport from
the Golgi apparatus through Rabkinesin-6 (777).
Rab11BP/Rabphilin-11, an effector of Rab11, is also involved in microtubule-based vesicle transport (432, 668,
810), although it is not a motor protein. This protein
contains a proline-rich domain within its NH2-terminal
half and WD40 repeats, important for the protein-protein
interactions, within its COOH-terminal half.
Thus several effectors have been identified within the
past 5 years. In addition, the recent determination of the
X-ray crystal structure of Rab3A complexed to the Rab3binding domain of Rabphilin-3 has enabled the identification of complementarity-determining regions, which are
potentially involved in the interactions of Rab proteins
with their effectors (555). These regions exhibit a high
degree of sequence variability among Rab proteins and
might enable them to interact with a wide variety of
effectors (482).
Although it has not been fully elucidated how each
Rab protein regulates vesicle targeting/docking/fusion
processes through their specific effectors, one probable
mechanism is to regulate or facilitate the assembly of
SNARE complexes (Fig. 10). Rab proteins are not core
components of SNARE complexes. However, genetic
studies in yeast have shown that functions of Rab and
SNARE proteins are linked: the effects of a mutation in
the effector domain of Sec4 is suppressed by overexpression of Sec9, the SNAP-25-like protein (63), and Ypt1 is
involved in the priming of t-SNARE (401). In this process,
Rab proteins may function to recruit tethering proteins
onto membranes and coordinate loose membrane tethering to induce the SNARE complex-mediated, tighter and
stable docking process.
GTP-Sec4 interacts with Sec15, a component of the
exocyst (246). Then, a chain of protein-protein interactions leads to the assembly of the exocyst and its binding
to Sec3, which marks the specific site of exocytosis at the
plasma membrane. After Rab5 is activated by Rabex-5
complexed with Rabaptin-5, Rab5 recruits EEA1, which
interacts with PIP3 to early endosome (115, 670). PIP3
might serve to stabilize EEA1 on membranes through
interaction with its FYVE domain. Uso1 is needed to allow
the assembly of SNARE complex and Uso1-regulated tethering is helped by Ypt1 (83). Although it is not clear how
Rab proteins and tethering proteins induce the assembly
of SNARE complexes, they may induce the dissociation of
the Sec1/Munc18 family members which impair the association of t-SNARE with v-SNARE (Fig. 10). Consistent
with this possibility, Vac1, a mammalian homolog of
178
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SMALL G PROTEINS
179
180
Volume 81
FIG. 11. Cyclical activation/inactivation of Arf proteins and their translocation. Arf, Arf proteins.
This weak but measurable membrane association is completely abolished if the myristate is removed (190). Arf
protein-membrane interaction permits the activation of
Arf proteins by a GEP. Membrane association is stabilized
in the GTP-bound form by a conformational change of the
NH2-terminal helix that exposes several hydrophobic
amino acid residues, including Leu-8 and Phe-9 (which are
buried inside the Arf-GDP), and permits their insertion
into the membrane (21, 47). A cytosolic GAP is recruited
to the membrane after vesicle budding to stimulate the
hydrolysis of bound GTP to GDP, resulting in the release
of the Arf protein and in turn the COPI coat.
Many GEPs for Arf proteins have been isolated and
characterized in yeast and mammals (312, 494, 613). Although they show different substrate specificities, they
have a conserved 200-amino acid region, called as the
Sec7 domain, that shows strong similarity to yeast Sec7.
Sec7 was initially identified as a protein required for
transport at different stages of the yeast secretory pathway and is localized to the Golgi apparatus (195). The
Sec7 domain itself was subsequently shown to be a minimum GEP unit capable of binding to and activating Arf
proteins (99, 229, 440, 489, 570, 631).
Members of the Arf GEP family can be grouped into
two major subfamilies on the basis of their sequence
similarities and functional differences (312, 614). The
high-molecular-weight Arf GEP subfamily includes yeast
Sec7, Gea1, and Gea2, and mammalian BIG1/p200, BIG2,
and GBF1, which all consist of 1,400 2,000 amino acid
residues. Plants also have related Arf GEPs. There is a
Sec7 domain in the middle of these polypeptides, as well
as some additional, homologous regions. It is a notable
feature of these Arf GEPs that all but one (GBF1) are
sensitive to a fungal metabolite, BFA (490, 570, 631, 723),
which inhibits their Arf GEP activity in an uncompetitive
manner (440, 570). BIG1/p200 has been shown to be also
a Golgi-localized protein in mammalian cells (440). GBF1
is colocalized with COPI to the Golgi apparatus, and,
when overexpressed in cells, confers BFA resistance, suggesting that it may be involved in the formation of COPIcoated vesicles through activation of Arf proteins (122).
The second subfamily (low-molecular-weight type) in-
cludes mammalian ARNO, cytohesin-1, GRP1, and cytohesin-4 (312, 614). No homologs exist in yeast. These
proteins consist of 400 amino acids and have in common an NH2-terminal coiled-coil region, a central Sec7
domain, and a COOH-terminal PH domain. Furthermore,
all are insensitive to BFA. EFA6, a GEP specific for Arf6
(191), can also be grouped into this subfamily because it
is BFA insensitive and has all the structural features,
despite a slightly larger size. Although earlier studies
reported that ARNO, cytohesin-1, and GRP1 showed preferential GEP activity on class I and II Arf proteins, recent
studies have revealed that these small GEPs are colocalized with Arf6 at the cell periphery and cause elevation of
GTP-Arf6 (192, 193, 382).
ARNO prefers myristoylated Arf proteins and its activity is enhanced by PIP2 (99). In contrast, GRP1 binds to
PIP3 but poorly to PIP2 through its PH domain (357). It is
therefore likely that these small GEPs use the phosphoinositide-PH domain for their recruitment to a specialized
membrane subdomain, where the GEPs activate myristoylated GDP-Arf proteins. Supporting this model are the
recent observations that translocation of these small
GEPs to the plasma membrane is stimulated by growth
factors and is blocked by inhibitors of PI 3-kinases (382,
503, 751).
The crystal structure of GDP-Arf1 has revealed a
patch of positively charged amino acids on its surface (16). Thus Arf1 may also interact with negatively
charged phospholipids on membranes via this patch.
Crystal structure analyses of 5-guanylylimidodiphosphate [Gpp(NH)p]-bound Arf1 and of nucleotide-free Arf1
complexed with the Sec7 domain of Gea2 have provided
insight into the activation mechanism of Arf1 (229). Arf1
in its inactive conformation cannot fit into the recognition
surface of the Sec7 domain. Taken together with the
biochemical data that a low-affinity interaction of myristoylated GDP-Arf1 with the phospholipid membrane is
required for subsequent nucleotide exchange by GEPs
(21, 47, 190), it is likely that phospholipids act on Arf1 to
induce the conformational change that permits the binding of Arf1 to the Sec7 domain, followed by Arf1 activation.
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SMALL G PROTEINS
181
182
endosomal vesicles and regulates receptor-mediated endocytosis (12, 161, 162, 585, 814). However, Arf6 is also
implicated in remodeling of the cytoskeleton underlying
the plasma membrane. Arf6 is localized to the plasma
membrane, especially to membrane ruffles in spreading
cells. Activation of Arf6 induces remodeling of the actin
cytoskeleton and cell spreading, and expression of a dominant negative mutant of Arf6 blocks cell spreading (160,
585, 674). Furthermore, ARNO and EFA6, two low-molecular-weight Arf GEPs, have been reported to modulate
growth factor- and protein kinase C-mediated cytoskeletal reorganization through activation of Arf6 (191, 193).
In addition, a dominant negative mutant of ARNO inhibits
both Arf6 translocation and cortical actin formation induced by growth factors (750). In this context, it is noteworthy that recent studies have suggested that there is
cross-talk between the Arf6 and Rac1 pathways in actin
remodeling. First, EFA6-induced cytoskeletal remodeling
is blocked by coexpression of a dominant negative mutant
of Arf6 or Rac1 (191). Second, a dominant negative mutant of Arf6 inhibits growth factor- and Rac1-mediated
membrane ruffling (584, 813). Third, a deletion mutant of
POR1/arfaptin-2, which interacts with both Rac and Arf
proteins, but not a dominant negative mutant of Rac1,
inhibits Arf6-mediated cytoskeletal rearrangements (160).
Taken together, these results indicate that Arf6 functions
either downstream of or in concert with Rac1. Further
evidence suggesting a connection between Arf6 and Rac1
pathways is the finding that PKL, an Arf GAP, serves as a
connector between paxillin and the Rac/Cdc42 pathway
components PAK and PIX (731). An effector of Arf6 that
is implicated in membrane ruffling is phosphatidylinositol
4-phophate 5-kinase (283). This kinase translocates to
ruffling membranes and produces PIP2 synergistically
with Arf6 and phosphatidic acid, the production of which
is catalyzed by phospholipase D. Because phospholipase
D itself is an effector of Arf proteins and PIP2 is an
activator of Arf proteins, it is tempting to speculate that
the local phospholipid metabolism that is regulated by
Arf6 may play a crucial role in membrane ruffle formation.
F. Sar1 as a Regulator of Vesicle Budding
The function of Sar1 in vesicle budding has been
extensively characterized in the yeast S. cerevisiae but in
less detail in mammals (38, 634). Sar1 does not undergo
any known lipid modification, but it is associated with the
endoplasmic reticulum and is involved in the formation of
COPII-coated transport vesicles from the endoplasmic
reticulum (39, 518, 544). The Sar1 cycle is regulated by a
GEP (Sec12) and a GAP (Sec23) (40, 44, 371, 808). Sec12
is an integral endoplasmic reticulum membrane protein
involved in activation of Sar1 (40, 142, 143). However, its
mammalian homolog has not yet been identified. Sec23
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SMALL G PROTEINS
B. Nucleocytoplamsic Transport
Macromolecules are transported back and forth between the cytoplasm and the nucleus through NPCs. The
NPCs contain more than 50 different proteins (454, 517,
536, 565). Movement of macromolecules through the
NPCs occurs by at least two distinct mechanisms: passive
diffusion and active transport (180). Small molecules diffuse quickly through the NPCs in either direction,
whereas those larger than 50 60 kDa, including proteins
and RNAs, are actively and selectively transported. The
transport of cargo proteins requires at least three types of
soluble factors: transport receptor molecules, adaptor
molecules, and Ran and its binding proteins (139, 234,
454). Transport receptors shuttle continuously between
the nucleus and the cytoplasm, interact with NPCs, bind
cargo molecules, and facilitate cargo translocation
through the NPCs. There are two types of transport receptors: nuclear import receptors, called importins, and
184
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FIG. 13. Mode of action of Ran in nucleocytoplasmic transport. A: mode of action of Ran in nuclear export. B: mode
of action of Ran in nuclear import.
January 2001
SMALL G PROTEINS
importin- that serves as an adaptor, binding NLS-containing proteins (Fig. 13B). This complex is imported into
the nucleus through the NPCs, where it encounters GTPRan. GTP-Ran binds to importin-, causing dissociation of
the complex into each component. Empty importin-,
probably still bound to GTP-Ran, is then reexported to the
cytoplasm. Recycling of importin- requires a specific
exportin, named CAS, that is analogous to CRM1 (377).
The binding of importin- to CAS requires cooperative
GTP-Ran binding, and CAS prefers importin-, which is
not associated with a cargo. Thus empty importin- is
exported again by CAS. After inactivation of GTP-Ran to
GDP-Ran in the cytoplasm, importin- dissociates, and
CAS returns to the nucleus for reutilization.
During nuclear transport, the nucleotide-bound state
of Ran acts as a simple switch to delineate the direction of
movement, and the energy of GTP hydrolysis is not
strictly required. Moreover, the binding of GTP-Ran to
importins induces conformational changes so that they
dissociate cargos. GTP-Ran is not essential for the transportation of importins through the NPCs, because the
NPC-interacting region of importins alone can be transported through the NPCs in the absence of GTP-Ran (3).
185
186
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microspikes. Activation of Cdc42 proteins leads to localized activation of Rac proteins; hence, filopodia are often
associated with lamellipodia, which are produced by Rac
proteins. In fact, it is hard to see filopodium formation
unless Rac activity is first inhibited. Quiescent Swiss 3T3
cells have no detectable stress fibers, and activation of
Rac proteins under these conditions leads to weak and
delayed activation of Rho proteins that produces stress
fibers. This typical cascade of Rho/Rac/Cdc42 proteins
observed in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts has not always been
seen in other cell lines. For instance, it has been shown
that Rho proteins are inhibited by Rac/Cdc42 proteins in
cultured cells such as neuroblastoma cells, N1E-115 cells,
and NIH 3T3 cells (277, 388). In addition, Rho proteins
may in turn inhibit the activity of Rac/Cdc42 proteins in
N1E-115 cells (624).
B. Cross-talk Between Small G Proteins
In addition to the sequential cascade of multiple
small G proteins, distinct families of small G proteins
regulate various cellular functions in a cooperative manner. Although a dominant active mutant of Rho proteins
does not cause transformation of fibroblasts, dominant
negative mutants of Rho proteins inhibit Ras proteininduced transformation (341, 583). Similarly, a dominant
negative mutant of Rac/Cdc42 proteins inhibits Ras protein-induced transformation, while a dominant active mutant of these Rac/Cdc42 proteins enhances oncogenic Ras
protein-triggered, morphologic transformation (581, 582).
Thus Rho/Rac/Cdc42 proteins are involved in a cooperative manner in Ras protein-induced transformation.
It has recently been shown that Rho/Rab proteins
coordinately regulate cell adhesion and migration of cultured MDCK cells (303). TPA induces cell scattering of
MDCK cells and induces early disassembly of stress fibers
and focal adhesions followed by their reassembly in
MDCK cells. Expression of a dominant active mutant of
RhoA inhibits the TPA-induced disassembly of stress fibers and focal adhesions, while microinjection of C3
blocks their reassembly. In addition, microinjection of C3
or a dominant active mutant of RhoA inhibits the TPA-
FIG. 15. Small G protein cascade in control of cytoskeletal reorganization in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts. Rho,
Rho proteins; Rac, Rac proteins; LPA, lysophosphatidic
acid.
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187
FIG. 16. Two types of cell regulation by G proteins. A: mode of action of EF-Tu in protein sysnthesis. G, EF-Tu; aa
tRNA, aminoacyl-tRNA. B: mode of action of heterotrimeric G protein. G, heterotrimeric G protein.
188
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SMALL G PROTEINS
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
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755.
756.
757.
758.
759.
760.
761.
762.
763.
764.
765.
766.
767.
768.
769.
770.
771.
772.
773.
774.
775.
776.
SMALL G PROTEINS
777.
778.
779.
780.
781.
782.
783.
784.
785.
786.
787.
788.
789.
790.
791.
792.
793.
794.
795.
796.
797.
207
208
813.
814.
815.
816.
817.
818.
819.
820.
821.
822.
823.
824.
825.
826.
827.
828.
Volume 81