Life Processes

Photosynthesis
Life processes
The processes performed by living organisms in order to maintain and continue life are called as life
processes. Life processes include nutrition, respiration, circulation or transport, excretion, and
reproduction.
Nutrition
It is the process by which organisms can assimilate and utilise food for their basic needs. Nutrition is of
two different types, namely, autotrophic and heterotrophic.

Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis is an autotrophic mode of nutrition by plants and some bacteria. Photosynthesis is the
physico-chemical process by which plants can convert light energy into chemical energy, in the form of
carbohydrate from simple inorganic substances like atmospheric carbon dioxide and water.
Basic raw materials for photosynthesis
Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide, sunlight, water and chlorophyll as its basic raw materials.

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Sites of photosynthesis
Leaves are considered to be the sites of photosynthesis. Hence, they are called as food factories of
the plant.
Leaves possess small pores called as stomata on both their surfaces. Stomata are the structures
which help in the exchange of gases. Opening and closing of the stomata are brought about by the
guard cells present in them.
Leaves are rich in plastids. Green coloured plastids are chloroplasts rich in chlorophyll pigment.
Chlorophyll is responsible for trapping the energy from sunlight.
Overall reaction of photosynthesis

6CO2 + 12H2O

Light Energy
Chlorophyll

C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Photosynthesis involves two types of reactions namely, light reactions and dark reactions.
a) Light reactions: Light reactions are light dependent reactions. These reactions happen only in the
presence of sunlight. The photosynthetic pigments trap the energy from the sunlight. PS-I and PS-II
collectively bring in the cyclic photophosphorylation and non-cyclic photophosphorylation reactions. As a
result of these reactions energy rich molecules like ATP and NADPH 2 are synthesised. Photolysis of
water molecules results in the release of oxygen as a by-product.
H2O 2H+ + 2e- + O2
b) Dark reactions: Dark reactions are independent of light. Energy rich molecules like ATP andNADPH2
are utilised in these reactions. Dark reactions involve Calvin cycle during which carbon dioxide is reduced
to carbohydrate.
C3 pathway is also known as Calvin cycle.C3 pathway involves set of carbon reactions which are

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catalysed by the enzyme Rubisco to synthesise 3 carbon compound, 3-phosphoglycerate from 5-carbon
compound, Ribulose bisphosphate.
Ribulose bisphosphate is the primary acceptor of CO 2.
Chloroplasts present are only of one type.
Anatomy of leaves does not resemble Kranz anatomy.
Phosphoglyceric acid is synthesised as the product.
Mesophyll cells exhibit Calvin cycle.
Photorespiration is observed.
Optimum temperature required for photosynthesis is between 20 degree celsius to 25 degree celsius.
This cycle is less efficient in utilising CO2.
LIGHT REACTIONS

DARK REACTIONS

These are light dependent reactions.

These are light independent reactions.

Splitting of water molecules releases

oxygen as a by-product.

Carbon dioxide is reduced to

carbohydrates.

Grana of chloroplasts are the sites of

these reactions.

Stroma of chloroplasts are the sites of

these reactions.

ATP and NADPH2 are the energy rich

Energy rich compounds are utilised in
compunds synthesised in these reactions. the synthesis of carbohydrates.

Events in photosynthesis
Photosynthesis can be split into three basic events.

Factors affecting photosynthesis

Rate of photosynthesis depends on many factors like light, carbon dioxide, water and chlorophyll.

Life Processes

a) Light: Visible spectrum of the sunlight ranges from 380 to 750 nanometres in wavelength.
Quality of the light also influences the rate of photosynthesis. Photosynthetic rate is higher in red and
blue light. It is very poor in green light.
Intensity of light also determines the rate of photosynthesis.
Day-length of plants is also an important factor for photosynthesis to be effective.
Essentiality of sunlight and chlorophyll are demonstrated using starch test.
Essentiality of carbon dioxide is demonstrated by bell jar experiment.
Plants obtain water from the soil by the process of absorption performed by roots.
b) Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide occupies 0.04% of the total atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide plays an important role in providing carbon for the process of photosynthesis.
Increased concentration of carbon dioxide content enhances the rate of photosynthesis.
But too much of its concentration proves to be toxic to the plants.
Carbon dioxide is reduced to carbohydrate in the dark reaction.
c) Water: Water being a universal solvent, almost all the minerals present in the soil dissolve in it.
It plays a vital role in the process of photosynthesis.
Water along with minerals is absorbed by roots and is carried to the sites of photosynthesis through
xylem tissue.
1% of absorbed water is utilized and the remaining water is released during photosynthesis.
Water serves as a source for oxygen which is released as a by-product.
d) Chlorophyll: Chlorophyll, green coloured pigment, present in the chloroplasts plays a vital role in the
process of photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll absorbs blue light effectively and then the red light, but proves to be a poor absorber of
green light.
It traps the solar energy and converts into chemical energy which is utilised in the dark reaction of
photosynthesis to form glucose.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are most prominent forms of chlorophyll found in plants.

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Digestion
Heterotrophic nutrition
Heterotrophic nutrition is the mode of nutrition exhibited by heterotrophs. Heterotrophs are the organisms
that depend on plants or other organisms for their food. Heterotrophic mode of nutrition is of different
types saprophytic as in fungi, parasitic as in leeches and symbiotic as in hermit crab.
Unicellular organisms exhibit holozoic type of nutrition. e.g. Amoeba and Paramecium. This type of
nutrition involves ingestion of liquid or solid organic material, digestion, absorption and assimilation to
utilise it. e.g.Food in the food vacuoles of the amoeba and paramecium is digested by lytic enzymes.
Multicellular organisms exhibit a complex process in obtaining their nourishment.
Digestion: The process of breaking down complex food substances into simple molecules is called as
digestion.
Digestive system in human beings consists of alimentary canal and digestive glands.
Alimentary canal is made up of mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, intestine,
rectum and anus.
The digestive glands are the salivary glands, the gastric glands, the liver, the pancreas and the
intestinal glands.
Digestion in buccal cavity is brought about by three pairs of salivary glands opening into the oral cavity.
Salivary glands include submaxillary, sublingual and parotid glands.
Amylase, a digestive enzyme in saliva, breaks down the starch in food into simpler sugar.
Saliva also prevents tooth decay due to the presence of amylase, lysozyme and minerals.
Peristalsis includes a series of muscular contractions in the oesophagus that push the food forward to the
stomach.
The stomach is divided into three compartments namely cardiac, fundus and pylorus. The junction of
oesophagus and stomach is guarded by valve which does not allow the food to travel in backward
direction.
In the stomach, food is mixed with the gastric juices secreted by the gastric glands.
Gastric juice is a combination of hydrochloric acid, enzymes like pepsin, lipase and
mucous. Gastric glands secrete HCL, pepsinogen, mucous.Gastric juice is a secretion of gastric glands
located in the lining of the stomach. It is mainly made up of electrolytes, mucus, enzymes, hydrochloric
acid, intrinsic factor etc. HCl secreted by parietal cells provides acidic medium for many enzymes to get
activated. Neck cells secrete mucus which lubricated the passage of the food. Chief cells secrete
pepsinogen which helps in the digestion of proteins after getting activated into pepsin by HCl. Enzymes of
the gastric juice bring about digestion of different components of the food. Gastric lipase helps in
emulsification of lipids in the stomach. Partially digested food in the stomach is called as chyme and this
passes on into small intestine

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Partially digested food in the stomach becomes acidic and is known as chyme.
Liver is the largest gland in our body. The liver secretes a yellowish green watery fluid called bile. It is
temporarily stored in a sac called the gall bladder. Bile plays an important role in the digestion of
fats. Bile is sent into duodenum through a narrow tube-like structure called the bile duct. Bile breaks the
larger fat molecules into tiny droplets, thereby increasing their surface area, which helps in the digestion
of fats easily. Bile is a dark green alkaline fluid secreted by liver. It comprises of water, bile salts, bile
pigments, fats and inorganic salts. Bile comprises of yellow pigment bilirubin which oxidizes to form green
pigment biliverdin only when it enters the intestine.
Bile makes the food alkaline for the action of pancreatic and intestinal enzymes in the small
intestine.
Bile brings about emulsification of fats which are later digested by intestinal lipases.
Pancreas is the mixed gland. It acts as a both endocrine and exocrine gland. The pancreas secretes the
pancreatic juice that helps to digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats. The pancreatic juice converts
carbohydrates into simple sugars and glucose, proteins into amino acids, and the lipids into fatty acids
and glycerol.
The exocrine part of pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which includes trypsin and lipase that help break
down proteins and fats. Trypsin and chymotrypsin help in the digestion of proteins.
Liver and pancreas open into intestine through hepato-pancreatic duct to throw their secretions for further
digestion of food.
Small intestine is made up of three regions namely duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Acidic chyme from the
stomach is received by the duodenum for further digestion.
Duodenum receives bile form the liver. Bile provides an alkaline environment for many enzymes to
get active. It also reduces the acidity of chyme. Bile plays an important role in the digestion of fats.
Duodenum also receives pancreatic secretions which help in the digestion of food. Pancreas secretes
the pancreatic juice that helps to digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Duodenum also secretes some enzymes on its own. Cells lining the inner lining of intestine secrete
enzyme rich intestinal juice. Intestinal juice comprises of many enzymes like enterokinase, invertase,
maltase and lipase. The intestinal enzymes act upon partially digested proteins, carbohydrates and
fats.
All these substances bring about digestion of food in the duodenum. The inner walls of small intestine
are thrown into many folds which have millions of small finger like projections called villi.
Intestinal glands are present in the inner lining of small intestine. These secrete various enzymes
which aid in the process of digestion of all the components of food. Maltase, sucrase and lactase
bring about digestion of carbohydrates. Peptidases help in digestion of proteins. Enterokinase helps
in the activation of other enzymes.
Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are simplified into amino acids, glucose, fatty acids and glycerol in a
liquid medium known as chyle.

Specific structures called as villi in the small intestine increase its surface area to ensure efficient
and rapid absorption of nutrients. Villi increase the surface area for digestion as well as absorption of
digested food by eight times. Blood capillaries in the villi absorb nutrients and transport the food to all
the cells in the body.

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The large intestine comprises caecum, appendix, colon, rectum and anus. The large intestine absorbs
water from undigested food and forms solid waste.
The rectum stores the solid excreta until it is ready to be excreted from the digestive system
through anus.
The appendix is a small, hollow, finger-like pouch, which hangs at the end of the cecum. It does
not have any function in the digestive system of humans. However, it is functional in herbivores such as
cows.

Respiration
Respiration
It is the process by which chemical energy stored in the food is released in the form of ATP along with
carbon dioxide and water.
Respiration begins with breathing, a combined process of inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide.
Types of respiration
Respiration can be of two types Aerobic and Anaerobic. Both of these respirations take place inside
the cell.
Aerobic respiration involves breakdown of glucose into carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
oxygen. In aerobic organisms, the pyruvate molecule is further broken down in the mitochondria of a
cell. The pyruvate molecule that contains three carbon atoms is broken down into three molecules of
carbon dioxide and three molecules of water by the action of mitochondrial enzymes.
Anaerobic respiration involves the breakdown of food into alcohol and carbon dioxide in the absence
of oxygen. The breakdown of glucose to release energy from the cells in anaerobic conditions is
fermentation. Under anaerobic conditions prevailing in our muscle cells, the insufficiency of oxygen
converts the pyruvate molecules into lactic acid and energy. Accumulation of lactic acid in our
muscle cells causes cramps.
Process of respiration

During respiration, a glucose molecule that contains six carbon atoms is broken down into pyruvate.
Pyruvate is a molecule that contains three carbon atoms.
1) In aerobic organisms, the pyruvate molecule is further broken down in the mitochondria of a cell. The
pyruvate molecule that contains three carbon atoms is broken down into three molecules of carbon
dioxide and three molecules of water by the action of mitochondrial enzymes.
Glycolysis is the process which involves breakdown of glucose molecule to release two molecules of
pyruvate. It is multi-step procedure occurring in the cytoplasm of the cells. The process is same for
plant cells and animal cells. This process results in the formation of pyruvate molecules along with
some ATP molecules. Pyruvate molecules act as substrate molecules for the Krebs cycle which
occurs in the mitochondria of both animal and plant cells. Krebs cycle also finally releases ATP
molecules, energy coins of the cell.Glycolysis is made up of preparatory phase and pay-off phase.
The net gain of glycolysis is 2 ATP and 2 NADH2. Pyruvate can be utilised in Kreb's cycle, lactic acid
or alcohol fermentation, based on the availability of oxygen.

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Krebs' cycle involves a set of enzymatic reactions taking part in mitochondria in the presence of
oxygen to yield energy rich molecules. It is also called as Tricarboxylic acid cycle. The net gain of
aerobic respiration at the end of Krebs' cycle is 2 ATP molecules, 8 molecules of NADH+H+ and 2
molecules of FADH2. As we know, ATP is the energy rich coin of the cell utilised for different
purposes.
Electron Transport Chain is a step wise process which generates energy in the form of ATP molecule
from NADH and FADH2 produced during glycolysis, Krebs cycle and other catabolic processes.
Electron Transport Chain is an important step of cellular respiration. The mechanism by which
Electron Transport Chain generates ATP is called as chemiosmotic phosphorylation. Electron
Transport Chain is made up of different complexes and enzymes which participate in ATP
synthesis. ETS comprises of several energy carriers which include NADH dehydrogenase complex
(Complex I), Ubiquinone (Complex Q), Succinate dehydrogenase complex (complex II), Cytochrome
bc1 complex (Complex III), Cytochrome c, Cytochrome c oxidase (Complex IV)

2) Under anaerobic conditions prevailing in our muscle cells, the insufficiency of oxygen converts the
pyruvate molecules into lactic acid and energy. Accumulation of lactic acid in our muscle cells causes
cramps. Fermentation is an anaerobic process which takes place in the absence of oxygen. It converts
sugar substrates into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Fermentation process also releases certain amount of
energy
Both aerobic and anaerobic respiration release energy in the form of ATP. The energy released in the
aerobic process is 19 times greater than the energy released in anaerobic process. The energy in the
form of ATP is used for many activities such as the contraction of muscles, protein synthesis and
conduction of nervous impulses etc.
Respiration in plants
Respiration in plants is just opposite to that of photosynthesis. Exchange of gases takes place in plants
through special structures called as stomata. Stomata are small pores present on the surface of leaves
and green parts of plant. Opening and closing of stomata are controlled by guard cells.
Dark respiration taking place in plants is independent of the presence of light. Plant cells after
synthesizing sugar molecules through photosynthesis, undergo cellular respiration to break down
food molecules to obtain energy in the form of ATP molecules. Dark respiration is a form of
respiration where carbon dioxide is released without the aid of sunlight.
Light phase or photorespiration is an inevitable process which occurs in C3 plants. There is a
decreased output of photosynthesis. ATP is not synthesized in photorespiration and carbon is
released in the form of carbon dioxide. Nitrogen is also released in the form of ammonia.
Respiration in aquatic forms
The rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than in terrestrial organisms. Respiration in
aquatic animals is performed by diffusion through body surface and special respiratory organs called as
gills.
Fish are the aquatic vertebrates which respire through structures called as gills. This is called as branchial
respiration.
Gills are present on either side of the head and are supplied by rich blood vessels. Fish obtain
oxygen dissolved in water.

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During respiration, water enters the body through mouth, passes through gills and comes out of the
operculum.
Exchange of gases takes place in the gills of fish supplied by numerous blood vessels. They accept
oxygen into the body and expel out carbon dioxide.
Respiration in terrestrial forms
Terrestrial animals have special organs for taking in oxygen from the atmosphere. For instance,
cockroaches respire through the trachea, and scorpions through the book lungs. Breathing is the physical
act of inhaling and exhaling. Breathing involves taking in oxygen from the environment and removal of
carbon dioxide from the body. The diaphragm is a thin thin sheet of muscle separating the thorax and the
abdomen, and helps in respiration.
Path taken by air
Air enters a human body through the nostrils. It passes through nasal cavity and then enters trachea.
From the trachea, air enters the bronchi and then goes into the lungs. The bronchi form a network of
bronchioles. Each bronchiole has alveoli at the end in the lungs. The thin membranes of alveoli allow the
exchange of gases. Alveoli are richly supplied with blood vessels.
Haemoglobin present in RBCs is a metallo-globulin which is made up of 2 alpha chains and 2 beta
chains. The respiratory pigment, haemoglobin present in blood absorbs oxygen from the lungs and
carries it to tissues all over the body. In return it carries carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

Transportation in Animals
Circulatory system
The system which pumps the fluid tissue to transport it throughout the body is called the circulatory
system. Human circulatory system comprises of heart, blood and a network of blood vessels. The system
transports oxygenated blood from lungs and the heart throughout the body via arteries. The oxygenated
blood is supplied to all the organs by arteries branching out as capillaries. The deoxygenated blood is
returned to veins through capillaries. These veins carry deoxygenated blood to the heart and the lungs.
Human heart
The heart is the central organ for pumping the blood throughout the body. Heart is made up of strong
cardiac muscles. It is located in the chest cavity with its lower part pointing towards the left. Its size is that
of the persons fist. It pumps blood rich in carbon dioxide to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to other parts
of the body.

The heart consists of four chambers namely auricles and ventricles. The two upper chambers of the
heart are known as the auricles.

The two lower chambers of the heart are the ventricles. Left and right parts of the heart are separated
by a muscular partition called as septum.

Heart has number of valves which allow the blood to flow in one direction. These prevent the
oxygenated blood mixing with de-oxygenated blood.

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SA node, the natural and primary pace maker of the heart is located in the upper wall of the right
atrium in the heart.

AV node, the secondary pace maker is located in the bundles of tissues on the border between right
atrium and right ventricle of the heart.

Blood vessels
Blood vessels are tube like structures which form an intricate network to transport blood to various parts
of the body. They are classified as arteries, veins and capillaries.
a) Arteries are the blood vessels which carry pure oxygenated blood from the heart to different tissues in
the body. Arteries are with thick walls as the heart pumps blood with greater pressure into the arteries.
Inturn arteries also offer some pressure on the blood. This is called as peripheral resistance. Pulmonary
artery carries impure blood to the lungs from heart
b) Veins arise from the bodily tissues. Thus deoxygenated blood is carried by veins and is returned to
heart. All the veins carry impure blood to the heart except for pulmonary veins which carry pure blood
from lungs to the heart. Veins have wider inner diameters and valves to prevent the back flow of blood.
Blood is just allowed to go towards the heart and not in any other way. The walls of veins are thinner
when compared to the walls of the artery. Pulmonary veins carry pure blood from lungs to the
heart. Pulmonary veins need not have thicker walls as such as blood is not pumped by the heart in to
these veins. They carry pure blood from lungs. They have valves in them so as to prevent backward flow
of the blood. There are totally four pulmonary veins and all of them are connected to left atrium of our
heart.
c) Blood capillaries are the structures which branch out form arteries on entering the tissues. Blood
capillaries supply pure blood to inner parts of the tissue. These capillaries in turn collectively form a single
vein from the tissue. The heart pumps deoxygenated blood into the lungs through pulmonary arteries.
Pulmonary artery carries impure blood to the lungs from heart . Blood gets purified in the
lungs. Pulmonary veins carry pure oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart.
Functions of the heart
All parts of our body require oxygen to carry out life processes. We take in oxygen by the process of
respiration. But this oxygen should be carried over to all parts of the body.The oxygen in the lungs
binds to hemoglobin present in the blood. This oxygenated blood is taken to heart. This oxygen
carrying blood should be transported to all the parts of our body. To pump this blood with pressure we
need a central pumping organ called as heart. This is the reason why our heart pumps continuously.
It is a central pumping organ of the circulatory system which pumps oxygenated (pure) blood into the
blood vessels to be carried over to different parts of the body.
It receives deoxygenated (impure) blood from different parts of the body and sends it to the lungs for
purification.
Blood
Blood and lymph are the important modes of transport in the circulatory system. Blood is a fluid tissue
made from plasma and formed elements.
Plasma is a pale yellowish fluid that contains albumin (the chief protein constituent), fibrinogen
(responsible, in part, for the clotting of blood) and globulins (including antibodies). Plasma is obtained
by separating the liquid portion of blood from the cells. Plasma serves a variety of functions like

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maintaining a satisfactory blood pressure and volume, serving as the medium for exchange of vital
minerals, maintaining a proper pH in the body. It also helps in transporting gases, nutrients and
nitrogenous waste.
Red blood cells in the blood are flattened disc like structures responsible of transporting oxygen and
carbon dioxide gases. Red blood cells consist of red iron-containing pigment called as haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment that carries oxygen through red blood cells. Oxygenated blood
is carried to tissues.
White blood cells are otherwise known as leukocytes. WBCs help the body in fighting against the
diseases. Different types of WBCs are Granulocytes, Monocytes and Lymphocytes. Granulocytes are
further divided into Neutrophils, Eosinophils and Basophils. Monocytes can transform themselves into
two types of cells namely, Dendritic cells and Macrophages. Lymphocytes can be of two types
namely B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
Platelets are the non nucleated, irregular cells which bring about clotting of the blood.These are also
called as thrombocytes as they release thromboplastin which plays an important role in clotting of
blood. Platelets immediately come to the place of injury and lyse themselves to release
thromboplastin. The remnants aggregate in large amounts to form a plug on the injury preventing the
blood loss.

Functions of blood
Blood plays a vital role in transporting many substances to all parts of the body.
As the blood contains RBCs, it transports oxygen from lungs to cells and in turn carries carbon
dioxide in the opposite direction.
Urea , the main excretory product formed in the liver is carried away by the blood to kidneys.
Blood transports soluble digested food materials which are absorbed in the small intestine.
Blood provides a medium of transport for the hormones secreted by different endocrine glands to
reach their target organs.
Blood also transports water required by the cells to perform various biochemical reactions.
Lymph
Lymph is a clear fluid sometimes white in colour comprises of white blood cells mainly
lymphocytes. Lymph is a colourless fluid that contains less protein than plasma, and lacks RBC. These
cells also attack bacteria entering the cells. Lymph also contains the fluid from the intestine containing
proteins and fats. Lymph helps in carrying absorbed fat molecules from the intestine to different parts of
the body.The composition of lymph varies with that of blood plasma. When the lymph is produced from
the intestine, it is thick milky white solution rich in triglycerides.
Types of circulation
The two types of circulation are single circulation and double circulation.
Single circulation is the type of circulation in which blood passes through the heart only once through
the heart. For example, it is seen in fishes. Fish is a lower vertebrate with a two chambered heart.
Fish has a two chambered heart comprising of one atrium and one ventricle. Gills help in purifying the
deoxygenated blood. This two chambered heart exhibits single mode of circulation. Impure blood is
pumped to gills for oxygenation. This oxygenated blood from gills is supplied directly to the body
tissues without sending to the heart.
Incomplete double circulation is observed in amphibians and reptiles which have three-chambered
hearts with two atria and one ventricle.
Double circulation is the type of circulation during which blood passes twice through the heart. Higher
vertebrates like birds and mammals exhibit double circulation.
Blood pressure

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Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of the arteries.
The pressure can be systolic pressure during contraction and diastolic pressure at relaxed state.
The pressure exerted by blood against the wall of an artery during ventricular contraction or systole is
called systolic pressure, and that exerted during ventricular expansion or diastole is called diastolic
pressure.
Normal blood pressure is 120/80mmHg. If the blood pressure is less than 100/50 then it is termed to
be low blood pressure or hypotension. If it exceeds 140/90, it is termed to be high blood pressure or
hypertension.
An instrument called the sphygmomanometer is used to measure blood pressure. The normal systolic
pressure is about 120 mm of Hg, and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.
Transport of gases
We take in oxygen during inhalation and it reaches lungs through respiratory tract. Hemoglobin, an
intracellular protein is the primary vehicle for transporting 97% of oxygen in the blood. 3% of Oxygen is
carried by plasma. Hemoglobin is contained in erythrocytes.
The amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin at any time is related to the partial pressure of
oxygen to which the hemoglobin is exposed. In the lungs, at the alveolar-capillary interface, the
partial pressure of oxygen is high, and therefore the oxygen binds readily to hemoglobin. As the blood
circulates to other body tissue in which the partial pressure of oxygen is less, the hemoglobin
releases the oxygen into the tissue because the hemoglobin cannot maintain its full bound capacity of
oxygen in the presence of lower oxygen partial pressures.
Red blood cells in the blood are flattened disc like structures responsible of transporting oxygen and
carbon dioxide gases. Red blood cells consist of red iron-containing pigment called as haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment that carries oxygen through red blood cells. Oxygenated blood
is carried to tissues.
The exchange of gases at tissue level is called as peripheral gas exchange. The capillaries of
circulatory system deliver the oxygen rich blood to the tissues of the body. This oxygen diffuses
across the walls of the capillaries into tissues. In turn carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood from
tissues. The carbon dioxide diffused into the blood binds to haemoglobin present in the blood to form
carboxyhaemoglobin. This de-oxygenated blood is carried to lungs for purification. In the lungs,
carbon dioxide from carboxyhaemoglobin dissociates leaving behind haemoglobin. The cycle
continues to cary oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs by
haemoglobin.

Transportation in Plants
Plants obtain minerals from soil, water and fertilisers. Need for transportation in plants is to distribute
water and nutrients to various parts. Transportation in a plant is a method of circulation of water and
minerals from soil throughout the body of a plant.
Vascular tissues in transport

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Vascular tissues like the xylem and phloem help in the conduction of water, minerals and nutrients
throughout a plants body.
a) Xylem is the vascular tissue extending from top to bottom of the plant.
Xylem tissue is present in the roots, stems and leaves.
It helps in the transport of water molecules and dissolved substances from the root hairs to aerial
parts of the plant.
Xylem mainly comprises of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem sclerenchyma.
The transport in xylem is unidirectional.
Xylem mostly occupies the centre of the vascular bundle.
The xylem transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.
Tracheids and vessels are interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels
that reach all parts of a plant.
Cells in the roots take up ions to create a high ion concentration. This causes water to move into the
roots.
b) Phloem is the vascular tissue which transports food molecules to the place of necessity in the plant.
The elements in the phloem are sieve elements, fibres, phloem parenchyma and companion cells.
The transport in the phloem tissue is bidirectional.
It forms vascular bundles in association with xylem.
Phloem occupies the edges of the vascular bundle.
Transpiration
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the leaves in the form of water vapour. Transpiration occurs
in leaves through special structures present on them called as stomata.Transpiration is the process which
helps the plant in many ways.
Transpiration always occurs against the gravity.
Transpiration involves mainly the xylem cells which become active during absorption process by the
roots.
Excess water is removed from the cells of the plant to prevent plant decay.
Osmotic balance of the cell is maintained by the process of transpiration.
Transpiration is the process which helps all the parts of the plant to cool them.
Transpiration helps in the distribution of dissolved substances to all parts of the plant.
Translocation
Translocation is the process of the movement of synthesised products from the leaves to the roots and
other parts of a plants body through the phloem.
The phloem is a conducting tissue for nutrients from the leaves to the other parts of a plants body.
Translocation does not always occur against gravity.
Translocation involves both xylem and phloem cells to carry the synthesized food materials within the
plant.
As sugar is synthesised in the leaves by the process of photosynthesis, a high concentration of
organic substance inside the phloem cells of the leaf creates a diffusion gradient by which more water
is sucked into the cells.
Translocation takes place in the sieve tubes, with the help of adjacent companion cells.
Types of transport
a) Passive transport can be explained by diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of molecules in a random

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manner that is from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion involves
no expenditure of energy as it does not involve any semi-permeable mebrane.Diffusion is a process
which can occur in all media which involve solid, liquid and gaseous molecules. Diffusion is a passive
process which occurs in the transportation of substances in plants.
b) Active transport involves the movement of ions against concentration gradient through membranes. It
is carried out with expenditure of energy. Active transport requires carriers for transport across the cell
membrane. Active transport is involved in translocation os minerals in the plant body and accumulation in
the plant cells. e.g Glucose molecules in the leaves are transferred to the phloem tissue using energy
from ATP.
c) Osmosis is the process of diffusion of solvent particles from the region of less solute concentration to a
region of high solute concentration through semi-permeable membrane. Osmosis can be observed in
human beings in the phenomenon of membrane transport. Cells possess cell membranes. These cell
membranes are selectively permeable and many molecules move in and out of the cell by the process of
osmosis.
Types of solutions
Osmosis can occur in hypertonic solutions, hypotonic solutions and isotonic solutions. Sometimes cell
can even undergo the phenomenon called as plasmolysis.
Hypotonic solutions are the ones which have a lower concentration of solute than the cell. Water
diffuses into the cell to balance the solute concentration on either side (outside and inside) equal.
Here the cell swells up due to entry of water.
Hypertonic solutions are the ones which have higher solute concentration than the cell. Water moves
out of the cell through cell membrane to balance the concentration of the solute on either side. It
results in cell shrinking .This may also lead to desiccation of the cell.
Isotonic solutions have the same concentration of the solute as the cell. Water moves in and out of
the cell with no net change.