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org/

Series: Investigations in Geophysics,

Volume I
Michael R. Cooper, Series Editor

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SEISMIC DATA ANALYSIS

Processing, Inversion, and Interpretation of Seismic Data

YILMAZ
OZ

Volume I

Stephen M. Doherty, Editor

Society of Exploration Geophysicists

Post Oce Box 702740, Tulsa, OK 74170-2740

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To Mother In Memoriam

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
PREFACE
Volume I
INTRODUCTION
Processing of Seismic Data, 4
Inversion of Seismic Data, 10
Interpretation of Seismic Data, 18
From Seismic Exploration to Seismic Monitoring, 22
Chapter 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF SIGNAL PROCESSING
1.0 Introduction, 25
1.1 The 1-D Fourier Transform, 26
Analog versus Digital Signal, 28
Frequency Aliasing, 30
Phase Considerations, 34
Time-Domain Operations, 36
Convolution, 38
Crosscorrelation and Autocorrelation, 39
Vibroseis Correlation, 41
Frequency Filtering, 41
Practical Aspects of Frequency Filtering, 44
Bandwidth and Vertical Resolution, 46
Time-Variant Filtering, 48
1.2 The 2-D Fourier Transform, 48
Spatial Aliasing, 51
1.3 Worldwide Assortment of Shot Records, 67
Wave Types, 70
1.4 Gain Applications, 81
Geometric Spreading Correction, 81
Programmed Gain Control, 85
RMS Amplitude AGC, 85
Instantaneous AGC, 87
Relative Trace Balancing, 89
1.5 Basic Data Processing Sequence, 90
Preprocessing, 91
Deconvolution, 92
CMP Sorting, 93
Velocity Analysis, 93
Normal-Moveout Correction, 94
Multiple Attenuation, 94

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Seismic Data Analysis

Dip-Moveout Correction, 94
CMP Stacking, 95
Poststack Processing, 95
Migration, 95
Residual Statics Corrections, 122
Quality Control in Processing, 122
Parsimony in Processing, 124
Exercises, 150
Appendix A: A Mathematical Review of the Fourier Transform, 153
A.1 The 1-D Fourier Transform, 153
A.2 The z-Transform, 155
A.3 The 2-D Fourier Transform, 156
References, 156
Chapter 2
DECONVOLUTION
2.0 Introduction, 159
2.1 The Convolutional Model, 162
The Convolutional Model in the Time Domain, 167
The Convolutional Model in the Frequency Domain, 170
2.2 Inverse Filtering, 171
The Inverse of the Source Wavelet, 172
Least-Squares Inverse Filtering, 173
Minimum Phase, 175
2.3 Optimum Wiener Filters, 179
Spiking Deconvolution, 180
Prewhitening, 181
Wavelet Processing by Shaping Filters, 183
Predictive Deconvolution, 185
2.4 Predictive Deconvolution in Practice, 190
Operator Length, 190
Prediction Lag, 193
Percent Prewhitening, 203
Eect of Random Noise on Deconvolution, 207
Multiple Attenuation, 209
2.5 Field Data Examples, 211
Prestack Deconvolution, 213
Signature Deconvolution, 217
Vibroseis Deconvolution, 219
Poststack Deconvolution, 222
2.6 The Problem of Nonstationarity, 222
Time-Variant Deconvolution, 227
Time-Variant Spectral Whitening, 231
Frequency-Domain Deconvolution, 233
Inverse Q Filtering, 234
Deconvolution Strategies, 241
Exercises, 247
Appendix B: Mathematical Foundation of Deconvolution, 249
B.1 Synthetic Seismogram, 249
B.2 The Inverse of the Source Wavelet, 251
B.3 The Inverse Filter, 252
B.4 Frequency-Domain Deconvolution, 253

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Contents
B.5 Optimum Wiener Filters, 255
B.6 Spiking Deconvolution, 258
B.7 Predictive Deconvolution, 260
B.8 Surface-Consistent Deconvolution, 262
B.9 Inverse Q Filtering, 266
References, 270
Chapter 3
VELOCITY ANALYSIS AND STATICS CORRECTIONS
3.0 Introduction, 271
3.1 Normal Moveout, 274
NMO for a Flat Reector, 274
NMO in a Horizontally Stratied Earth, 280
Fourth-Order Moveout, 280
NMO Stretching, 283
NMO for a Dipping Reector, 285
NMO for Several Layers with Arbitrary Dips, 287
Moveout Velocity versus Stacking Velocity, 288
3.2 Velocity Analysis, 288
The Velocity Spectrum, 292
Measure of Coherency, 295
Factors Aecting Velocity Estimates, 302
Interactive Velocity Analysis, 311
Horizon Velocity Analysis, 312
Coherency Attribute Stacks, 318
3.3 Residual Statics Corrections, 324
Residual Statics Estimation by Traveltime Decomposition, 336
Residual Statics Estimation by Stack-Power Maximization, 344
Traveltime Decomposition in Practice, 345
Maximum Allowable Shift, 346
Correlation Window, 361
Other Considerations, 362
Stack-Power Maximization in Practice, 365
3.4 Refraction Statics Corrections, 370
First Breaks, 374
Field Statics Corrections, 375
Flat Refractor, 375
Dipping Refractor, 377
The Plus-Minus Method, 377
The Generalized Reciprocal Method, 379
The Least-Squares Method, 379
Processing Sequence for Statics Corrections, 381
Model Experiments, 382
Field Data Examples, 395
Exercises, 432
Appendix C: Topics in Moveout and Statics Corrections, 437
C.1 The Shifted Hyperbola, 437
C.2 Moveout Stretch, 439
C.3 Equations for a Dipping Reector, 441
C.4 Traveltime Decomposition for Residual Statics Estimation, 442
C.5 Depth Estimation from Refracted Arrivals, 444
C.6 Equations for a Dipping Refractor, 445

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Seismic Data Analysis

C.7 The Plus-Minus Times, 447

C.8 Generalized Linear Inversion of Refracted Arrivals, 448
C.9 Refraction Traveltime Tomography, 453
C.10 L1 -Norm Refraction Statics, 456
References, 460
Chapter 4
MIGRATION
4.0 Introduction, 463
Exploding Reectors, 467
Migration Strategies, 470
Migration Algorithms, 471
Migration Parameters, 474
Aspects of Input data, 475
Migration Velocities, 475
4.1 Migration Principles, 476
Kirchho Migration, 481
Diraction Summation, 484
Amplitude and Phase Factors, 485
Kirchho Summation, 485
Finite-Dierence Migration, 486
Downward Continuation, 486
Dierencing Schemes, 488
Rational Approximations for Implicit Schemes, 489
Reverse Time Migration, 491
Frequency-Space Implicit Schemes, 492
Frequency-Space Explicit Schemes, 493
Frequency-Wavenumber Migration, 494
Phase-Shift Migration, 498
Stolt Migration, 500
Summary of Domains of Migration Algorithms, 501
4.2 Kirchho Migration in Practice, 502
Aperture Width, 502
Maximum Dip to Migrate, 509
Velocity Errors, 509
4.3 Finite-Dierence Migration in Practice, 520
Depth Step Size, 521
Velocity Errors, 525
Cascaded Migration, 525
Reverse Time Migration, 530
4.4 Frequency-Space Migration in Practice, 530
Steep-Dip Implicit Methods, 535
Depth Step Size, 537
Velocity Errors, 544
Steep-Dip Explicit Methods, 549
Dip Limits of Extrapolation Filters, 549
Velocity Errors, 552
4.5 Frequency-Wavenumber Migration in Practice, 559
Maximum Dip to Migrate, 559
Depth Step Size, 566
Velocity Errors, 567
Stolt Stretch Factor, 572

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Contents
Wraparound, 575
Residual Migration, 575
4.6 Further Aspects of Migration in Practice, 579
Migration and Spatial Aliasing, 581
Migration and Random Noise, 619
Migration and Line Length, 621
Migration from Topography, 626
Exercises, 626
Appendix D: Mathematical Foundation of Migration, 628
D.1 Waveeld Extrapolation and Migration, 628
D.2 Stationary Phase Approximations, 638
D.3 The Parabolic Approximation, 639
D.4 Frequency-Space Implicit Schemes, 641
D.5 Stable Explicit Extrapolation, 644
D.6 Optimum Depth Step, 646
D.7 Frequency-Wavenumber Migration, 649
D.8 Residual Migration, 651
References, 652
Chapter 5
DIP-MOVEOUT CORRECTION AND PRESTACK MIGRATION
5.0 Introduction, 655
Salt-Flank Reections, 657
Fault-Plane Reections, 657
DMO and Stacking Velocities, 657
Turning-Wave Reections, 665
5.1 Principles of Dip-Moveout Correction, 668
Prestack Partial Migration, 670
Frequency-Wavenumber DMO Correction, 672
Log-Stretch DMO Correction, 677
Integral DMO Correction, 679
Velocity Errors, 681
Variable Velocity, 684
Turning-Wave Migration, 685
5.2 Dip-Moveout Correction in Practice, 692
Salt Flanks, 692
Fault Planes, 693
DMO and Multiples, 705
DMO and Coherent Linear Noise, 716
Other Considerations, 716
Aspects of DMO Correction A Summary, 722
5.3 Prestack Time Migration, 725
DMO Correction and Common-Oset Migration, 728
Salt Flanks, 729
Fault Planes, 742
Common-Reection-Point versus Common-Reection-Surface Stacking, 769
5.4 Migration Velocity Analysis, 775
Prestack Stolt Migration, 776
Common-Oset Migration of DMO-Corrected Data, 777
Prestack Kirchho Migration, 788
Velocity Analysis Using Common-Reection-Point Gathers, 788
Focusing Analysis, 798
Fowlers Velocity-Independent Prestack Migration, 803

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Exercises, 815
Appendix E: Topics in Dip-Moveout Correction and Prestack Time Migration, 817
E.1 Reection Point Dispersal, 817
E.2 Equations for DMO Correction, 820
E.3 Log-Stretch DMO Correction, 823
E.4 The DMO Ellipse, 826
E.5 Nonzero-Oset Traveltime Equation, 827
E.6 Prestack Frequency-Wavenumber Migration, 831
E.7 Velocity Analysis by Waveeld Extrapolation, 833
References, 834
Chapter 6
NOISE AND MULTIPLE ATTENUATION
6.0 Introduction, 837
Coherent Linear Noise, 838
Treatment of Coherent Linear Noise by Conventional Processing, 840
Reverberations and Multiples, 843
Treatment of Reverberations and Multiples by Conventional Processing, 857
Spatially Random Noise, 876
6.1 Multiple Attenuation in the CMP Domain, 877
Periodicity of Multiples, 877
Velocity Discrimination Between Primaries and Multiples, 887
Karhunen-Loeve Transform, 887
Modeling of Multiples, 896
6.2 Frequency-Wavenumber Filtering, 898
Random Noise and Frequency-Wavenumber Filtering, 904
Statics Corrections and Frequency-Wavenumber Filtering, 905
Dip Filtering of Coherent Linear Noise, 905
Frequency-Wavenumber Multiple Attenuation, 907
6.3 The Slant-Stack Transform, 920
Physical Aspects of Slant Stacking, 920
Slant-Stack Transformation, 923
Practical Aspects of Slant Stacking, 924
Slant-Stack Parameters, 928
Time-Variant Dip Filtering, 931
Slant-Stack Multiple Attenuation, 932
6.4 The Radon Transform, 938
Velocity-Stack Transformation, 942
The Discrete Radon Transform, 943
The Parabolic Radon Transform, 944
Practical Considerations, 945
Impulse Response of the Velocity-Stack Operator, 948
Field Data Examples, 948
Radon-Transform Multiple Attenuation, 953
6.5 Linear Uncorrelated Noise Attenuation, 960
Design of Spatial Prediction Filters, 966
Field Data Examples, 966
Exercises, 976
Appendix F: Multichannel Filtering Techniques for Noise and Multiple Attenuation, 977
F.1 Analysis of Guided Waves, 977
F.2 Waveeld Extrapolation in the p Domain, 980
F.3 Mathematical Foundation of the Discrete Radon Transform, 982

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Contents
F.4 Free-Surface Multiple Attenuation, 989
F.5 Water-Bottom Multiple Attenuation, 992
F.6 Spatial Prediction Filter, 995
References, 998
INDEX, xxv

Volume II
Chapter 7
3-D SEISMIC EXPLORATION
7.0 Introduction, 1001
The Need for Imaging in Three Dimensions, 1003
7.1 3-D Survey Design and Acquisition, 1010
Migration Aperture, 1010
Spatial Sampling, 1017
Other Considerations, 1018
Marine Acquisition Geometry, 1018
Cable Feathering, 1019
3-D Binning, 1019
Crossline Smearing, 1020
Strike versus Dip Shooting, 1027
Land Acquisition Geometry, 1028
7.2 Processing of 3-D Seismic Data, 1030
3-D Refraction Statics Corrections, 1036
Azimuth Dependence of Moveout Velocities, 1036
3-D Dip-Moveout Correction, 1046
Inversion to Zero Oset, 1048
Aspects of 3-D DMO Correction A Summary, 1050
Velocity Analysis, 1050
3-D Residual Statics Corrections, 1050
3-D Migration, 1051
Trace Interpolation, 1065
7.3 3-D Poststack Migration, 1073
Separation versus Splitting, 1073
Impulse Response of the One-Pass Implicit Finite-Dierence 3-D Migration, 1074
Two-Pass versus One-Pass Implicit Finite-Dierence 3-D Migration in Practice, 1076
Explicit Schemes Combined with the McClellan Transform, 1082
The Phase-Shift-Plus-Correction Method, 1088
7.4 3-D Prestack Time Migration, 1099
3-D DMO Correction Combined with 3-D Common-Oset Migration, 1112
Crossline Migration, 1129
3-D Migration Velocity Analysis, 1131
Aspects of 3-D Prestack Time Migration A Summary, 1137
7.5 Interpretation of 3-D Seismic Data, 1156
Time Slices, 1156
3-D Visualization, 1156
Removal of Opacity, 1158
Seed Detection, 1159
Structural Interpretation, 1161
Stratigraphic Interpretation, 1171
Exercises, 1195

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Seismic Data Analysis

Appendix G: Mathematical Foundation of 3-D Migration, 1198

G.1 Implicit Methods, 1198
G.2 Explicit Methods, 1200
G.3 3-D Phase-Shift Migration, 1203
G.4 3-D Stolt Migration, 1204
G.5 Trace Interpolation, 1204
G.6 3-D Nonzero-Oset Traveltime Equation, 1208
References, 1209
Chapter 8
EARTH IMAGING IN DEPTH
8.0 Introduction, 1213
Lateral Velocity Variations, 1222
8.1 Layer Replacement, 1226
Wave-Equation Datuming, 1229
Poststack Layer Replacement, 1230
Prestack Layer Replacement, 1231
Field Data Example, 1237
8.2 2-D Poststack Depth Migration, 1238
Image Rays and Lateral Velocity Variations, 1238
Time versus Depth Migration, 1244
Iterative Depth Migration, 1247
Iteration with Zero-Oset Data, 1250
Iteration with CMP-Stacked Data, 1258
Iteration with Prestack Data, 1265
Iteration in Practice, 1265
8.3 2-D Prestack Depth Migration, 1273
Shot-Geophone Migration, 1274
Shot-Prole Migration, 1280
Sensitivity of Image Accuracy to Velocity Errors, 1280
Field Data Examples, 1295
8.4 3-D Poststack Depth Migration, 1304
3-D Poststack Time versus Depth Migration, 1304
Two-Pass versus One-Pass 3-D Poststack Depth Migration, 1313
Implicit versus Explicit 3-D Poststack Depth Migration, 1314
3-D Poststack Datuming, 1321
8.5 3-D Prestack Depth Migration, 1321
Kirchho Summation, 1324
Calculation of Traveltimes, 1324
The Eikonal Equation, 1325
Fermats Principle, 1331
Summation Strategies, 1331
Migration Aperture, 1333
Operator Antialiasing, 1333
3-D Common-Oset Depth Migration, 1335
Exercises, 1342
Appendix H: Diraction and Ray Theory for Wave Propagation, 1342
H.1 The Kirchho Integral, 1342
H.2 The Eikonal Equation, 1346
H.3 Finite-Dierence Solution to the Eikonal Equation, 1349
References, 1351

Contents

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Chapter 9
EARTH MODELING IN DEPTH
9.0 Introduction, 1353
Inversion Methods for Data Modeling, 1355
Inversion Procedures for Earth Modeling, 1356
Velocity-Depth Ambiguity, 1357
Model Representation and Visualization, 1360
9.1 Models with Horizontal Layers, 1365
Dix Conversion, 1365
Coherency Inversion, 1369
Near-Surface Layer with Laterally Varying Velocities, 1382
9.2 Model with Low-Relief Structure, 1387
Stacking Velocity Inversion, 1392
Coherency Inversion, 1404
Velocity Resolution, 1404
9.3 Model with Complex Overburden Structure, 1404
Image-Gathers, 1406
Constant Half-Space Velocity Analysis, 1415
9.4 Model Building, 1415
Time-to-Depth Conversion, 1416
Time Structure Maps, 1416
Interval Velocity Maps, 1417
Depth Structure Maps, 1425
Calibration to Well Tops, 1426
Layer-by-Layer Inversion, 1433
Structure-Independent Inversion, 1450
9.5 Model Updating, 1450
Residual Moveout Analysis, 1462
Reection Traveltime Tomography, 1469
Limitations in Resolving Velocity-Depth Ambiguity by Tomography, 1479
Turning-Ray Tomography, 1512
Exercises, 1524
Appendix J: Data Modeling by Inversion, 1525
J.1 The Generalized Linear Inversion, 1525
J.2 The GLI Formalism of Deconvolution, 1526
J.3 Applications of the GLI Technique, 1530
J.4 Dix Conversion, 1534
J.5 Map Processing, 1539
J.6 Reection Traveltime Tomography, 1545
J.7 Threshold for Velocity-Depth Ambiguity, 1553
References, 1554
Chapter 10
STRUCTURAL INVERSION
10.0 Introduction, 1557
10.1 Subsalt Imaging in the North Sea, 1558
Estimation of the Overburden Model, 1562
Estimation of the Substratum Model, 1562
Model Verication, 1563
10.2 Subsalt Imaging in the Gulf of Mexico, 1574
Layered Earth Model Estimation, 1574

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Sructure-Independent Model Estimation, 1577

10.3 Imaging Beneath Irregular Water Bottom in the Northwest Shelf of Australia, 1597
Earth Modeling and Imaging in Depth, 1597
10.4 Imaging Beneath Volcanics in the West of Shetlands of the Atlantic Margin, 1597
Earth Modeling and Imaging in Depth, 1607
10.5 Imaging Beneath Shallow Gas Anomalies in the Gulf of Thailand, 1620
Earth Modeling and Imaging in Depth, 1620
10.6 3-D Structural Inversion Applied to Seismic Data from the Southern North Sea, 1626
Estimation of the Overburden Model, 1626
Model Representation by Tessellation, 1630
3-D Coherency Inversion, 1630
3-D Poststack Depth Migration, 1637
Estimation of the Substratum Model, 1638
10.7 3-D Structural Inversion Applied to Seismic Data from the Central North Sea, 1651
3-D Coherency Inversion Combined with 3-D Poststack Depth Migration, 1665
3-D Stacking Velocity Inversion Combined with 3-D Image-Ray Depth Conversion, 1674
10.8 3-D Structural Inversion Applied to Seismic Data from Oshore Indonesia, 1674
Model Building, 1678
Model Updating, 1678
Imaging in Depth, 1690
Volume-Based Interpretation, 1690
10.9 3-D Structural Inversion Applied to Seismic Data from the Northeast China, 1703
3-D DMO Processing, 1720
3-D Prestack Time Migration, 1720
From RMS to Interval Velocities, 1742
Structural Inversion, 1742
Structural and Stratigraphic Interpretation, 1744
Exercises, 1778
Appendix K: Seismic Modeling, 1779
K.1 Zero-Oset Traveltime Modeling, 1779
K.2 Zero-Oset Waveeld Modeling, 1781
K.3 Nonzero-Oset Waveeld Modeling, 1781
K.4 Elastic Waveeld Modeling, 1790
References, 1792
Chapter 11
RESERVOIR GEOPHYSICS
11.0 Introduction, 1793
Elastic Waves and Rock Properties, 1794
11.1 Seismic Resolution, 1801
Vertical Resolution, 1801
Lateral Resolution, 1803
11.2 Analysis of Amplitude Variation with Oset, 1807
Reection and Refraction, 1808
Reector Curvature, 1813
AVO Equations, 1816
Processing Sequence for AVO Analysis, 1839
Derivation of AVO Attributes by Prestack Amplitude Inversion, 1851
Interpretation of AVO Attributes, 1862
3-D AVO Analysis, 1863
11.3 Acoustic Impedance Estimation, 1863
Synthetic Sonic Logs, 1864

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Contents
Processing Sequence for Acoustic Impedance Estimation, 1865
Derivation of Acoustic Impedance Attribute, 1866
3-D Acoustic Impedance Estimation, 1872
Instantaneous Attributes, 1896
11.4 Vertical Seismic Proling, 1907
VSP Acquisition Geometry, 1907
Processing of VSP Data, 1907
VSP-CDP Transform, 1908
11.5 4-D Seismic Method, 1911
Processing of 4-D Seismic Data, 1912
Seismic Reservoir Monitoring, 1913
11.6 4-C Seismic Method, 1915
Recording of 4-C Seismic Data, 1919
Gaisers Coupling Analysis of Geophone Data, 1922
Processing of P P Data, 1926
Rotation of Horizontal Geophone Components, 1926
Common-Conversion-Point Binning, 1933
Velocity Analysis of P S Data, 1946
Dip-Moveout Correction of P S Data, 1959
Migration of P S Data, 1961
11.7 Seismic Anisotropy, 1961
Anisotropic Velocity Analysis, 1965
Anisotropic Dip-Moveout Correction, 1968
Anisotropic Migration, 1980
Eect of Anisotropy on AVO, 1998
Shear-Wave Splitting in Anisotropic Media, 1999
Exercises, 2000
Appendix L: Mathematical Foundation of Elastic Wave Propagation, 2001
L.1 Stress-Strain Relation, 2001
L.2 Elastic Wave Equation, 2007
L.3 Seismic Wave Types Body Waves and Surface Waves, 2008
L.4 Wave Propagation Phenomena Diraction, Reection, and Refraction, 2012
L.5 The Zoeppritz Equations, 2014
L.6 Prestack Amplitude Inversion, 2019
References, 2024
INDEX, xvii

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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

The seismic method plays a prominent role in the search

for hydrocarbons. Seismic exploration consists of three
main stages: data acquisition, processing, and interpretation. This book is intended to help the seismic analyst
understand the fundamentals of the techniques used in
processing seismic data. In particular, emphasis is given
to the practical aspects of data analysis.
Topics in this book are treated in two phases. First,
each process is described from a physical viewpoint,
with less emphasis on mathematical development. In
doing so, geometric means are used extensively to help
the reader gain the physical insight into the dierent
processes. Second, the geophysical parameters that affect the delity of the resulting output from each process are critically examined via an extensive series of
synthetic and real data examples. For the student of reection seismology and new entrants to the seismic industry, this book tries to provide insights into the practical aspects of the application of the theory of time series and waves. For experienced seismic explorationists,
this book should serve as a refresher and handy reference. However, it is not just meant for the seismic
analyst. Explorationists who would like to gain a practical background in seismic data processing without any
mathematical burden also should benet from it. Nevertheless, for the more theoretically inclined, a mathematical treatise on the main subjects is provided in the
appendixes.
The seismic analyst is confronted daily with the
important tasks of:
(1) selecting a proper sequence of processing steps appropriate for the eld data under consideration,
(2) selecting an appropriate set of parameters for each
processing step, and
(3) evaluating the resulting output from each processing step, then diagnosing any problems caused by
improper parameter selection.

There is a well-established sequence for standard

seismic data processing. The three principal processes
deconvolution, stacking, and migration make up
the foundation of routine processing. There also are
some auxiliary processes that help improve the eectiveness of the principle processes. Questions often arise
as to the kind of auxiliary processes that should be used
and when they should be applied. For example, if shot
records contain an abundance of source-generated coherent noise, then dip ltering may be valuable before
deconvolution. Beam steering may be necessary to improve the signal-to-noise ratio while reducing the number of channels in processing by a factor of as much as
four. Residual statics corrections often are required for
improving velocity estimation and stacking. In a daily
production environment, many questions arise concerning the optimal parameter selection for each process.
Some of the most repeatedly asked questions are: What
is a good length for the deconvolution operator? What
should the prediction lag be? What should the design gate for the operator be? How should the correlation window be chosen in residual statics computations? What kind of aperture width should one select in
Kirchho migration? What is the optimum depth step
size in nite-dierence migration? Many more questions
could be included in this list of questions. To help answer these questions, a large number of examples using both eld and synthetic data and describing a wide
range of processing parameters are provided.
Since the old adage a picture is worth a thousand
words is especially apt in a discussion of seismic data
processing, gures make up the major portion of this
textbook. In preparing some of the gures, I received
great assistance from my colleagues at Western Geophysical Company. Thanks are due to Darran Lucas,
Mike Cox, Greg Godkin, Dave Nichols, Tania Bachus,
Tomaso Gabrieli, Dave Hill, and Raphael Tortosa.
xix

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xx

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Thanks also are due to the oil companies and contractors for supplying data and some gures for which specic acknowledgment is made in the gure captions. I
express my deep appreciation to: Soraya Brombacher,
Mark Wilson, Wayne Johnson, Mike Jungnickel, and
Pam Jakubowicz for the artwork on most of the gures.
I also extend my appreciation to Meg LaVergne, who
put the nal touches on many gures and computerdrafted the ow diagrams. Thanks also to the members of the playback group at Westerns London Digital Center: Stephen Blick, John Byrne, Mike Byrne,
Chris Godsave, Steven Grace, and Tony Leventis. Sally
Humphreys, Jan Mitchell, and Vivian Millson helped
key the text into the word processor.
I acknowledge with great appreciation the review
work done by Jon Claerbout, Sven Treitel, John Sherwood, Fred Hilterman, and Greg Godkin. I also thank
the following individuals who participated in reviewing parts of the earlier drafts: Ron Chambers, Aftab

Alam, Bruce Cassell, Karl Millahn, Tony Kudrna, Dave

Brown, Darko Tufekcic, Pete Bibby, John Ferguson,
Mark Doyle, Wendell Wiggins, Je Resnick, Walt Lynn,
Bill Dragoset, Mai Yang, Patrick Ng, Steve Cole, Larry
Scott, Ken Larner, and Helmut Jakubowicz. Special
thanks are due to Diane Parker, who did an outstanding
job of editing for style, proofreading, and preparing the
camera-ready copy of the book. Thanks to Lynn Grifn for helping to bring the text up to the SEG standards of publication. Special thanks also are due to my
editor, Steve Doherty, for his excellent and comprehensive review. I also appreciate his valuable recommendations in revising the text and the help he provided in
bringing clarity to the text. I extend my deepest and
wholehearted appreciation to my wife, Hulya, for her
everlasting encouragement. And nally, thanks are due
to Western Geophysical Company of America for the
support provided to me in writing this textbook.
Yilmaz
Oz
London, July, 1987.

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PREFACE

The rst edition, entitled Seismic Data Processing, was

published in 1987 by the Society of Exploration Geophysicists. Thereafter, I began to work on the second
edition almost immediately. My objective was to capture continuously the new developments that were taking place in the seismic industry. The second edition
is the culmination of this continuous update over the
past ten years. The updating process was based on exhaustive model- and real-data experiments with the results of the research and development work of my own
and many others. I have also drawn an extensive and
demonstrative set of real-data examples from the numerous case studies that I conducted during the course
of the update. Another source of update was of course
the prolic literature on exploration seismology.
This second edition embodies the broad scope of
seismic data analysis processing, inversion, and interpretation of seismic data. I shall give a brief summary of
the most important new developments in seismic data
analysis during the past 15 years. To begin with, the
3-D seismic method took a centrally dominant position
in the exploration and development of oil and gas elds.
Algorithms for 3-D seismic data processing, including
3-D dip-moveout correction, 3-D refraction and residual
statics corrections, and 3-D migration have now become
an integral part of the applications library of the seismic data processing systems in use today. Additionally,
noise attenuation based on prediction ltering is now
applied routinely to seismic data. Techniques for multiple attenuation based on the Radon transform and wave
extrapolation have been successfully demonstrated on
eld data.
Shortly after 3-D migration, we also began to image
the subsurface before stacking. Ecient workows for
3-D prestack time migration are in use today not only
to image the subsurface more accurately in the presence
of conicting dips with dierent stacking velocities but
also to generate common-reection-point gathers that
can be used to perform prestack amplitude inversion

and thus obtain attributes associated with amplitude

variations with oset. 3-D prestack time migration also
paves the way for estimating a 3-D rms velocity eld
that can be used to perform Dix conversion and thus
obtain a 3-D interval velocity eld.
Concurrent with prestack imaging, we began to image the subsurface also in depth to account for strong
lateral velocity variations. During the last decade, years
of eort in research and development conducted in previous decades have led to practical inversion methods
for earth modeling and imaging in depth. Using appropriate inversion methods, we derive a seismic representation of an earth model in depth, described by two sets
of parameters layer velocities and reector geometries, for low-relief, complex, and complex overburden
structures. The power of 3-D visualization has given us
the ability to create an earth model in depth with the
accuracy needed to image in depth, and that within an
ecient work schedule. Additionally, the rapid growth
in computer power has enabled us to generate an earth
image in depth from 3-D prestack depth migration of
large data volumes, again within acceptable work schedules.
To get the most out of the image volumes derived
from 3-D prestack time and depth migrations, we now
make extensive use of 3-D visualization in seismic interpretation. Using a volume-based interpretation strategy, not only do we pick time or depth horizons to delineate the structural model of the subsurface, but we
also make use of the seismic amplitudes to infer the
depositional model of the subsurface.
The road ahead for exploration seismology includes
three main topics 4-D seismic method, 4-C seismic
method, and anisotropy, all aimed at seismic characterization of oil and gas reservoirs and eventually monitoring their depletions. By recording 3-D seismic data
over the eld that is being developed and produced at
appropriate time intervals, we may detect changes in
the reservoir conditions, such as uid saturation and
xxi

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xxii

Seismic Data Analysis

pore pressure. Such changes may be related to changes

in the seismic amplitudes from one 3-D survey to the
next. Time-lapse 3-D seismic monitoring of reservoirs
is referred to as the 4-D seismic method. The fourth
dimension represents the calendar time over which the
reservoir is being monitored. Potential applications of
the 4-D seismic method include monitoring the spatial
extent of the steam front following in-situ combustion
or steam injection used for thermal recovery, monitoring
the spatial extent of the injected water front used for
secondary recovery, imaging bypassed oil, determining
ow properties of sealing or leaking faults, and detecting changes in oil-water contact.
Some reservoirs can be identied and monitored
better by using shear-wave data. For instance, acoustic
impedance contrast at the top-reservoir boundary may
be too small to detect, whereas shear-wave impedance
contrast may be suciently large to detect. By recording multicomponent data at the ocean bottom, P -wave
and S-wave images can be derived. Commonly, four
data components are recorded the pressure wave-eld
and inline, crossline, and vertical components of particle velocity. Thus, the multicomponent seismic data
recording and analysis is often referred to as the 4C seismic method. Potential applications of the 4-C
seismic method include imaging beneath gas plumes,
salt domes, and basalts, delineating reservoir boundaries with a higher S-wave impedance contrast than
P -wave impedance contrast, dierentiating sand from
shale, detection of uid phase change from oil-bearing to
water-bearing sands, detection of vertical fracture orientation, mapping hydrocarbon saturation, and mapping
oil-water contact.
Until recently, exploration seismology at large has
been based on the assumption of an isotropic medium,
albeit we have been cognizant of anisotropic behavior
of reservoir rocks. Seismic anisotropy often is associated
with directional variations in velocities. For instance, in
a vertically fractured limestone reservoir, velocity in the
fracture direction is lower than velocity in the direction
perpendicular to the plane of fracturing, giving rise to
azimuthal anisotropy. Another directional variation of
velocities involves horizontal layering and fracturing of
rocks parallel to the layering. In this case, velocity in the
horizontal direction is higher than the vertical direction,
giving rise to transverse isotropy.
In addition to a continuing eort to improve the
existing 3-D time- and depth-domain applications, current research and development in seismic data analysis
is focused on time- and depth-domain analysis of 4-D
and 4-C seismic data while accounting for anisotropy.
Topics in this book are organized to reect the increasing degree of complexity in the data analysis and
the progress made in exploration seismology. Volume

I is devoted to 2-D conventional processing based on

the three principle processes deconvolution, stacking, and migration. Volume I is devoted to topics beyond 2-D conventional processing 3-D seismic exploration, seismic inversion for earth modeling and imaging in depth, 4-D seismic method, 4-C seismic method,
and anisotropy. Each chapter is accompanied by an appendix that includes a mathematical treatise of selected
topics from the chapter itself. As such, practical aspects
of seismic data analysis are treated within the chapters
themselves without the burden of the theoretical details.
When used as a textbook in a university, I recommend Volume I for a rst-semester senior-level course
and Volume II for a second-semester senior-level course
or a rst-year graduate course. Optionally, you may consider an additional one-semester senior- or graduatelevel course on the applied theory of exploration seismology based on primarily the appendixes.
If you are a seismic analyst using this book as a
reference, you can study the practical aspects of seismic data analysis in relation to the projects you are
conducting to get helpful hints on the algorithms and
workows. If you are a research geophysicist using this
book as a reference, you can study the practical aspects
of a specic application of interest to get helpful hints
on what assumptions can be made in relation to that
application. Also, you can study the appendixes to initiate yourself into the basic theory on the subject of your
interest.
I have a passion for the seismic method that I have
maintained throughout my career. While the source of
this passion is indisputably my teacher and life-long
friend, Jon Claerbout, I have been very fortunate to
have worked with some of the most talented individuals who have fueled my enthusiasm for exploration seismology. Most appropriately, I wish to express here my
heartful gratitudes to each of these individuals.
To begin with, I am deeply grateful to Steve Doherty, my technical editor and life-long friend, for his
incisive, meticulous, and prompt editing of this entire
work. Steves editing brought clarity and precision to
the text. He was also the editor of the rst edition; on
that occasion and now, he gracefully shared the experience with me. Thank you, Steve, for your dedication and
eort. As part of the technical editing, I also received
great assistance from Zhiming Li, who edited Appendices A through J, Joe Stefani who edited Appendix
L, and John Toldi who edited Chapter 11. I thank all
of you wholeheartedly for your careful editing of the
text, debugging the equations, and introducing clarity
to derivations.
Next, I wish to express my sincere gratitude to
Judy Hastings, my technical copy editor, for her impressively consistent editing of the entire manuscript

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Preface
and her diligence in keeping me on schedule. Thank you,
Judy, also for your graceful handling of my frustrations
with thes and as. I wish to extend my thanks to Ted
Bakamjian, Publications Manager of SEG, for his support and excellent coordination of the tasks involved in
the publication process.
Now I wish to extend my special thanks to Cyril
Gregory, Irfan Tanritanir, Ferudun Kilic, Orhan Yilmaz, Fugen Zhou, Ma Xae Ling, and Huseyin Ozdemir,
who helped me with several of the case studies, and
model- and real-data experiments. Specically, Cyril
helped me create the case studies for my 1996 SEG Distinguished Lecture Tour; these case studies are included
in Chapter 10. Cyril has been involved in many of the
projects over the past ten years associated with this
work. Irfan, Ferudun, and Fugen all worked with me on
several case studies which are also included in Chapter
10. Orhan did the processing of the 4-C data presented
in Chapter 11. I feel very fortunate to have had such
exceptionally talented individuals helping me to bear
the burden.
I wish to extend my special thanks to David Lumley, 4th Wave Imaging, and Chevron for contributing
examples to the section on 4-D seismic method. I wish
to express my sincere appreciation to Moshe Reshef for
creating some of the synthetic data sets I used in my
experiments described in Chapters 3 and 8. Likewise, I
extend my sincere gratitude to Evgeny Landa for cre-

xxiii

ating the synthetic data sets I used in my experiments

described in Chapter 9. Extending the list, I express my
thanks to Ed Crase, Chris Taylor, Dave Nichols, Duane Dopkin, Gerald Kidd, Rob Bond, Cerys Biancardi,
Davud Babayev, and Lee Bell for providing examples
or helping me create them. I am sure that I am unable
to recall many of the names associated with the update
going back ten years; I thank all of you most sincerely.
I am very grateful to Chevron, Mobil, Britannia,
Talisman, Husky Oil, BP-Amoco, Shell, AGIP, Total,
BHP, Gulf Canada, ONGC, Shengli Oil Field of CNPC,
Saudi Aramco, and many other companies who may or
may not have preferred to be anonymous for providing
eld data that enabled me to conduct my experiments.
I wish to sincerely thank Damir Skerl and Western Geophysical, Rutt Bridges and Landmark, Schlumberger Geco-Prakla, Walt Lynn and PGS, and especially Eldad Weiss and Paradigm Geophysical for their
most invaluable support and encouragement in my
quest to complete this work.
And now the last word, but a special tribute to
my wife, Hulya, and my son, Esen. I am wholeheartedly
grateful to you both for your enduring love and support.
This work undoubtedly demanded sacrice; and it was
denitely a sacrice on your part. You demanded very
little of me, and you gave the whole of your love to me.
I shall cherish it all my life.
Yilmaz
Oz
London, May, 2000.

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