Building and Environment 49 (2012) 129e140

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Building and Environment

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IEQ assessment on schools in the design stage

Tiberiu Catalina, Vlad Iordache*
CAMBI Research Center, Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest, Faculty of Building Services and Equipment, Bucharest, Romania

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 8 July 2011
Received in revised form
11 September 2011
Accepted 13 September 2011

Nowadays, the indoor environment quality (IEQ) is growing as a new and very useful index of the
building quality. The current literature presents the IEQ assessment based on questionnaires applied for
existing building. The original approach of this study consists in the development of an IEQ index model
that can be used by architects and engineers during design stage, in order to use it as an evaluation
indicator or optimize the building energy consumption versus indoor environmental conditions. Based
on a large database of values resulted from simulations, multiple non-linear regression models were
obtained in order to predict variables such as operative temperature, indoor sound pressure level, indoor
average illuminance and specic energy consumption. A predictive model for IEQ index is proposed as
a function of the four quality indexes (air quality, thermal, acoustic and visual comfort). The entire
approach was tested by means of a study case where the impact of windows size and type on the IEQ
assessment is discussed for a random climate. Also, there are presented detailed results concerning the
monthly variation of IEQ and its correlation with the energy consumption. The proposed method proves
to be a fast and useful method to verify architectural and engineering solutions according to the IEQ
estimator.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Indoor environmental quality
Regression models
Energy consumption
Building design

1. Introduction
Nowadays the indoor environmental quality (IEQ) is not only
related to thermal conditions but it also goes much further, because
it involves air quality, lighting and acoustics. All these aspects of the
indoor environment interact with each other and may have
consequences on the overall indoor comfort and building energy
consumption. When talking about obtaining certain indoor conditions it must be also mentioned what are the costs in terms of
energy. Current indoor environmental assessment includes four
main aspects, namely thermal comfort (TC), indoor air quality
(IAQ), visual comfort (VC) and acoustic comfort (AC) [1].
The IEQ is considered supplementary information on the
building energy performances evaluation procedure because it
may explain the energy consumption [2]. For example, high
energy consumption with a low-energy mark might be justied by
a high quality of the indoor environment which has a good index
value. Thus the IEQ is essential because it explains better the
energy consumption of a building and its energy classication
but at the same time it affects the productivity and health of
occupants.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 40 749218162; fax: 40 212523967.

E-mail address: vlad.iordache@cambi.ro (V. Iordache).
0360-1323/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.09.014

Among the variety of constructions and their destination, one

particular place is occupied by schools where children spend most
of their time. In school building design, efforts are being made in
order to ensure the construction of quality learning environments.
Students comfort and performance should be a priority in a school
design, but a detailed analysis of the energy consumption and cost
effectiveness of the building are also mandatory. In East-European
countries, schools design evaluation procedures are missing in the
process of optimization and assessment of good indoor conditions.
Public demand to improve the educational achievement of children
is strong, thus extensive research on the schools environment is
essential.
Because of a growing awareness of the indoor environmental
inuence on occupants productivity and efciency, there is an
increased interest in obtaining feedback from occupants, which is
often obtained by using a questionnaire [1,3,4]. E.G. Dascalaki et al.
[5] presented for the rst time a large scale subjective assessment
of IEQ in hospital operating rooms. They found that each of the IEQ
parameters is important and a good value of IEQ improves working
conditions and minimizes complaints from occupants. Poor indoor
environmental quality is often blamed for causing sick building
syndrome [6] and the impact on health is even higher in schools.
The indoor conditions are inuenced by numerous elements,
like HVAC systems, building envelope, occupants behavior or air
inltration. Among these elements, one key piece is the glazing

T. Catalina, V. Iordache / Building and Environment 49 (2012) 129e140

- Do we have an independent or a simultaneous effect of glazing

type change upon IEQ index? (e.g. larger area of glazing
correspond to a higher amount of energy for maintaining the
indoor thermal conditions but smaller electric consumption for
the lighting)
- Would it be possible to counteract a negative effect on the IEQ
index with a positive one? (e.g. large area of glazing has
a negative impact on the acoustic comfort but a positive one on
day lighting levels)
- What is the overall IEQ index and what is the energy
consumption required for covering that degree of comfort?
In most of the cases, the design stage of new building or the
rehabilitation of old buildings implies an analysis of the energy
demand, but a correct design should also include the IEQ assessment
in this early project stage. Architects and engineers need useful
directions on building design parameters with an impact on energy
demand and the IEQ of the future project. Actually, one of the most
reliable solutions to predict the indoor conditions is the dynamic
simulation of the building in order to estimate the impact of design
alternatives and better understand the design problems. Before or
during a project design, several solutions should be proposed and
studied but the lack of time and the complexity of data analysis stop
this process of optimization and research. The solution to this problem
is to develop common regression models based on large database
values obtained from simulations or experimental measurements.
The prediction models simplify the parametrical studies and replace
in the initial design phase the numerical simulation tools in order to
optimize the building energy consumption versus indoor environmental conditions. This article presents a predictive IEQ model for
schools faade design based on non-linear regressions with high
correlations (R2 > 0.9). The outputs of the models are based on a large
number of simulations using Trnsys software [17]. The regression
models can be used for a fast IEQ assessment during the early design
stage and can lead to valuable parametric studies on indoor comfort
improvement or energy reduction.
2. Regression models approach
The purpose of the regression analysis is to predict the single
dependent variable (e.g. operative temperature, mean illuminance

level, noise insulation, cooling/heating specic consumption) by

means of a set of independent variables (e.g. windows to oor area
ratio, climate coefcient and south equivalent surface). Compared
to neural networks, multiple regression analysis could be an easier
and more practical solution to various problems which are
following a constant pattern [13]. It was found that non-linear
models are substantially more accurate than linear models and
a signicant reduction of least square estimator is possible [14]. By
developing a correlation method, it is essential to generate a large
database containing many parametric studies. The principle of a,
black-box, was used in this part where the inputs and outputs were
rstly identied, then the process continued with the research of
the, black-box, curve-t function (see Fig.1). A, black-box, model of
a system is one whose internal structure is unknown but the
inputs/outputs are known. Therefore, there is a question of curvetting by searching the most appropriate function. Accurate
knowledge of the consequence of parameters and of their relationship is essential for optimal and feasible outcome of the
examined function.
In order to acquire the desired variables and to predict the
indoor environmental quality, numerous school design aspects
like shape, heated volume, glazing area or insulation level were
analyzed. These building design variations have an impact on the
regression models outputs (operative temperature, mean illuminance level, etc) and are considered to be relevant for the study.
There were made several assumptions based on the fact that the
models are meant to be used in school building design. The indoor
heating set point temperature was considered to be of 22  C and for
the cooling of 26  C. During night-time the set-back temperature is
considered to be 15  C. The IEQ assessment was computed for
a school time schedule from 8 a.m to 18 p.m during the weekdays.
The heat gains are considered to be for 1 student/6 m2 (Degree of
activity: Seated, light writing e Sensible heat of 65 Watts and
Latent heat of 55 Watts) and an articial lighting of 10 W/m2during
the periods when the day lighting is not sufcient to ensure an
illuminance level of 300 lx.
2.1. Thermal comfort and energy consumption output parameters
Thermal comfort relates human sensation and perception with
numerous environmental and physical parameters. Two of the
environmental parameters which have a signicant impact on the
thermal comfort are the indoor air temperature (qi) and the mean
radiant temperature (qmr). The presence of fenestration systems
adds complexity to the problem of human thermal comfort since
there is a direct connection with the exterior space. Fluctuations in
the outside temperature and the solar radiation results in a variable
interior wall/glass surface temperature and transmitted solar gain
[15]. These uctuations have a direct impact on the qmr and
implicitly on the operative temperature qo (see Eq. (1)) which is the
output parameter of the thermal prediction model.

qo

hr qmr hc qi
hr hc

(1)

This output of the thermal model is also found to be an input

parameter for the IEQ evaluation in the European Standard 15215
[16]. Using Trnsys software [17], a large number of simulations were
X1
X2

Black-box model
(Curve-fit function)

Xi

Yi
Yi=f(X1,X2,.Xi)

Fig. 1. Black-box model example.

Outputs

area, due to its potential to reduce or increase different types of

indoor comfort (visual, acoustic and thermal); therefore the glazing
area acts as the primary climate moderator [7].
Persson et al. [8] showed that using energy-efcient windows
would be a better solution than having a highly insulated wall
without windows. The glazing area does not directly inuence the
thermal comfort but it affects the energy consumption which is
related to the indoor conditions [8]. Other research studies were
orientated only toward the impact of glazing on the energy
consumption and thermal comfort [9e12].
Most of these research studies are orientated toward the IEQ
assessment using questionnaires on buildings that have been
already constructed and in use. The original approach of the
present study is the development of mathematical tools to be
used for fast and easy IEQ assessment and to assist the architects
and engineers in nding optimal solutions for a new building
design or for an old building rehabilitation. This article aims to
bring a new perspective on IEQ assessment in a much easier and
accessible way so that building design engineers could nd optimal
solutions for design healthy and low-energy consumption buildings. This paper also attempts to answer a series of questions
regarding the correlated inuence of glazing area on the indoor
conditions:

Controlled inputs
(factors)

130

T. Catalina, V. Iordache / Building and Environment 49 (2012) 129e140

computed and the resulted data were used to generate the database
of values needed in the regression technique. The operative
temperature obtained from these simulations was averaged for each
month and only during the school time schedule so that this value to
be the most representative for that period. Other outputs are the
annual specic energy consumption of the building for the heating
qh (kWh/m3/year) and refrigeration qr (kWh/m3/year) [2]. The
energy consumption for heating/cooling is evaluated for each
calculation step (year, month or hour) and the nal energy
consumption represents the sum of the energy consumptions for all
the time steps inside the heating/cooling period of the year (see
Appendix). Calculation of the operative temperature can be a difcult task and in most of the cases dynamic simulations are required
for a more accurate view on this parameter. Using a simpler mathematical model can be a real solution to fasten parametric studies.
2.2. Visual comfort output parameter
Day lighting contributes to a better IEQ and has a positive effect
on an occupants perception of productivity and performance [18].
Daylight design requires a number of variable resources, among
which the fenestration is the key piece. Design decisions need to be
made early, so easy models are need to be used for predicting the
daylight potential and to explore different scenarios of building
design [19]. The required lighting level is independent of season and
its design value for schools classrooms is of 300 lx [16]. The monthly
average illuminance level (Ea) is considered the output parameter
for the visual comfort. This level is established based on dynamic
simulations using Dialux software [20] for one representative day of
each month (e.g. 15th January, 15th February, etc) using on the data
simulated during the school time occupational period.
2.3. Acoustic comfort output parameter
Noise is an essential IEQ physical factor that can contribute to
occupants discomfort and must not be avoided in the building
design study. In schools and other study training centers, noise may
be very disturbing and may even weaken the students intellectual
performances [21]. Noise pollution can originate from the outdoor
environment (through the glazing area), from the ventilation
system (noisy fans, high ventilation rate) or other adjacent interior
spaces (corridors stepping noise or loud talking). The building
envelope should ensure required sound insulation against both
airborne noise and structure-borne noise. In general, sound insulation against airborne noise that is expected from the building
envelope is of primary importance while the weak parts are the
windows. Numerous studies have analyzed the sound transmission
through closed or opened windows and the impact on the room
acoustics [22e24]. Most of them were orientated toward the sound
insulation of the glazing or the impact of street noise on the indoor
conditions. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and
EN15215 standard [16] suggest that the background noise in the
classroom should be below 35 dB(A). The indoor acoustical comfort
is generally evaluated by using the indoor sound pressure level (Lpi)
as it was found in different research studies [18,21] and it is
considered the output parameter of the acoustic model prediction.
A 100% fulllment of the acoustic comfort is 30 dB(A) while the
minimum comfort is of 60 dBA (value from where the study process
cannot be accomplished anymore). In order to calculate the Lpi
a number of steps were followed:
 Calculation of the sound attenuation of the opaque structure
Rwall (dB) based on the wall density rwall (kg/m2) and frequency
f (Hz) [25]:

131

Rwall 13:5log 10 rwall 13:5log 10 f  22:5

(2)

 Calculation of the sound attenuation of the faade (Rf) based on

the surfaces of wall and window and their sound attenuation
values [22]:

Rf 10log 10

Awall Awindow
Rwall
10

10

Rwindow
10

$Awall 10

$Awindow

(3)

 Final sound attenuation (Db) calculated using the indoor

absorptive surfaces (sum of all surfaces of the room SAi),
reverberation time of the room (Tr), room volume and sound
attenuation of the faade (Rf) [26]:

Db Rf 10log 10


0:161$V
P
Tr $ Ai

(4)

 Indoor sound pressure level Lpi based on the Db and outdoor

sound pressure levels Lpo:

Lpi Lpo  Db

(5)

The values are obtained in dB for each frequency and for

obtaining the weighted value in dBA we must rst do an Aweighting and then do the logarithmic sum of all the frequency
values. The model output will be a single global value in dBA but in
order to obtain it, the calculations passed through all those steps,
previously showed.

2.4. Indoor air quality output parameter

IAQ, as the nature of air in an indoor environment with relation
to occupant health and comfort, is an important parameter which
must not be neglected when studying the IEQ index. In terms of
occupants satisfaction, an acceptable IAQ means a room air in
which no contaminants have harmful concentration levels and at
least 80% of the people exposed to it do not express any dissatisfaction [1]. According to the European Norm 15215 [16], it is
possible to create a design for different categories of indoor air
quality, which will inuence the required ventilation rates. The
different categories of air quality can be expressed in different ways
(combination of ventilation for people and building components,
ventilation per m2 oor area, ventilation per person or according to
required CO2 level). It will be considered as output the airow per
person Qair (m3/h/person) in the following three categories: Class A
e 36 m3/h/person, Class B e 25.2 m3/h/person and Class C. e
14.4 m3/h/person. For an optimal usage of these values we will
consider that 36 m3/h/person represent a fulllment of 100% of the
IAQ while 10 m3/h/person is the minimum requirement.

2.5. Models input parameters

a) Climate
The rst input of the thermal prediction model is the climate
which was dened using the monthly soleair temperature qsoleair
[27] calculated using the hourly values of outdoor dry-bulb
temperature and the global radiation on horizontal. Extreme
climate conditions have been chosen in order to have a wide range
of values. The minimum value calculated was of 8.78  C (Moscow
in January) and the maximum of 42.9  C (Abu-Dhabi in August). The
hourly values of outdoor air temperature and solar radiation were
obtained using Trnsys [17] Meteonorm les. For more information
on the qsoleair calculation please check the Appendix.

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T. Catalina, V. Iordache / Building and Environment 49 (2012) 129e140

b) Glazing surface and distribution

Ubui

The window to oor area ratio (WFR) can be translated by the

percentage of the occupied oor area to the total glazing area. The
most appropriate size of a window for energy smart design depends
on the building orientation or on the amount of thermal mass in the
internal building materials. A WFR ratio of 15%e18% is recommended
for conventional constructions and it will also balance the energy, the
rst cost and the indoor environmental quality as proposed by the
French Thermal Directive [28]. Buildings implementing passive solar
strategies that use thermal mass and south orientation must be
evaluated on an individual basis and may require a different overall
WFR to achieve the maximum benet. The parametric study conducted on this input starts from lower values (5%) to higher ratios of
30% glazing of the occupied oor area. The distribution of the glazing
on the building/space faade has an obvious impact on the illuminance level and indoor heat gains, but attempting a parametric study
may be a challenging task. It is desired to have a single input
parameter that could dene the glazing distribution and the orientation. The south equivalent surface (Ses) is used in order to solve
a part of this problem and based on the French Thermal Guideline
[28] this surface is dened as follows:

Ses

n
X

Ai $Ci

(6)

i1

where Ai is the surface of the glazing and Ci the orientation coefcients (see Table 1).
Finally, the used regression input is represented by the fenestration size and faade distribution factor Fsed dened as:

Fsd Ses $WFR

n
X

Ai $Ci $

i1

Ai

!
(7)

Afloor

Ui $Ai zi li
P
Ai

(8)

where Ui is the thermal transmittance of buildings components, Ai

is the corresponding surface, zi is the linear heat loss coefcient of
building thermal bridges and li is the corresponding length.
e) Fresh air change per hour
Other important parameter related to IAQ and energy
consumption is the fresh air change per hour (ACH) which will be
accounted in the heating/cooling consumption regression models
and not in the operative temperature model.
f) Wall/Window sound attenuation
The faade that separates the indoor space from the outdoor
noise is made of an opaque wall and the fenestration area. For
calculating the indoor sound pressure level it is necessary that we
know the sound attenuation (R) for each of these parts (wall and
window). One input of the acoustic comfort model is the Rwindow
(dB), while for the walls it is the surface density of the wall rwall
(kg/m2) that allows the calculation of the Rwall (dB) (see Eq. (2)) for
each frequency (125 Hze4000 Hz). The variation range for the
windows sound attenuation was considered from 15 dB to 40 dB.
- Range 15 dBe30 dB corresponds to old windows type with
non-efcient joints and high permeability [29]
- Range 30 dBe40 dB corresponds to modern windows with high
quality joints/glass and low permeability [29]
The range of the Rwall depends on the rwall, which can vary based
on the type of wall (lighter walls rwall 100 kg/m2) to heavy walls
(rwall 500 kg/m2).
g) Outdoor noise level

c) Building shape
The shape of a building is an important factor that could inuence the increase/decrease of the energy required for heating or
cooling the occupied space. A good solution was found in dening
the building or room geometry and implicitly the heat loss surfaces
by using the Rs/v input, which is dened as the ratio between the
sum of all heat loss surfaces that are in contact with the exterior,
ground or adjacent non-heated spaces and the heated volume of the
building/room. The greater the heat loss surface area, the more the
heat losses through it, so higher ratios imply high energy demands.
This factor is similar to the compactness factor of a building.
d) Average building insulation value
The building envelope insulation is a critical component of any
facility because it plays an important role in the energy consumption and the regulation of the indoor environment. The French
Thermal Standard denes the Ubui coefcient as the building
envelope heat loss coefcient which is the average heat loss of
thermal transmittance through building envelope including
thermal bridges. The Ubui is calculated as follows:

For calculating Lpi (see output calculation steps) the outside

sound pressure levels are needed as inputs. The noise curves (NC)
dene the sound pressure levels for each frequency and can vary
based on the outdoor noise (e.g. quiet street NC55 with Lpo 60 dB
(A)) [30,31]. The studied range of noise curves are: NC55 to NC80
(see Table 2).
h) Reverberation time, volume, absorptive surfaces parameter
Like it was show in Eq. (4) the nal sound attenuation depends
on the faade sound attenuation, reverberation time, volume and
sum of absorptive surfaces. It is considered an input parameter for
0:161,V
P named from now on Rv/t.
the acoustical model the ratio
Tr , Ai

2.6. Model calculation

Several models were tested in order to nd the best t between
the simulated data and the model results and it was found that
Table 2
Sound pressure levels for different noise curves.

Table 1
Orientation coefcients.

Sound pressure levels (dB)

Windows orientation coefcients

SSEeSSO

SSEeESE,
SSWeWSW

ESEeENE,
WSWeWNW

ENEeNNE,
WNWeNNW

NNEeNNW

0.85

0.55

0.3

0.2

Lpo

Frequency

125 Hz

250 Hz

500 Hz

1 kHz

2 kHz

4 kHz

dB (A)

NC55
NC65
NC80

69.8
78.5
91.6

63.1
72.4
86.4

58.4
68.1
82.7

55
65
80

52.3
62.5
77.7

50.2
60.5
75.9

60
70
85

T. Catalina, V. Iordache / Building and Environment 49 (2012) 129e140

X1 =

sol-air

Thermal models

X2 =

Fs-d

Regression Model 1

X3 =

Rs/v

X4 =

Ubui

X5 =

op

IEQ input parameter 1

(thermal comfort)

= Y1

Regression Model 2

qh

= Y2

Regression Model 3

qr

= Y3

133

Total annual thermal

energy consumption
(kWh/m3/year)

ACH

Fig. 2. Inputs/Outputs of the regression models (thermal comfort/energy consumption).

quadratic (second-order) polynomial models are the most appropriate solutions for our problem. To estimate the operative
temperature qop, only the qsoleair, Fsed, Rs/v and the Ubui have been
used, while in case of the heating/cooling energy consumption, an
extra input was added (ACH) (see Fig. 2).
For the visual comfort model, only two inputs were necessary to
compute the monthly average illumination at 0.8 m from the
occupied oor (see Fig. 3).
Finally, the last regression model necessary to estimate the
indoor sound pressure level is based on ve inputs as shown in
Fig. 4.
The models are valid only in the analyzed range (Table 3) which
was chosen to be applied with a wide range of values (e.g. cold
climates e Moscow, to extreme hot climate - Abu-Dhabi). A high
number of cases were analyzed for the space insulation Ubui due to
the fact that this parameter is calculated as a function of fenestration
parameter Fsed, building insulation and building shape ratio Rs/v For
other input parameters it was found that three samples are sufcient
to predict the curve tting (rwall, Lpo, Rv/t, Rwin)
Due to the large number of variations and cases, a considerable
number of simulations (15.800 samples) were conducted to
generate the database; this database of numerical values (illuminance levels, sound pressure levels, operative temperatures, energy
consumptions) was used in the regression analysis to learn
prediction models of the IEQ index.
Such a large database of values like in our case represents an
advantage, because the regression techniques could be applied
with success and good results can be obtained. We found that is
very complicated to calculate each of the indoor parameters (e.g.
indoor sound pressure level) and how many software must be used
in order to obtain the nal results. Therefore, developing simpler
tools that include all these aspects is highly needed.
The multiple regression shares all the assumptions of correlation: linearity of relationships, the same level of relationship
throughout the range of independent variable, interval or nearinterval data, absence of outliers, and data whose range is not
truncated. The regression analysis involves nding the best relationship for explaining how the variation in an outcome variable Yi
(e.g. operative temperature qop), depends on the variation in
a predictor variable, Xi (e.g. soleair temperature qsoleair). Checking
the goodness of t of the model includes the correlation coefcient
calculation R and its squared value R2 but also a particular attention
was directed toward the residuals plots. The residuals displayed
a non-systematic pattern and this shows that the model ts the
data successfully. The learned models (see Table 4) are accurate

(correlation coefcients R > 0.9) and consequently can be used in

the building design stage for new with acceptable errors.
3. IEQ calculation
Calculating the indoor environmental quality of a building/
indoor space can be a, painful, procedure, the designer being put in
the situation to deal with numerous theoretical equations and
simulation software for each of the IEQ parameters (operative
temperature, illuminance, sound level). Moreover, this task
becomes even more difcult if one has to make a parametric study
on a building design parameter, so the optimization process is
either slow or inexistent. The obtained models are desired to give
a simpler and faster solution when architects or building designers
are assessing the IEQ. The large number of theoretical equations for
each eld (thermal, visual and acoustic) is successfully reduced to
regression models able to provide the desired inputs for IEQ
assessment. At this time, the IEQ calculation procedure as it is
presented in this research paper can be used only for schools or
ofces due to the chosen occupational period and indoor heat gains
which are specic to this kind of buildings. The IEQ assessment is
based on the obtained regression models numbers 1, 4 and 5
(operative temperature, average illumination and sound pressure
level) and IAQ index (see Fig. 5).
One of the most important parts in the IEQ assessment is the
rating based on the parameters that could inuence this calculation. Table 5 summarizes the IEQ parameters limits and their
classication in different classes and star rating [1]. These limits
were chosen to have the best signicance to the IEQ class (e.g. an
Lpi > 60 dBA e will represent a class E (+) acoustic comfort
due to the fact that the studying process cannot be fullled
anymore while an Lpi  30 dBA correspond to a class A
(+++++) acoustic environment). The IEQ index can be used for
the same purpose via a star rating system where 5 stars are
assigned to the top 10% schools with the best IEQ, 4 stars to the
next 22.5%, 3 stars to the next 35%, 2 stars to the next 22.5% and 1
star to the last 10% [1].
The IEQ index (IIEQ) is calculated based on the thermal comfort
index (Ith), the visual comfort index (Iv), the acoustic comfort index
(Ia) and the air quality index (IIAQ):

IIEQ

Ith Ia Iv IIAQ
4

with:

Visual comfort

X1 =

sol-air

X2 =

Fs-d

Regression Model 4

Ea

= Y1

IEQ input parameter 2

(visual comfort)

Fig. 3. Inputs/Outputs of the regression model (visual comfort).

(9)

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T. Catalina, V. Iordache / Building and Environment 49 (2012) 129e140

X1 =

wall

X2 =

Rwin

X3 =

WWR

X4 =

Lpo

X5 =

Rv/t

Acoustic comfort model

Regression model 5

Lpi

= Y1

IEQ input parameter 3

(acoustic comfort)

Fig. 4. Inputs/Outputs of the regression models (acoustic comfort).


Ith

qop  21:5 ; Ith 28:57$qop  514

qop  24:5 ; Ith 28:57$qop 800
(10)

Ia 3:33$Lpi 200
Iv 0:33$Eav
IIAQ 3:125$Qair  12:5

The two conditions for the Ith calculation are based on the
operative temperature with a maximum value of 100. To make
a difference between summer and the winter period the soleair
temperature is used as condition which in our case is
qsoleair < 18e19  C (winter period). This value was obtained based
on numerous simulations which indicated that higher values of
soleair temperature are translated without any heating demand.
The thermal index must also take into account this condition and
make a difference depending on seasons. For example, if the
qsoleair < 18e19  C and the qop > 21.5  C then the Ith will be 100, or if
the qsoleair > 18e19  C and qp < 24.5  C then the Ith will also take the
value of 100.
4. Study case example
The aim of this chapter is to show the applicability of the
proposed IEQ assessment methodology as described in the
previous chapter. Firstly, a comparison between the regression
models and the data results from the dynamic simulations will be
conducted for a study case. Secondly, a detailed analysis on the IEQ
parameters, by using the regression models, will be conducted in
one classroom from the analyzed school and the data are compared
and discussed. Finally, we will make the IEQ assessment and
propose solutions to improve the IEQ index.
4.1. Building case description
For the case study, it was chosen a single-oor school of
a 958 m2 (classrooms e 500 m2, teachers room e 89 m2, corridors e 260 m2, lecture room e 55.1 m2 and toilets 28 m2) situated in Bucharest, Romania (see Fig. 6). The school assembles 174

Table 3
Regression models input parameters valid range/samples.
Parameter

Units

Range/Samples

Soleair temperature qsoleair

Fenestration parameter Fsed
Building shape Rs/v
Building average U-value Ubui
Air change per hour ACH
Wall density rwall
Window sound attenuation Rwin
Window-wall-ratio WWR
Outdoor sound pressure level Lpo
Ratio reverberation time/volume and
absorptive surface Rv/t

8.78 to 42.9/24
0.05e13.75/21
0.11e0.9/4
0.33e5/84
1e6/4
100e500/3
15e40/3
0.25e1/4
55e80/3
0.05e0.38/3

C
m2
m1
W/m2/K
1/h
kg/m2
dB
()
dB (A)
m/s

students and 20 teachers each day with an occupational period

from 8:00 am to 18:00 pm during weekdays. The building is
situated next to a circulated street (noise curve NC60) and an
adjacent street in its south faade. The reference school is built
on a concrete structure having brick walls plastered with cement
mortar and presents no thermal insulation. All classrooms and
hallways have wooden parquet ooring installed and the entire
building terrace is insulated with polystyrene as well as with
bitumen, sand and gravel. All windows have the same surface
(Awindow 2.8 m2) and they are simple glazed with low thermal
resistance (Uwindow 5.95 W/m2K). The fresh air change rate is
assumed to be of 2 ach.
4.2. Prediction models analysis
For testing the developed mathematical models, it was selected
a random classroom for which it was conducted a detailed overlook
on the IEQ assessment. The energy consumption of the room was
rst analyzed (see Table 6) and then it was found that the errors
between the models and the dynamic simulations are of 6.8% from
the total annual value. In some cases the errors are higher (May to
Sep.) but this can be explained by the fact that the absolute errors
are low although the relative error is high. A similar conclusion is
also found for the operative temperature where the errors were less
than 10%. While analyzing the sound pressure level it was established that the predictions had comparable values with the simulation results. When checking the IEQ index it can be seen that only
for the months of April and October, the errors between the models
and simulation are higher, but for the mean annual value the error
is more than acceptable (1.9%). Even if in some of the situations the
errors are higher, nevertheless it can be concluded that the models
are sufciently accurate to be used in the early design stage for
parametric studies.
4.3. IEQ assessment
As previously described, the analyzed reference building is not
insulated, and the window type is single glazing with high
permeability and low sound attenuation and with low thermal
resistance. Many solutions are meant to reduce the energy
consumption and to enhance the indoor conditions inside the
building. The classic rehabilitation solutions are the most obvious:
replacing the old windows with more efcient ones and increasing
the thermal insulation of the building. The positive impact on the
IIEQ on this kind of solutions is clear but the exact impact and the
nal benets of such measures remains unknown. There are situations when even the energy measure investment must be placed
into calculation (better insulation may be translated in reduced
energy consumption and IIEQ improvement but higher initial
investment) and in reaching a more complex situation sometimes
a multi-criteria approach may be required to nd an optimal solution. A building is divided in many thermal zones which have

T. Catalina, V. Iordache / Building and Environment 49 (2012) 129e140

135

Table 4
Regression coefcients and accuracy.
Thermal comfort/energy consumption
5
5
X
X
bi Xi
dij Xi Xj
Y a
i1

a
b1
b2
b3
b4
b5
d1e2
d1e3
d1e4
d1e5
d2e3
d2e4
d2e5
d3e4
d3e5
d4e5
d1e1
d2e2
d3e3
d4e4
d5e5

R2

Visual comfort
X
b
Y a$b11 $X2 2

Acoustic comfort
4
4
X
X
bi Xi b5 log10 X5
dij Xi Xj
Y a

Model 4

Model 5

i;j 1

i1

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

qop ( C)

qh (kWh/m3)

qr (kWh/m3)

Eav (lx)

Lpi (dB (A))

19.55
0.18
0.47
3.78
1.16
e
0.00
0.08
0.05
e
0.35
0.03
e
0.16
e
e
0.003
0.01
3.41
0.17
e
0.921

3.22
0.62
1.90
0.04
5.73
0.65
0.25
0.002
0.89
0.27
0.03
3.48
1.13
0.05
0.02
7.83
0.01
0.003
0.005
0.28
0.30
0.971

2.40
0.16
2.31
0.18
6.92
1.29
0.033
0.0011
0.31
0.034
0.0089
0.59
0.10
0.036
0.027
0.91
0.0058
0.19
0.0059
1.25
0.11
0.942

257.3
1.03
0.38
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
0.928

e
0.009
0.84
10.81
0.93
10.00
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
0.00001
0.00065
4.12
0.00031
e
0.9975

i;j 1

Regression models
Regression model 1

Regression model 4

Regression model 5

IthClass
IthIndex

Ea

IvClass
IvIndex

Lpi

IaClass
IaIndex

IAQ

Regression model 2

IEQ Class
IEQ Index

IEQ
Calculation

IaClass
IaIndex

qh
qt - Annual energy consumption (kWh/m3)

Regression model 3

qr
Fig. 5. Logical diagram of IEQ assessment.

particular conditions of thermal comfort and are exposed to noise

pollution in different ways. The indoor environmental quality
should be calculated for each of these zones and at the end an
overall index may be computed. Using the developed regression
models, the IEQ and energy consumption assessment was possible
for all the classroom of the building. Table 7 summarizes the results
for the reference case (Ubui 1.21 W/m2K for an Uwindow 5.65 W/
m2K) and for two improvement solutions: Sol.1 (Ubui 0.58 W/m2K
for an Uwindow 2.95 W/m2K) and Sol.2 (Ubui 0.33 W/m2K for an
Uwindow 1.43W/m2K). First, it is noticed that the classrooms do
not have the same IIEQ index, but one with small differences that
could get much higher if the ventilation strategy or outdoor
sources are different. The two solutions improve the building

Table 5
IEQ/Inputs limits and rating.
IEQ/Inputs class and star rating

qop ( C) ewinter
qop ( C) esummer
Eav (lx)
Lpi (dBA)
Qair (m3/h/person)
IEQ index ()

Class A
+++++

Class B
++++

Class C
+++

Class D
++

Class E
+

21.5
24.5
300
30
36
>90

20.5e21.5
25e26
250e300
30e40
25e36
67.5e90

19.5e20.5
26e27
200e250
40e50
15e25
32.5e67.5

18e19.5
27e28
100e200
50e60
10e15
10e35.5

<18
>28
<100
>60
<10
<10

136

T. Catalina, V. Iordache / Building and Environment 49 (2012) 129e140

Fig. 6. Building case plan and outdoor noise sources.

overall IEQ index from 71 to 88 with an increase of 24% and an

energy consumption reduction of 25%. These benets come from
an increase of the building average insulation of more than 73%,
value found not only by a thermal improvement of the walls, roof,
oor or window but also in a better sound attenuation due to the
more efcient glazing.
To have a better view on the impact of different IEQ input
parameters on the index, classroom 1 was chosen as a test room.

Fig. 7 shows the effect of the window to oor area ratio and
building room average U-value on the thermal comfort, visual and
acoustic index. The advantages of a better insulated room are
translated in a higher mean radiant temperature during winter
period and a lower one for the summer months. The radiant
temperature inuences the operative temperature calculation and
implicitly the Ith index. In this case an increase of Ith of 18% was
found between the reference case (non-insulated, single glazing)

Table 6
Comparison between predictions/simulations.
Month

Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Total

Energy consumption (kWh)

Operative temperature
( C)

Average Illuminance
level (lx)

Indoor Sound Pressure

level (dBA)

IEQ index/rating

Sim.

Pr.

E. (%)

Sim.

Pr.

E. (%)

Sim.

Pr.

E. (%)

Cal.

Pr.

E. (%)

Sim.

Pr.

E. (%)

6762
5311
3895
1579
396
101
162
112
352
2010
3892
5809
30381

6720
5606
3758
1741
512
224
452
220
786
2350
4264
5972
32605

0.6
5.5
3.5
10.3
29.5
100
100
100
100
16.9
9.6
2.8
6.8

17.6
17.9
18.7
19.9
21.6
23.8
25.0
24.3
21.6
19.5
18.5
17.8
20.5

17.2
17.9
19.3
21.6
23.8
25.5
26.0
25.5
23.2
20.8
18.9
17.6
21.5

2.4
0.2
3.3
9.0
10.0
7.0
4.0
5.1
7.7
6.7
1.9
0.7
4.6

267
338
375
525
604
638
655
634
554
415
326
276
467

291
324
396
518
641
748
784
748
608
474
374
313
518

9.0
4.2
5.5
1.4
6.2
17.2
19.6
17.9
9.7
14.2
14.7
13.3
10.9

48.4
48.4
48.4
48.4
48.4
48.4
48.4
48.4
48.4
48.4
48.4
48.4
48.4

47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5
47.5

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2.0

57/C
60/C
65/C
73/B
85/B
85/B
81/B
85/B
85/B
70/B
63/C
58/C
72

59/C
60/C
70/B
85/B
85/B
78/B
74/B
78/B
85/B
80/B
66/C
60/C
73

4.4
0.86
7.7
16.3
0.6
7.9
8.6
7.8
0.6
14.2
5.1
4.4
1.9

Sim.- simulated; Pr.-predicted; Cal.-Calculated; E.-relative errors (predicted to simulated).

T. Catalina, V. Iordache / Building and Environment 49 (2012) 129e140

137

Table 7
IEQ assessment and energy consumption.
qh qr
(kWh/m3/year)

IIEQ index/rating
Ref.
Classroom1
Classroom2
Classroom3
Classroom4
Classroom5
Lecture room
Teachers room
School

72/B
73/B
73/B
69/B
69/B
71/B
69/B
71/B

Sol.1
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++

83/B
86/B
82/B
78/B
79/B
81/B
75/B
81/B

++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++
++++

Sol.2

Ref.

Sol.1

Sol.2

88/B ++++
89/B ++++
90/A +++++
87/B ++++
87/B ++++
89/B ++++
84/B ++++
88 /B ++++

89
87
84
88
88
89
88
88

68
75
67
76
75
75
72
73

60
70
60
71
70
69
59
66

Fig. 7. Impact of fenestration size and type on the Ith, Ia and Iv index.

and the highly insulated building. At the same time, the visual
index Iv takes lower values (16%) due to the fact that simple
windows have a higher glazing transmittance then the double or
triple glazing windows. Moreover, the major advantage of replacing

the window type is noticed on the acoustic comfort where the Iac
goes from 39 to 100 with an increase of more than 60% passing from
class C (+++) to class A (+++++). This signicant increase is the
result of 50% increase of the window sound attenuation (20 dB

Fig. 8. Impact of fenestration size and type on the IIEQ and energy consumption.

138

T. Catalina, V. Iordache / Building and Environment 49 (2012) 129e140

Fig. 9. Monthly variation of the IIEQ index.

esingle glazing to 40 dB e triple glazing). An increase of glazing

surface has almost no impact on the Ith while for the Iv (20%) and
Ia (23%) it has a relatively high impact. In some cases choosing the
optimal window size may be a delicate issue especially if one may
prefer a higher visual comfort and less acoustic comfort or vice
versa.
The indoor air quality index IIAQ is established based on the
volume of fresh air per person Qair which in this case is of 50 m3/h/
pers representing a 100% of the indoor air quality.
The predicted overall IEQ index seems to be more sensitive to
a change of window type than to a change in glazing surface. It was
found that the analyzed classroom could pass from class B (++++)
to a class A (+++++) if the WFR went up to 22% and the
Uwindow 1.4 W/m2K. A signicant drop in the IEQ index is found
for low-insulated windows with low sound attenuation (see Fig. 8).
The energy consumption is always related to the indoor conditions
as it can be noticed in Fig. 8, where the IIEQ index is improved
(21%) with an increase of the WFR and window type while the
annual specic consumption goes through a signicant drop of 31%.
In order to examine the dependence of the predicted overall IEQ
index on the variations of the four input parameters index (Ith, Ia, Iv,
IIAQ), a Uwindow of 2.95 W/m2K and a WFR of 17% were selected as
nominal conditions. Fig. 9 shows the dependence of the IEQ on the
four inputs and their distribution during the whole year. As expected, the predicted overall IEQ index takes lower values during
winter period (DecembereJanuary) and summer period (JulyeAugust) because of its sensitivity to an operative temperature<18  C
and respectively >28  C. The best conditions were found to be
during spring and autumn periods when the IIEQ index goes up to
95 corresponding to a class A (+++++) indoor conditions.
5. Conclusions
This research paper tried to answer a series of questions
related to the indoor environmental quality in schools and the
impact of window type and size on the overall index. The
building design is generally orientated toward the energy
consumption and the overall IEQ is ignored in most of the cases. It
was found that actually there is no simple way to assess the IEQ
and in most of the cases the architects and building design
engineers have to pass through numerous software simulations
and complicated calculations during the design stage. Moreover,
the task of optimization becomes even more difcult if one wants
to make parametric analysis on several design parameters. In this

article, simple mathematical models have been developed in

order to predict certain indoor parameters (operative temperature, average illuminance, sound pressure level, indoor air
quality) that could inuence the IEQ. In the early building design
stage these models can replace dynamic simulations and they are
easier to understand and use than the complex software
programs. The models were established using the regression
technique on a large database of values obtained from simulations with several input parameters (e.g. soleair temperature,
building average U-value, outdoor sound pressure level, reverberation time, fenestration factor, etc) and outputs (e.g. operative
temperature). An IEQ index was calculated based on the models
outputs for each of the indoor comfort type (thermal, acoustic, air
quality and visual) and the overall IEQ index was later on
assessed. The prediction models were proved to be accurate
(R2 > 0.9) and they were validated with a random building situated in an East-European city. The analyzed building and
classroom gave interesting insights into the annual IEQ index
distribution and the impact of fenestration type and size on the
overall indoor conditions and energy consumption. It was found
that increasing the sound attenuation of windows from 20 dB to
40 dB could lead to a signicant improvement of the acoustic
comfort index. At the same time, a considerable energy
consumption decrease can be found when increasing the
windows thermal resistance. In the case of the analyzed climate,
the fenestration size didnt have a major inuence on the operative temperature and implicitly on the IEQ assessment. It can be
concluded that the proposed models are accurate enough when
dealing with building design or rehabilitation and can give
valuable information on the IEQ index and energy consumption.
Acknowledgments
The work described in this paper was supported the research
grants from the Romanian Ministry of Education and Research and
UEFISCDI (PN-II-RU-RP-2010-1 code 03). Special thanks to engineer
Adrian Toth for his implication in the project.
Appendix
The annual energy consumption of the building for the heating
Qh (kWh/year) and refrigeration Qr (kWh/year) are calculated as
follows:

T. Catalina, V. Iordache / Building and Environment 49 (2012) 129e140

Hqi  qe $t
F Fs $t
Qh
 h$ i
1000
1000
Fi Fs $t
Hqi  qe $t
Qr
 h$
1000
1000

[7]

(11)
[8]

where H (W/K) is the building specic heat loss, Fs (W) is the solar
heat gain, Fi (W) are the indoor heat gains, h is the utilization factor
of heat gain/loss and t is the calculation time step (h).
The average monthly Tsoleair temperature can be calculated as
follows:
n

X

qsolair

qei a$Ihi


(12)

where a is the solar radiation absorptivity of the surface (), ho is

the heat transfer coefcient for radiation (long wave) and convection (W/m2K), qe is the outdoor temperature [ C], I is the global
horizontal solar irradiance (W/m2) and n is the number of hours for
a specic month (e.g. n 744 for January). Unless already known
a default value of 0.6 can be taken for the solar radiation absorptivity and of 17.78 W/m2K for the ho. Table A1 shows the soleair
temperature calculated for different cities around the world.
Table A1
Monthly soleair temperature for different cities.

Paris
Moscow
Abu-Dhabi
Bucharest
London
Berlin
Barcelona
Shanghai
Helsinki
Rome
Vancouver
Sydney
Seattle

Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul.

Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

5.0
8.8
23.8
0.7
4.6
0.7
12.1
6.5
5.2
10.6
4.2
31.4
5.8

6.3
5.9
25.4
2.7
5.7
2.3
13.9
8.9
5.2
12.5
7.1
30.5
8.9

25.5
22.1
42.9
29.3
22.1
24.5
31.8
33.9
20.5
32.4
24.7
18.2
25.2

15.5
11.0
34.6
17.6
13.3
13.7
20.4
19.5
8.7
20.6
14.7
23.0
15.3

20.1
20.5
39.9
24.4
17.9
21.2
25.3
25.7
17.7
26.3
20.7
19.7
20.8

[11]

23.5
24.0
40.5
29.3
21.3
24.6
29.5
30.4
22.3
30.5
24.1
16.4
23.7

26.8
25.1
42.2
30.8
23.7
26.0
33.3
35.5
24.3
33.9
26.2
15.9
26.4

[13]
[14]
[15]

[16]

[17]
[18]

[19]

Jan.

10.5
1.4
30.7
9.1
8.7
7.5
17.6
13.2
0.8
16.4
10.6
27.3
11.3

[10]

[12]

ho

i1

[9]

20.6
14.4
39.8
22.7
17.9
18.9
27.6
29.6
13.5
27.5
19.5
21.8
20.8

14.6
6.9
36.3
14.8
13.3
12.4
22.0
22.3
6.7
21.6
12.9
26.1
14.5

8.1
0.5
29.8
7.2
7.6
5.8
16.0
15.3
0.7
15.1
7.7
28.2
8.9

5.9
5.3
25.7
1.6
5.3
2.1
12.8
9.4
3.8
11.6
4.5
30.4
5.9

A calculation example of the Fsed is presented:

Lets considered a room of 60 m2 oor area with two external
walls of 25 m2 each orientated South and respectively North with
10 m2 windows on either of them. The south equivalent surface is
calculated using Eq. (6) with A1 10 m2 and C1 1 and A2 10 m2
and C2 0.2 so Ses is equal to 12 m2. Further on the glazing surfacefacade distribution is calculated with Eq. (7) and the obtained value
is 3.96 m2, with WFR 0.333.

[20]
[21]

[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]

[28]
[29]

[30]

[31]

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Nomenclature
References
[1] Lai ACK, Mui KW, Wong LT, Law LY. An evaluation model for indoor environmental quality (IEQ) acceptance in residential buildings. Energy Build
2009;41:930e6.
[2] ISO 13790. Energy performance of buildings e calculation of energy use for
space heating and cooling, 2008; 2008.
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behaviour and control of indoor environment in Danish dwellings. Energy
Build 2009;41(1):11e6.
[4] Kamaruzzamana Syahrul Nizam, Egbu CO, Ahmad Zawawic Emma Marinie,
Ali Azlan Shah, Che-Anid Adi Irfan. The effect of indoor environmental quality
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[5] Dascalaki Elena G, Gaglia Athina G, Balaras Lagoudi Constantinos A,
Lagoudi Argyro. Indoor environmental quality in Hellenic hospital operating
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[6] Wong Siu-Kei, Lai Lawrence Wai-Chung, Ho Daniel Chi-Wing, Chau KwongWing, Lam Cindy Lo-Kuen, Ng Chris Hung-Fai. Sick building syndrome and

139

a: solar radiation absorptivity of the surface ()

Ai: surface of element i (m2)
Aoor: surface of the oor (m2)
ACH: air change per hour (vol h1)
Ci: orientation coefcient ()
Db: room sound attenuation (dB)
E: relative errors (%)
Eav: monthly average illuminance (lx)
f: frequency (Hz)
hc: convective heat transfer coefcient (W m2 K1)
hr: linear radiative heat transfer coefcient (W m2 K1)
Qair: volume of fresh air (m3 pers1)
Qh: heating energy demand (kWh year1)
Qr: cooling energy demand (kWh year1)
Fsed: fenestration size and faade distribution factor (m2)
qh: specic heating energy demand (kWh m3 year1)
qr: specic cooling energy demand (kWh m3 year1)
IIEQ: indoor environmental quality index ()
IIAQ: indoor air quality index ()

140
Ith: indoor thermal comfort index ()
Ia: indoor acoustic comfort index ()
Iv: indoor visual comfort index ()
li: length of thermal bridge (m)
Lpo: global outdoor sound pressure level (dBA)
Lpi: global indoor sound pressure level (dBA)
Rwall: wall sound attenuation (dB)
Rwindow: window sound attenuation (dB)
Rf: faade sound attenuation (dB)
Rs/v: ratio heat loss surface to volume (m1)
Ses: windows south equivalent surface (m2)
R: correlation coefcient ()
Pr: Predicted values
qsoleair: monthly mean soleair temperature ( C)
qo: operative temperature ( C)
qmr: mean radiant temperature ( C)

T. Catalina, V. Iordache / Building and Environment 49 (2012) 129e140

qe: exterior air temperature ( C)

qi: indoor air temperature ( C)
Tr: room reverberation time (s)
U: element thermal transmittance (W m2 K1)
Ubui: building average U-value (W m2 K1)
V: room volume (m3)
Sim: Simulated values
WFR: window to oor surfaces ratio ()
WWR: window to wall surfaces ratio ()
Xi: regression models input parameters ()
Yi: regression models output parameters ()
Greek symbols
a,b,d: regression models coefcients
rwall: density of the wall (kg m2)
zI: linear thermal bridges coefcients (W m1K1)