INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION (CoE 345)

B Eng
This module is 12 credits 6hrs per week.
Skills expected are:
Ability to determine the usage of computers in industrial production
Ability to configure computer controlled system.
Ability to design data acquisition boards.
Ability to design configures, and writes ladder programs for PLC controlled systems.
This includes the following topics:
Computerized control system configuration; Signal multiplexing; systems
communication; programming system interfacing; Graphic programming; PLC
programming languages, wiring diagrams and ladder programmers, programmable
timers, programmable counters, programmable registers; programmed control;; PLC
troubleshooting; systems troubleshooting and repair; Computer aided design (CAD);
Computer aided manufacturing (CAM);Industrial/Manufacturing automation protocol
(MAP); software applications in industrial controls. Data Acquisition Devices design
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]

Banister, B.R, 1986; transducer and interfacing: Van No strand Reinhold

Barney, G., (1988), Intelligent instrumentation, microprocessor application in
measurement and control, Prentice Hall.;
Cluley, J.C, (1983), Transducers for microprocessor systems, Macmillan,
Graig, J.J., (1984), Introduction to robotics, Addison Hall
Groover, M.P.,(1984), Computer aided design and manufacturing, Prentice
Hall
Petruzella, F.D, (1990), Programmable logic controllers, McGraw Hill books
Bradeley, (1991), Machatronics: Chapman and Hall,
Kenjo, T.:Stepping, (1984); motors and their microprocessor controls, Oxford
Scientific
Web, (1988), Programmable controllers, principles and application: Merrill
Publishing:.

INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION
Industrial automation is the use of robotic devices to complete manufacturing tasks. In this
day and age of computers, industrial automation is becoming increasingly important in the

manufacturing process because computerized or robotic machines are capable of

handling repetitive tasks quickly and efficiently. Machines used in industrial automation
are also capable of completing mundane tasks that are not desirable to workers. In
addition, the company can save money because it does not need to pay for expensive
benefits for this specialized machinery. There are both pros and cons for a company when
it comes to industrial automation.
WHAT IS AUTOMATION:
Automation is the use of control systems (such as numerical control, programmable logic
control, and other industrial control systems), in concert with other applications of
information technology (such as computer-aided technologies [CAD, CAM, CAx]), to control
industrial machinery and processes, reducing the need for human intervention. In the scope
of industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization
provided human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements of
work, automation greatly reduces the need for human sensory and mental requirements as
well. Processes and systems can also be automated.
Automation plays an increasingly important role in the world economy and in daily
experience. Engineers strive to combine automated devices with mathematical and
organizational tools to create complex systems for a rapidly expanding range of
applications and human activities.
Many roles for humans in industrial processes presently lie beyond the scope of
automation. Human-level pattern recognition, language recognition, and language
production ability are well beyond the capabilities of modern mechanical and computer
systems. Tasks requiring subjective assessment or synthesis of complex sensory data,
such as scents and sounds, as well as high-level tasks such as strategic planning, currently
require human expertise. In many cases, the use of humans is more cost-effective than
mechanical approaches even where automation of industrial tasks is possible.
Specialised hardened computers, referred to as programmable logic controllers (PLCs), are
frequently used to synchronize the flow of inputs from (physical) sensors and events with
the flow of outputs to actuators and events. This leads to precisely controlled actions that
permit a tight control of almost any industrial process.
Human-machine interfaces (HMI) or computer human interfaces (CHI), formerly known as
man-machine interfaces, are usually employed to communicate with PLCs and other
computers, such as entering and monitoring temperatures or pressures for further
automated control or emergency response. Service personnel who monitor and control
these interfaces are often referred to as stationary engineers in boiler houeses or central
utilities departments. In most industrial process and manufacturing environments, these
roles are called operators or variations on this.
IMPACT
Automation has had a notable impact in a wide range of highly visible industries beyond
manufacturing. Once-ubiquitous telephone operators have been replaced largely by
automated telephone switchboards and answering machines. Medical processes such as
primary screening in electrocardiography or radiography and laboratory analysis of human

genes, sera, cells, and tissues are carried out at much greater speed and accuracy by
automated systems. Automated teller machines have reduced the need for bank visits to
obtain cash and carry out transactions. In general, automation has been responsible for the
shift in the world economy from agrarian to industrial in the 19th century and from industrial
to services in the 20th century.
The widespread impact of industrial automation raises social issues, among them its impact
on employment. Historical concerns about the effects of automation date back to the
beginning of the industrial revolution, when a social movement of English textile machine
operators in the early 1800s known as the Luddites protested against Jacquard's
automated weaving looms often by destroying such textile machines that they felt
threatened their jobs. One author made the following case. When automation was first
introduced, it caused widespread fear. It was thought that the displacement of human
operators by computerized systems would lead to severe unemployment.
Critics of automation contend that increased industrial automation causes increased
unemployment; this was a pressing concern during the 1980s. One argument claims that
this has happened invisibly in recent years, as the fact that many manufacturing jobs left
the United States during the early 1990s was offset by a one-time massive increase in IT
jobs at the same time. Some authors argue that the opposite has often been true, and that
automation has led to higher employment. Under this point of view, the freeing up of the
labour force has allowed more people to enter higher skilled managerial as well as
specialised consultant/contractor jobs (like cryptographers), which are typically higher
paying. One odd side effect of this shift is that "unskilled labour" is in higher demand in
many first-world nations, because fewer people are available to fill such jobs.
At first glance, automation might appear to devalue labor through its replacement with lessexpensive machines; however, the overall effect of this on the workforce as a whole
remains unclear. Today automation of the workforce is quite advanced, and continues to
advance increasingly more rapidly throughout the world and is encroaching on ever more
skilled jobs, yet during the same period the general well-being and quality of life of most
people in the world (where political factors have not muddied the picture) have improved
dramatically. What role automation has played in these changes has not been well studied
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
The main advantages of automation are:

Replacing human operators in tasks that involve hard physical or monotonous work
Replacing humans in tasks that should be done in dangerous environments (i.e. fire,
space, volcanoes, nuclear facilities, underwater, etc)
Making tasks that are beyond the human capabilities such as handling too heavy
loads, too large objects, too hot or too cold substances or the requirement to make
things too fast or too slow.
Economy improvement. Sometimes and some kinds of automation implies improves
in economy of enterprises, society or most of humankind. For example, when an
enterprise that has invested in automation technology recovers its investment; when
a state or country increases its income due to automation like Germany or Japan in
the 20th Century or when the humankind can use the internet which in turn use
satellites and other automated engines.

The main disadvantages of automation are:

Technology limits. Current technology is unable to automate all the desired tasks.
Unpredictable development costs. The research and development cost of
automating a process is difficult to predict accurately beforehand. Since this cost can
have a large impact on profitability, it's possible to finish automating a process only
to discover that there's no economic advantage in doing so.
Initial costs are relatively high. The automation of a new product required a huge
initial investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product, although the cost of
automation is spread in many product batches. The automation of a plant required a
great initial investment too, although this cost is spread in the products to be
produced.

Controversial factors

Unemployment. It is commonly thought that automation implies unemployment

because the work of a human being is replaced in part or completely by a machine.
Nevertheless, the unemployment is caused by the economical politics of the
administration like dismissing the workers instead of changing their tasks. Since the
general economical policies of most of the industrial plants are to dismiss people,
nowadays automation implies unemployment. In different scenarios without workers,
automation implies more free time instead of unemployment like the case with the
automatic washing machine at home. Automation does not imply unemployment
when it makes tasks unimaginable without automation such as exploring mars with
the Sojourner or when the economy is fully adapted to an automated technology as
with the Telephone switchboard.

Environment. The costs of automation to the environment are different depending on

the technology, product or engine automated. There are automated engines that
consume more energy resources from the Earth in comparison with previous
engines and those that do the opposite too.

Human being replacement. In the future there is a possibility that the Artificial
intelligence could replace and improve a human brain and the robots would become
not only fully automated but fully autonomous from the human beings (Technological
singularity)

Automation tools
Different types of automation tools exist:

ANN - Artificial neural network

DCS - Distributed Control System
HMI - Human Machine Interface
SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
PLC - Programmable Logic Controller
PAC - Programmable Automation Controller
Instrumentation
Motion control

Robotics

1. An artificial neural network (ANN), usually called "neural network" (NN), is a

mathematical model or computational model that tries to simulate the structure
and/or functional aspects of biological neural networks. It consists of an
interconnected group of artificial neurons and processes information using a
connectionist approach to computation. In most cases an ANN is an adaptive system
that changes its structure based on external or internal information that flows
through the network during the learning phase. Neural networks are non-linear
statistical data modeling tools. They can be used to model complex relationships
between inputs and outputs or to find patterns in data.
2. A distributed control system (DCS) refers to a control system usually of a
manufacturing system, process or any kind of dynamic system, in which the
controller elements are not central in location (like the brain) but are distributed
throughout the system with each component sub-system controlled by one or more
controllers. The entire system of controllers is connected by networks for
communication and monitoring. DCS is a very broad term used in a variety of
industries, to monitor and control distributed equipment.

Electrical power grids and electrical generation plants

Environmental control systems
Traffic signals
radio signals
Water management systems
Oil refining plants
Chemical plants
Pharmaceutical manufacturing
Sensor networks
Dry cargo and bulk oil carrier ships

User interface

In the industrial design field of human-machine interaction, the user interface is (a

place) where interaction between humans and machines occurs. The goal of interaction
between a human and a machine at the user interface is effective operation and control of
the machine, and feedback from the machine which aids the operator in making operational
decisions. Examples of this broad concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects
of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls. and
process controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are
related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology.
A user interface is the system by which people (users) interact with a machine. The user
interface includes hardware (physical) and software (logical) components. User interfaces
exist for various systems, and provide a means of:

Input, allowing the users to manipulate a system, and/or

Output, allowing the system to indicate the effects of the users' manipulation.

Generally, the goal of human-machine interaction engineering is to produce a user interface

which makes it easy, efficient, enjoyable to operate a machine in the way which produces
the desired result. This generally means that the operator needs to provide minimal input to
achieve the desired output, and also that the machine minimizes undesired outputs to the
human.
Ever since the increased use of personal computers and the relative decline in societal
awareness of heavy machinery, the term user interface has taken on overtones of the
(graphical) user interface, while industrial control panel and machinery control design
discussions more commonly refer to human-machine interfaces.
Other terms for user interface include human-computer interface (HCI) and manmachine interface (MMI).
4.
SCADA stands for supervisory control and data acquisition. It generally refers to an
industrial control system: a computer system monitoring and controlling a process. The
process can be industrial, infrastructure or facility-based as described below:

Industrial processes include those of manufacturing, production, power generation,

fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete
modes.
Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and
distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical
power transmission and distribution, civil defense siren systems, and large
communication systems.
Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones, including buildings,
airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control HVAC, access, and
energy consumption.

Common system components

A SCADA System usually consists of the following subsystems:

A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents process data to

a human operator, and through this, the human operator monitors and controls the
process.
A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the process and
sending commands (control) to the process.
Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in the process, converting
sensor signals to digital data and sending digital data to the supervisory system.
Programmable Logic Controller (PLCs) used as field devices because they are more
economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs.
Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the Remote
Terminal Units.

Supervision vs. control

There is, in several industries, considerable confusion over the differences between
SCADA systems and distributed control systems (DCS). Generally speaking, a SCADA
system usually refers to a system that coordinates, but does not control processes in real
time. The discussion on real-time control is muddied somewhat by newer
telecommunications technology, enabling reliable, low latency, high speed communications
over wide areas. Most differences between SCADA and DCS are culturally determined and
can usually be ignored. As communication infrastructures with higher capacity become
available, the difference between SCADA and DCS will fade.
Systems concepts
The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems which monitor and control entire
sites, or complexes of systems spread out over large areas (anything between an industrial
plant and a country). Most control actions are performed automatically by Remote Terminal
Units ("RTUs") or by programmable logic controllers ("PLCs"). Host control functions are
usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level intervention. For example, a PLC
may control the flow of cooling water through part of an industrial process, but the SCADA
system may allow operators to change the set points for the flow,and enable alarm
conditions, such as loss of flow and high temperature, to be displayed and recorded. The
feedback control loop passes through the RTU or PLC, while the SCADA system monitors
the overall performance of the loop.
5.

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is a digital

computer used for automation of electromechanical processes,such as control of
machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are
used in many industries and machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is
designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges,
immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to
control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile
memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results must be
produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended
operation will result

6.

Instrumentation: Instrumentation is the branch of engineering that deals with

measurement and control.
According to ISA or known as Instrumentation and Systems Automation Society
formerly known as Instrument Society of America, the official definition of
Instrumentation - is a collection of Instruments and their application for the purpose
of Observation, Measurement and Control. Reference: ISA std. S 51.1 (Instrument
Society of America)
An instrument is a device that measures or manipulates variables such as flow,
temperature, level, or pressure. Instruments include many varied contrivances which
can be as simple as valves and transmitters, and as complex as analyzers.
Instruments often comprise control systems of varied processes. The control of
processes is one of the main branches of applied instrumentation.

Control instrumentation includes devices such as solenoids, valves, circuit breakers,

and relays. These devices are able to change a field parameter, and provide remote or
automated control capabilities.
Transmitters are devices which produce an analog signal, usually in the form of a 4
20 mA electrical current signal, although many other options using voltage, frequency,
or pressure are possible. This signal can be used to control other instruments directly,
or it can be sent to a PLC, DCS, SCADA system, or other type of computerized
controller, where it can be interpreted into readable values and used to control other
devices and processes in the system.
Instrumentation plays a significant role in both gathering information from the field and
changing the field parameters, and as such are a key part of control loops.

MEASUREMENT
Instrumentation can be used to measure certain field parameters (physical values):
These measured values include:

pressure, either differential or static

flow
temperature - Temperature_measurement
level - Level Measurement
density
viscosity
radiation
frequency
current
voltage
inductance
capacitance
resistivity
chemical composition
chemical properties
various physical properties

Control: In addition to measuring field parameters, instrumentation is also responsible

for providing the ability to modify some field parameters.
Instrumentation engineering
Instrumentation engineering is the engineering specialization focused on the principle
and operation of measuring instruments which are used in design and configuration of
automated systems in electrical, pneumatic domains etc. They typically work for industries
with automated processes, such as chemical or manufacturing plants, with the goal of
improving system productivity, reliability, safety, optimization and stability. To control the

parameters in a process or in a particular system Microprocessors , Micro controllers ,PLCs

etc are used, but their ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system.
Instrumentation technologists and mechanics
Instrumentation technologists, technicians and mechanics specialize in troubleshooting and
repairing and maintenance of instruments and instrumentation systems. This trade is so
intertwined with electricians, pipefitters, power engineers, and engineering companies, that
one can find him/herself in extremely diverse working situations. An over-arching term,
"Instrument Fitter" is often used to describe people in this field, regardless of any
specialization.ll nvkgjgkjb
7.

Motion control

Motion control is a sub-field of automation, in which the position and/or velocity of

machines are controlled using some type of device such as a hydraulic pump, linear
actuator, or an electric motor, generally a servo. Motion control is an important part of
robotics and CNC machine tools, however it is more complex than in the use of specialized
machines, where the kinematics are usually simpler. The latter is often called General
Motion Control (GMC). Motion control is widely used in the packaging, printing, textile,
semiconductor production, and assembly industries.
The basic architecture of a motion control system contains:

A motion controller to generate set points (the desired output or motion profile) and
close a position and/or velocity feedback loop.
A drive or amplifier to transform the control signal from the motion controller into a
higher power electrical current or voltage that is presented to the actuator. Newer
"intelligent" drives can close the position and velocity loops internally, resulting in
much more accurate control.
An actuator such as a hydraulic pump, air cylinder, linear actuator, or electric motor
for output motion.
One or more feedback sensors such as optical encoders, resolvers or Hall effect
devices to return the position and/or velocity of the actuator to the motion controller
in order to close the position and/or velocity control loops.
Mechanical components to transform the motion of the actuator into the desired
motion, including: gears, shafting, ball screw, belts, linkages, and linear and
rotational bearings.

The interface between the motion controller and drives it controls is very critical when
coordinated motion is required, as it must provide tight synchronization. Historically the only
open interface was an analog signal, until open interfaces were developed that satisfied the
requirements of coordinated motion control, the first being SERCOS in 1991. Later
interfaces capable of motion control include Profinet IRT and EtherCAT.
Common control functions include:

Velocity control.

8.

Position (point-to-point) control: There are several methods for computing a motion
trajectory. These are often based on the velocity profiles of a move such as a
triangular profile, trapezoidal profile, or an S-curve profile.
Pressure or Force control.
Trans-mutational vector mapping.
Electronic gearing (or cam profiling): The position of a slave axis is mathematically
linked to the position of a master axis. A good example of this would be in a system
where two rotating drums turn at a given ratio to each other. A more advanced case
of electronic gearing is electronic camming. With electronic camming, a slave axis
follows a profile that is a function of the master position. This profile need not be
salted, but it must be an animated function.
Robotics: Robotics is the engineering science and technology of robots, and their
design, manufacture, application, and structural disposition. Robotics is related to
electronics, mechanics, and software.[1] The word robot was introduced to the public
by Czech writer Karel apek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots),
published in 1920. The term "robotics" was coined by Isaac Asimov in his 1941
science fiction short-story "Liar!"[2]
Structure
The structure of a robot is usually mostly mechanical and can be called a kinematic
chain (its functionality being similar to the skeleton of the human body). The chain is
formed of links (its bones), actuators (its muscles), and joints which can allow one or
more degrees of freedom. Most contemporary robots use open serial chains in which
each link connects the one before to the one after it. These robots are called serial
robots and often resemble the human arm. Some robots, such as the Stewart
platform, use a closed parallel kinematical chain. Other structures, such as those that
mimic the mechanical structure of humans, various animals, and insects, are
comparatively rare. However, the development and use of such structures in robots is
an active area of research (e.g. biomechanics). Robots used as manipulators have an
end effector mounted on the last link. This end effector can be anything from a welding
device to a mechanical hand used to manipulate the environment.

Data Acquisition Techniques

Data acquisition and control systems need to get real-world signals into the computer.
These signals come from a diverse range of instruments and sensors, and each type of
signal needs special consideration. This page highlights points to think about, and should
help you identify the most suitable interface for your measurements. The following
techniques are covered:

Voltage signals (voltage, conditioned transducer, level and flow measurement)

High impedance probes (concentration measurement)

Current signals (current and conditioned transducer measurement)

Power signals (power supply, current and voltage measurement)
Thermocouples (temperature measurement)
Resistance (temperature, displacement and light level measurement)
Strain gauge bridges (strain measurement)
Excitation (force, pressure, relative humidity, temperature, level, light level,
concentration and vibration measurement)
LVDTs (displacement measurement)
Encoders (angular position measurement)
Counter-Timers (speed and flow measurement)
Digital signals (on/off measurement)

Introduction to Data Acquisition

Data acquisition is the process of measuring an electrical or physical phenomenon such as

voltage, current, temperature, pressure, or sound. PC-based data acquisition uses a
combination of modular hardware, application software, and a computer to take
measurements. While each data acquisition (DAQ) system is defined by its application
requirements, every system shares a common goal of acquiring, analyzing, and presenting
information. Data acquisition systems incorporate signals, sensors, actuators, signal
conditioning, DAQ devices, and application software.

Four Components of a Data Acquisition System

1. Transducers/Sensors
Data acquisition begins with the physical phenomenon to be measured. This physical
phenomenon could be the room temperature, the intensity of a light source, the pressure
inside a chamber, the force applied to an object, or many other things. A transducer, or
sensor, is a device that converts a physical phenomenon into a measurable electrical
signal, such as voltage or current. There are specific transducers for different measurement
applications, such as thermocouples for temperature, strain gages for pressure, or
microphones for sound.

2. Signal Conditioning
Sometimes transducers generate signals too difficult or too dangerous to measure directly
with a data acquisition device. For instance, when working with high voltages, noisy
environments, or extreme high and low signals, signal conditioning is essential for an
effective data acquisition system. Signal conditioning maximizes the accuracy of a system,
gives sensors the ability to operate properly, and guarantees safety. Some data acquisition
hardware has integrated signal conditioning so you can connect a sensor directly to an
input channel.
3. Data Acquisition Hardware
Data acquisition hardware acts as the interface between the computer and the outside
world. It primarily functions as a device that digitizes incoming analog signals so the
computer can interpret them. Other data acquisition hardware functionality includes analog
output, digital I/O, counter/timers, and triggering and synchronization circuitry.
4. Driver and Application Software
Software transforms the PC and data acquisition hardware into a complete data acquisition,
analysis, and data visualization tool. There are two layers of software in a data acquisition
system: driver software and application software. Driver software is the communication
layer between the application software and the hardware. The application layer can be
either a development environment in which you build a custom application that meets
specific criteria, or it can be a configuration-based program with preset functionality.
Application software adds analysis and visualization capabilities to driver software.
Four Considerations for Your Data Acquisition System
1. Measurements and I/O Types
The appropriate transducers convert physical phenomena into measurable signals;
however, different signals need to be measured in different ways. Signals fall into two
categories: analog or digital. An analog signal can be at any value with respect to time. A
few examples of analog signals include voltage, temperature, pressure, sound, and load.
When choosing data acquisition hardware for analog measurements, you should consider
the number of analog channels, max sampling rate, resolution, and input signal ranges. In
contrast, a digital signal cannot take on any value with respect to time. Instead, a digital
signal has two possible levels: high and low. When choosing data acquisition hardware for
digital measurements, you should consider the number of digital channels, logic family
compatibility, and digital logic levels.
2. Form Factor
Data acquisition hardware platforms are chosen based on application requirements or even
personal preference. Because desktop computers are often readily available, many
engineers and scientists choose PCI or PCI Express data acquisition (DAQ) boards that
plug directly into their computer. However, some prefer a more portable solution such as a
USB data acquisition device that can plug into desktop computers as well as laptops. For
higher-performance applications, DAQ modules are available for PXI/CompactPCI and
PXI Express, a more rugged modular computer platform specifically for measurement and
automation applications. The latest generation of DAQ devices offer connectivity over
wireless and cabled Ethernet.
3. Software and Programming Language

There are many software options that you can use to take advantage of your data
acquisition hardware. Configuration-based utilities, such as NI LabVIEW SignalExpress,
require no programming and make taking basic measurements, data logging, and analysis
easy. When building your own custom application, you can choose from several APIs for
programming languages such as LabVIEW, ANSI C, C++, Visual Basic, Visual Basic .NET,
and C# .NET.
4. Performance Factors
While there are a variety of form factors for data acquisition hardware, specific buses offer
better performance for certain applications than others. When evaluating bus performance,
you should consider factors such as bandwidth, latency, synchronization, and portability.
Bandwidth is a measure of the rate at which data is sent across the bus, typically in
megabytes per second (MB/s), and latency is a measure of the delay in data transmission.
Internal plug-in buses like PCI Express and PXI Express provide the highest throughput
and lowest latency of all bus options. New technologies such as NI signal streaming make
it possible for sustained high-speed and bidirectional data streams over USB to achieve
maximum throughput on USB data acquisition devices. Another performance consideration
is measurement accuracy. While every National Instruments DAQ module is calibrated after
production, accuracy will still drift according to time and temperature. Technologies such as
NI-MCal improve device accuracy by using software self-calibration to characterize and
correct this error.

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

INTRODUCTION
Control engineering has evolved over time. In the past humans were the main methods for
controlling a system. More recently electricity has been used for control and early electrical
control was based on relays. These relays allow power to be switched on and off without a
mechanical switch. It is common to use relays to make simple logical control decisions. The
development of low cost computer has brought the most recent revolution, the
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). The advent of the PLC began in the 1970s, and has
become the most common choice for manufacturing controls.
PLCs have been gaining popularity on the factory floor and will probably remain
predominant for some time to come. Most of this is because of the advantages they offer.
Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily.
Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.
Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before failure.
Ladder Logic
Ladder logic is the main programming method used for PLCs. As mentioned before, ladder
logic has been developed to mimic relay logic. The decision to use the relay logic diagrams
was a strategic one. By selecting ladder logic as the main programming method, the
amount of retraining needed for engineers and tradespeople was greatly reduced.
Modern control systems still include relays, but these are rarely used for logic. A relay is a
simple device that uses a magnetic field to control a switch, as pictured in Figure

2.1. When a voltage is applied to the input coil, the resulting current creates a magnetic
field. The magnetic field pulls a metal switch (or reed) towards it and the contacts touch,
closing the switch. The contact that closes when the coil is energized is called normally
open. The normally closed contacts touch when the input coil is not energized. Relays are
normally drawn in schematic form using a circle to represent the input coil. The output
contacts are shown with two parallel lines. Normally open contacts are shown as two lines,
and will be open (non-conducting) when the input is not energized. Normally closed
contacts are shown with two lines with a diagonal line through them. When the input coil is
not energized the normally closed contacts will be closed (conducting).

Relays are used to let one power source close a switch for another (often high current)
power source, while keeping them isolated. An example of a relay in a simple control
application is shown in Figure 2.2. In this system the first relay on the left is used as
normally closed, and will allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to the input A. The
second relay is normally open and will not allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to
the input B. If current is flowing through the first two relays then current will flow through the
coil in the third relay, and close the switch for output C. This circuit would normally be
drawn in the ladder logic form. This can be read logically as C will be on if A is off and B is
on.

The example in Figure 2.2 does not show the entire control system, but only the logic.
When we consider a PLC there are inputs, outputs, and the logic. Figure 2.3 shows a more
complete representation of the PLC. Here there are two inputs from push buttons.
We can imagine the inputs as activating 24V DC relay coils in the PLC. This in turn drives
an output relay that switches 115V AC that will turn on a light. Note, in actual PLCs inputs
are never relays, but outputs are often relays. The ladder logic in the PLC is actually a
computer program that the user can enter and change. Notice that both of the input push
buttons are normally open, but the ladder logic inside the PLC has one normally open
contact, and one normally closed contact. Do not think that the ladder logic in the PLC
needs to match the inputs or outputs. Many beginners will get caught trying to make the
ladder logic match the input types.

OPERATION SEQUENCE
All PLCs have four basic stages of operations that are repeated many times per second. Initially
when turned on the first time it will check its own hardware and software for faults. If there are no
problems it will copy all the input and copy their values into memory, this is called the input scan.
Using only the memory copy of the inputs the ladder logic program will be solved once, this is
called the logic scan. While solving the ladder logic the output values are only changed in temporary
memory. When the ladder scan is done the outputs will updated using the temporary values in
memory, this is called the output scan. The PLC now restarts the process by starting a self check for
faults. This process typically repeats 10 to 100 times per second.

The Input and Output Scans

When the inputs to the PLC are scanned the physical input values are copied into memory. When the
outputs to a PLC are scanned they are copied from memory to the physical outputs. When the ladder
logic is scanned it uses the values in memory, not the actual input or output values. The primary
reason for doing this is so that if a program uses an input value in multiple places, a change in the
input value will not invalidate the logic.

Also, if output bits were changed as each bit was changed, instead of all at once at the end of the
scan the PLC would operate much slower.

The Logic Scan

Ladder logic programs are modelled after relay logic. In relay logic each element in the ladder will
switch as quickly as possible. But in program elements can only be examines one at a time in a fixed
sequence. Consider the ladder logic in Figure 8.4, them ladder logic will be interpreted left-to-right,
top-to-bottom. In the figure the ladder logic scan begins at the top rung. At the end of the rung it
interprets the top output first, and then the output branched below it. On the second rung it solves
branches, before moving along the ladder logic rung.

The logic scans sequence become important when solving ladder logic programs which use outputs
as inputs. It also becomes important when considering output usage. Consider Figure 8.4, the first
line of ladder logic will examine input 1amd 2 and set output 3 and 4 to have the same value. The
second line will examine input 5, 6, and 9 and set the output 11. Recall that during the logic scan the
outputs are only changed in memory, the actual outputs are only updated when the ladder logic scan
is complete. Therefore the output scan would update the real outputs based upon the second line of
ladder logic, and the first line of ladder logic would be ineffective.

PLC STATUS
The lack of keyboard and other input-output devices is very noticeable on a PLC.
On the front of the PLC there are normally limited status lights. Common lights indicate; power on this will be on whenever the PLC has power program running - this will often indicate if a program
is running, or if no program is running fault - this will indicate when the PLC has experienced a
major hardware or software problem
These lights are normally used for debugging. Limited buttons will also be provided for PLC
hardware. The most common will be a run/program switch that will be switched to program when
maintenance is being conducted, and back to run when in production.
This switch normally requires a key to keep unauthorized personnel from altering the PLC program
or stopping execution. A PLC will almost never have an on-off switch or reset button on the front.
This needs to be designed into the remainder of the system.
The status of the PLC can be detected by ladder logic also. It is common for programs to check to
see if they are being executed for the first time.

The first scan input will be true the very first time the ladder logic is scanned, but false on every
other scan. In this case the address for first scan in a PLC-5 is S2:1/14. With the logic in the
example the first scan will seal on light, until clear is turned on. So the light will turn on after the
PLC has been turned on, but it will turn off and stay off after clear is turned on. The first scan bit
is also referred to at the first pass bit.

MEMORY TYPES
There are a few basic types of computer memory that are in use today.
RAM (Random Access Memory) - this memory is fast, but it will lose its contents when power is
lost, this is known as volatile memory. Every PLC uses this memory for the central CPU when
running the PLC.
ROM (Read Only Memory) - this memory is permanent and cannot be erased. It is often used for
storing the operating system for the PLC.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) - this is memory that can be programmed to
behave like ROM, but it can be erased with ultraviolet light and reprogrammed.
EEPROM (Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) This memory can store
programs like ROM. It can be programmed and erased using a voltage, so it is becoming more
popular than EPROMs.
All PLCs use RAM for the CPU and ROM to store the basic operating system for the PLC. When
the power is on the contents of the RAM will be kept, but the issue is what happens when power to
the memory is lost. Originally PLC vendors used RAM with a battery so that the memory contents
would not be lost if the power was lost. This method is still in use, but is losing favor. EPROMs have
also been a popular choice for programming PLCs. The EPROM is programmed out of the PLC, and
then placed in the PLC. When the
PLC is turned on the ladder logic program on the EPROM is loaded into the PLC and run.
This method can be very reliable, but the erasing and programming technique can be time
consuming. EEPROM memories are a permanent part of the PLC, and programs can be stored in
them like EPROM. Memory costs continue to drop, and newer types (such as flash memory) are
becoming available, and these changes will continue to impact PLCs.

SOFTWARE BASED PLCS

The dropping cost of personal computers is increasing their use in control, including the replacement
of PLCs. Software is installed that allows the personal computer to solve ladder logic, read inputs
from sensors and update outputs to actuators. These are important to mention here because they
dont obey the previous timing model. For example, if the computer is running a game it may slow
or halt the computer. This issue and others are currently being investigated and good solutions
should be expected soon.

LATCHES, TIMERS, COUNTERS AND MORE

INTRODUCTION
More complex systems cannot be controlled with combinatorial logic alone. The main reason for this
is that we cannot, or choose not to add sensors to detect all conditions.
In these cases we can use events to estimate the condition of the system. Typical events used by a
PLC include;

LATCHES
A latch is like a sticky switch - when pushed it will turn on, but stick in place, it must be pulled to
release it and turn it off. A latch in ladder logic uses one instruction to latch, and a second instruction

to unlatch, as shown in Figure 9.2. The output with an L inside will turn the output D on when the
input A becomes true. D will stay on even if A turns off. Output D will turn off if input B becomes
true and the output with a U inside becomes true (Note: this will seem a little backwards at first). If
an output has been latched on, it will keep its value, even if the power has been turned off.

The operation of the ladder logic in Figure 9.2 is illustrated with a timing diagram in Figure 9.3. A
timing diagram shows values of inputs and outputs over time. For example the value of input A starts
low (false) and becomes high (true) for a short while, and then goes low again. Here when input A
turns on both the outputs turn on. There is a slight delay between the change in inputs and the
resulting changes in outputs, due to the program scan time. Here the dashed lines represent the
output scan, sanity check and input scan (assuming they are very short.) The space between the
dashed lines is the ladder logic scan. Consider that when A turns on initially it is not detected until
the first dashed line.
There is then a delay to the next dashed line while the ladder is scanned, and then the output at the
next dashed line. When A eventually turns off, the normal output C turns off, but the latched output
D stays on. Input B will unlatch the output D. Input B turns on twice, but the first time it is on is not
long enough to be detected by an input scan, so it is ignored.
The second time it is on it unlatches output D and output D turns off.

Figure 9.3 A Timing Diagram for the Ladder Logic in Figure 9.2

TIMERS

There are four fundamental types of timers shown in Figure 9.7. An on-delay timer will wait for a set
time after a line of ladder logic has been true before turning on, but it will turn off immediately. An
off-delay timer will turn on immediately when a line of ladder logic is true, but it will delay before
turning off. Consider the example of an old car. If you turn the key in the ignition and the car does
not start immediately, that is an on-delay.
If you turn the key to stop the engine but the engine doesnt stop for a few seconds that is an off
delay. An on-delay timer can be used to allow an oven to reach temperature before starting
production. An off delay timer can keep cooling fans on for a set time after the

Figure 9.7 The Four Basic Timer Types

A retentive timer will sum all of the on or off time for a timer, even if the timer never finished. A no
retentive timer will start timing the delay from zero each time. Typical applications for retentive
timers include tracking the time before maintenance is needed. A non retentive timer can be used for
a start button to give a short delay before a conveyor begins moving.
Example 1 of timer application
Consider the short ladder logic program in Figure 9.13 for control of a heating oven. The system is
started with a Start button that seals in the Auto mode. This can be stopped if the Stop button is
pushed. (Remember: Stop buttons are normally closed.)
When the Auto goes on initially the TON timer is used to sound the horn for the first 10 seconds to
warn that the oven will start, and after that the horn stops and the heating coils start. When the oven
is turned off the fan continues to blow for 300s or 5 minutes after

Example 2 of timer application

A program is shown in Figure 9.14 that will flash a light once every second. When the PLC starts,
the second timer will be off and the T4:1/DN bit will be off, therefore the normally closed input to
the first timer will be on. T4:0 will start timing until it reaches 0.5s, when it is done the second timer
will start timing, until it reaches 0.5s. At that point T4:1/DN will become true, and the input to the
first time will become false. T4:0 is then set back to zero, and then T4:1 is set back to zero. And, the
process starts again from the beginning. In this example the first timer is used to drive the second
timer. This type of arrangement is normally called cascading, and can use more that two timers.

COUNTERS
There are two basic counter types: count-up and count-down. When the input to a count-up counter
goes true the accumulator value will increase by 1 (no matter how long the input is true.) If the
accumulator value reaches the preset value the counter DN bit will be set. A count-down counter will
decrease the accumulator value until the preset value is reached.
An Allen Bradley count-up (CTU) instruction is shown in Figure 9.15. The instruction requires
memory in the PLC to store values and status, in this case is C5:0. The C5: indicates that it is

counter memory, and the 0 indicates that it is the first location. The preset value is 4 and the value in
the accumulator is 2. If the input A were to go from false to true the value in the accumulator would
increase to 3. If A were to go off, then on again the accumulator value would increase to 4, and the
DN bit would go on. The count can continue above the preset value. If input B goes true the value in
the counter accumulator will become zero.

Count-down counters are very similar to count-up counters. And, they can actually both be used on
the same counter memory location. Consider the example in Figure 9.16, the example input I/1
drives the count-up instruction for counter C5:1. Input I/2 drive the count-down instruction for the
same counter location. The preset value for a counter is stored in memory location C5:1 so both the
count-up and count-down instruction must have the same preset. Input I/3 will reset the counter.

The timing diagram in Figure 9.16 illustrates the operation of the counter. If we assume that the
value in the accumulator starts at 0, then the I/1 inputs cause it to count up to 3 where it turns the
counter C5:1 on. It is then reset by input I/3 and the accumulator value goes to zero. Input I/1 then
pulses again and causes the accumulator value to increase again, until it reaches a maximum of 5.
Input I/2 then causes the accumulator value to decrease down below 3, and the counter turns off
again. Input I/1 then causes it to increase, but input I/3 resets the accumulator back to zero again, and
the pulses continue until 3 is reached near the end.
Example 1 of counter application
The program in Figure 9.17 is used to remove 5 out of every 10 parts from a conveyor with a
pneumatic cylinder. When the part is detected both counters will increase their values by 1. When
the sixth part arrives the first counter will then be done, thereby allowing the pneumatic cylinder to
actuate for any part after the fifth. The second counter will continue until the eleventh part is
detected and then both of the counters will be reset.

MASTER CONTROL RELAYS (MCRs)

In an electrical control system a Master Control Relay (MCR) is used to shut down a section of an
electrical system, as shown earlier in the electrical wiring chapter. This concept has been
implemented in ladder logic also. A section of ladder logic can be put between two lines containing
MCRs. When the first MCR coil is active, all of the intermediate ladder logic is executed up to the
second line with an MCR coil. When the first MCR coil in inactive, the ladder logic is still
examined, but all of the outputs are forced off.
Consider the example in Figure 9.18. If A is true, then the ladder logic after will be executed as
normal. If A is false the following ladder logic will be examined, but all of the outputs will be forced
off. The second MCR function appears on a line by itself and marks the end of the MCR block. After
the second MCR the program execution returns to normal. While A is true, X will equal B, and Y can
be turned on by C, and off by D. But, if A becomes false X will be forced off, and Y will be left in its

last state. Using MCR blocks to remove sections of programs will not increase the speed of program
execution significantly because the logic is still examined.

If the MCR block contained another function, such as a TON timer, turning off the MCR block
would force the timer off. As a general rule normal outputs should be outside MCR blocks, unless
they must be forced off when the MCR block is off.
HOMEWORK
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

6.

7.

Develop the ladder logic that will turn on an output light, 15 seconds after switch
A has been turned on.
Develop the ladder logic that will turn on a light, after switch A has been closed
10 times. Push button B will reset the counters.
Develop a program that will latch on an output B 20 seconds after input A has
been turned on. After A is pushed, there will be a 10 second delay until A can have
any effect again. After A has been pushed 3 times, B will be turned off.
A motor will be controlled by two switches. The Go switch will start the motor
and the Stop switch will stop it. If the Stop switch was used to stop the motor, the
Go switch must be thrown twice to start the motor. When the motor is active a
light should be turned on. The Stop switch will be wired as normally closed.
A conveyor is run by switching on or off a motor. We are positioning parts on the
conveyor with an optical detector. When the optical sensor goes on, we want to
wait 1.5 seconds, and then stop the conveyor. After a delay of 2 seconds the
conveyor will start again. We need to use a start and stop button - a light should
be on when the system is active.
For the conveyor in the last case we will add a sorting system. Gages have been
attached that indicate good or bad. If the part is good, it continues on. If the part is
bad, we do not want to delay for 2 seconds, but instead actuate a pneumatic
cylinder.
The basic requirements of the system are,

i. A toggle start switch (TS1) and a limit switch on a safety gate (LS1) must
both be on before a solenoid (SOL1) can be energized to extend a stamping
cylinder to the top of a part.
ii. While the stamping solenoid is energized, it must remain energized until a
limit switch (LS2) is activated. This second limit switch indicates the end of a
stroke. At this point the solenoid should be de-energized, thus retracting the
cylinder.
iii. When the cylinder is fully retracted a limit switch (LS3) is activated. The
cycle may not begin again until this limit switch is active.
iv. A cycle counter should also be included to allow counts of parts produced.
v. When this value exceeds 5000 the machine should shut down and a light lit
up.
vi. A safety check should be included. If the cylinder solenoid has been on for
more than 5 seconds, it suggests that the cylinder is jammed or the machine
has a fault. If this is the case, the machine should be shut down and a
maintenance light turned on.