CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “LASER-BRAZING OF

NICKEL-TITANIUM AND STAINLESS STEEL ORTHODONTIC WIRES
USING Nd:YAG LASER WELDING MACHINE” submitted by Srinivasan.T,
postgraduate student (2004-2007) , Department of Orthodontics, Tamilnadu Government
Dental College and Hospital, Chennai, to the Tamilnadu Dr.M.G.R Medical University in
partial fulfillment of the Master of Dental Surgery, Branch-V, Degree examination in
2007 is a research work done under our guidance and supervision.

Dr.C.Karunanidhi, M.D.S., Dr.W.S.Manjula, M.D.S.,

Additional Professor, Professor and Head of the Department,
Department of Orthodontics, Department of Orthodontics,
Tamilnadu Govt Dental College Tamilnadu Govt Dental College
& Hospital, Chennai-600 003 & Hospital, Chennai-600 003
 CONTENTS

Sl.No TITLE Page No.

1. Introduction

2. Aims and Objectives

3. Review of Literature

4. Materials and Methods

5. Results

6. Discussion

7. Summary and Conclusion

8. Bibliography
 INTRODUCTION

Orthodontics is a specialized dental procedure concerned with the

movement of teeth to achieve an effective occlusion and to provide a

pleasing facial contour and appearance of the teeth. The most common and

useful elastic element in modern orthodontics is an archwire.

At present, orthodontic wires and arches are mainly made of metal

alloys, such as nickel titanium and stainless steel. Nitinol was first alloyed

in the early 1960s by William Buehler at the US naval ordnance laboratory.

Super elastic nitinol archwires were introduced to clinical orthodontics by

Dr.George Andreasen in 1971. The development of nitinol archwires

represented a significant advance in orthodontic biomechanics and

treatment. The particular properties of super elasticity and shape memory

effect allow teeth to move under weak but constant continuous forces over

long treatment time and much larger displacement can be achieved.

However, the stiffness of Nickel titanium wires is small, which can result in

the loss of anchorage. On the contrary, the high stiffness of stainless steel

wires can offer adequate anchorage but its elasticity is low and can engender

excessive orthodontic forces preventing teeth from moving. If Nickel

titanium and stainless steel wires were bonded together and used in

orthodontic treatment, the advantages of the two materials could be

expressed by using stainless steel and Nickel titanium shape memory alloy

wires as anchorage parts and treatment parts respectively. This could greatly

shorten the period of orthodontic treatment and improve the quality.

A major limitation in the use of nickel titanium alloys has been the

difficulty of joining this material, both to itself, and to other materials. If at

all Nickel titanium and stainless steel were joined, maintaining the super

elasticity and shape memory effect of nickel titanium proves to be a

challenge.

By conventional joining methods, the heat affected zone is large in

area due to absence of point source of heat and increased duration of joining

process. The heat affected zone should be kept as minimal as possible to

maintain the shape memory effect and super elasticity of nickel titanium

wires.

Lasers, with their high power output and converge ability towards a

point target, found to be a good source of power for brazing stainless steel

and nickel titanium.

The present work investigates the properties of laser-brazed joints of

Nickel titanium and stainless steel wires using silver-based filler metal, at

different brazing parameters.

 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study is to evaluate the properties of laser-brazed

joint of NiTi shape memory alloy and stainless steel orthodontic wires. Put

in detail, the objectives are:

1. Laser-brazing of stainless steel and Nickel-Titanium shape memory

alloy wire using silver-based filler metal at different brazing

parameters.

2. Performing tensile tests in the samples to evaluate breaking stress and

percent elongation.

3. Performing Elasticity tests in the samples to evaluate the

superelasticity loss of NiTi wire in the heat affected zone.

4. Performing Bending tests in the samples to evaluate the shape

memory effect loss of NiTi wire in the heat affected zone.

 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Primitive orthodontic appliances have been found with Greek and Etruscan

artifacts. Archaeologists have discovered Egyptian mummies with crude metal

bands wrapped around individual teeth. It is speculated that catgut was used to

close the gaps.

Historically, gold alloy wires were first used in orthodontic practice. The

gold alloy wire compositions were generally similar to those of the type IV gold

casting alloys, and their modulus of elasticity was approximately 100 GPa.

Pierre Fauchard (1728) described his ‘bandeau’ appliance, an expansion

arch consisting of a horse shoe-shaped strip of precious metal to which the teeth

were ligated by gold wires.

The technique of soldering, first used in the specialty was to fuse gold

alloy to gold bands by either silver or gold solder melted by fine flame from a gas

torch. This joining process resulted in sufficiently firm, well-bonded joint.

The late 1920s brought hard-drawn, austenitic, stainless steel wire to the

specialty. This wire alloy, with chromium and nickel in its metallurgy, was touted

as superior to its precious-metal predecessors because of its higher strengths,

greater elastic modulus, ductility, and its corrosion resistance in the oral

environment.
 In the early 1930s annealed stainless steel strips were produced, and

fluoride fluxes were introduced, enabling successful soldering, and the gold,

silver, and platinum alloys began to disappear as appliance materials.

Vosmik and Taylor (1936), attempted to determine soldering temperatures

for stainless steel. They soldered joints in a dark room and estimated the

soldering temperature from the color of the wire.

During the 1940s, Perceival Raymond Begg developed the highly resilient,

stainless-steel “Australian” wire, along with Wilcock. This was introduced in

United States in late 1956. He was using titanium wire long before American

Orthodontists had discovered its unique properties.

Charles H. Tweed in 1941, gave an account on soldering technique for

steel arch wire. He described free hand soldering method for soldering

intermaxillary hooks made of brass wire over rectangular and round stainless

steel wire. Stops were soldered using similar method .He was one of the first to

note that the union obtained between the steel arch wire and the attachment by

soldering is a physical joint. Hence, in order that the attachments may withstand

the pressure of wire ligatures and rubber elastics, he recommended that the solder

must be flowed around at least three sides of the rectangular steel wire.
 In 1950s, a cobalt-chromium-nickel orthodontic wire alloy (Elgiloy) was

developed by the Elgiloy Corporation The four tempers, color-coded by the

manufacturers have the same composition .Differences in mechanical properties

arise from variations in the wire processing.

William J. Buehler of U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory in 1959 discovered

acoustic damping property of equiatomic nickel-titanium composition alloys and

named his discovery NITINOL.

Skinner and Phillips (1960) gave melting range of 607-688 degree C for

low fusing silver solders available at that time. But ideal soldering temperature

range was nowhere mentioned.

John H.Parker in 1960, described an improved soldering technic. He used a

506 Rocky Mountain Welder at mode number 4 for all wire soldering. This

carbon tip soldering found major uses in soldering of prewelded chrome wires or

springs of any size directly to the archwire or band material of either gold or

chrome, reinforcement of band material surfaces or ends of wire and repairing

wires broken near acrylic retainers.

David S.Muzzey (1961) an associate technical director ,in a laboratory

management meeting of U.S.Naval Ordnance Lab applied heat from his pipe

lighter to the compressed folded fatigue-resistant strip of NITINOL sample

presented to him. To everyone’s amazement, the Nitinol stretched out

longitudinally. The accidental discovery of shape memory property of Nitinol

made.

Frederick E.Wang (1962) a crystal physics expert joined Buehler’s group

and scientifically explained that the properties of Nitinol are due to changes in

crystal phase transitions.

John V. Wilkinson (1962) found that the annealing range for hard drawn

stainless steel wire started at about 500 degree C. Since clinically satisfactory

solders had a flow point of at least 600 degree C, the wire was softened as a result

of soldering. The degree and extent of softening depended on the operator’s

control of heat during soldering.

John V. Wilkinson (1963) from his experiments, derived 4 main

conclusions.

1 .It is possible to solder stainless steel at temperatures 20 to 40 degree C

above the flow point of the solder, The soldering temperature need not exceed

690 degree C.

2. In the temperature range necessary for soldering stainless steel the time

of heating is not a critical factor for softening of hard drawn wire.

 3. Soldering techniques for stainless steel should be directed towards

limitation of temperature rather than limitation of heating time.

4. Research into solders which have a flow point lower than that of those

currently available should prove profitable to the practice of orthodontics.

George Andreasen and Hilleman TB (1971) attracted by the unique

properties inherent in NiTi alloy such as high elastic limit and low elastic

modulus reported the results of their investigation for clinical use.

Subsequently, Unitek Corporation has produced this wire for the

profession under the trade name of Nitinol. Nitinol has an excellent springback

property, But it does not possess shape memory or super-elasticity because it has

been manufactured by a work-hardening process.

Furukawa Electric Company in 1978, produced a new type of Japanese

Niti alloy, possessing all three properties namely excellent spring back, shape

memory and super elasticity.

 Hua-cheng Tien and colleagues (1978) developed Chinese Niti alloy wire,

a new superelastic Orthodontic wire at the General Research Institute for non-

ferrous metals in Beijing, China.

George Andreasen (1980) did a clinical trial of alignment of teeth using a

0.019 inch thermal nitinol wire and noted that nitinol can be used for longer

periods of time without changing it and it can shorten treatment time needed in

leveling the dentition.

Burstone and Goldberg (1980) introduced Beta-Titanium a new

orthodontic alloy to the profession. Its increased springback, reduced force

magnitudes, good ductility and weldability made it superior to stainless steel in

many aspects.

Charles J.Burstone (1981) in his account on variable-modulus

orthodontics, derived from equations that Nitinol wire with dimensions of 0.018

X 0.025 inch has a stiffness number of 251.4, which is similar to 0.016 inch steel

wire. The principle of variable modulus orthodontics reduces the number of

archwires needed for aligning since bracket play is eliminated by rectangular

dimension ‘light’ wires.

 John W. Edie, George F. Andreasen, Mary P. Zaytoun (1981) studied

surface corrosion of Nitinol and stainless steel under clinical conditions and

found no significant difference.

Scott R .Drake, Donald M. Wayne, John M. Powers and Kamal Asgar

(1982) studied mechanical properties of orthodontic wires in tension, bending

and torsion. They concluded that in bending and torsion, the stainless steel wires

had the least stored energy at a fixed moment, whereas the nickel-titanium wires

had the most. Stored energy of Titanium-Molybdenum wire falls between

stainless steel and Nickel-Titanium. A Titanium-Molybdenum teardrop closing

loop delivered less than one half the force of a comparable stainless steel loop for

similar activations.

James L. Cannon (1983) obtained an US patent for inventing a new

Orthodontic archwire design. This wire have anterior and posterior segments of

different elasticity or stiffnes to enable early and simultaneous treatment of teeth

in the entire dental arch. The wire is preferably made by uniting a central

segment of relatively resilient wire with end or posterior segments of a different

and more rigid wire. Different cross-sectional shapes may also be used in the

several segments. The segments are joined or united by crimped tubes, welding,

brazing, soldering or any other technique compatible with the metal alloys
forming the several segments. The author mentioned that a crimped-tube

attachment is useful with an anterior segment made of Nitinol alloy which cannot

be readily welded. He claimed that the new composite archwire provides

significant benefits to both Orthodontist and patient in terms of shortening

treatment time, minimizing patient discomfort, and providing more precise

control of tooth movements.

James L. Cannon (1984) named his patented wire configuration as Dual-

Flex archwires. Intermaxillary hooks or cast ball hooks can be provided at the

junction of two segments just mesial to the cuspids to improve versatility of the

archwire. Dual Flex archwire 1 is especially useful with the lingual appliance,

where anterior interbracket width is greatly reduced.

Mark T. Donovan, John Jin-Jong Lin, William A. Brantley and John

P.Conover (1984) studied the weldability of beta titanium archwires by means of

four different commercial welders available to the Orthodontist. They concluded

that for each of the four welders there exist optimum conditions which provide

strong, clinically satisfactory joints.

 Fujio Miura, Masakuni Mogi, Yoshiaki Ohura and Hitoshi Hamanaka

(1986) evaluated the super elastic property of the Japanese NiTi alloy wire for

use in Orthodontics. On studying the effect of heat on Japanese NiTi they noted

no significant change in mechanical property of wire at 200-300 degree C for

five min.At 500 degree C superelasticity was definitely decreased. At 600 degree

C for 5 min, superelasticity and good spring back property of the wire were

almost completely lost.

William J.Thompson (1988) on updating the mechanics of combination

anchorage technique, proposes the use of combination arch wires such as Dual

Flex 1 and 2. They had minimized or even eliminated the use of loops in the

phase I bite-opening, alignment and retraction mechanics. The Dual Flex 1

archwires are multisegment wires with round 0.016- inch stainless steel in the

posterior section and round 0.016- inch Nickel titanium (Titanal) in the anterior

segment. The rigid steel wire will assist in bite opening and molar control, while

the flexible anterior section is used for (1) rapid alignment, (2) leveling and (3)

retraction of the anterior teeth. In cases that require heavy anterior resistance to

minimize lingual movement of anterior teeth, a Dual Flex 2 wire can be used.

This wire has a round 0.018 inch stainless steel posterior segment and 0,016 X

0.022- inch Nickel-Titanium anterior segment from canine to canine. The steel

posterior segment is seated in the gingival slot where the resistance is minimal
and the 0.016 X 0.022- inch segment is used in anterior edgewise slots. The

light, flexible rectangular wire features greater bracket engagement, increased

frictional resistance and lingual root torque, and is used to establish increased

anterior resistance and facilitate incisor control as posterior teeth are moved

mesially in the light wire slot. Modification of the Dual Flex wire is needed when

the arch wire passes from the edgewise to the gingival slot.

John J. Hudgins, Michael D. Bagby, Leslie C. Erickson (1990) studied the

effect of long term deflection on permanent deformation of Nickel-Titanium

archwires and concluded that no clinically significant difference was found

between presently available nickel-titanium wires in terms of permanent

deformation, long- or short-term.

OrthoOrganizers in an attempt to produce optimal orthodontic forces to

different teeth in a single wire, put forth Multi-Force Nitanium archwires. Multi

modulus Nitanium have three force regions, anterior (mild), canine-premolar

(moderate), and molar (high). The applications are for leveling and aligning in

most cases. The manufacturers recommend the wire to be used with Delta force

bracket system.
 OrthoOrganizers also deviced Nitanium adjustable Utility arch. The

Nitanium anterior segment and stainless steel posterior segments are joined by

inconel tubing which allows for precise adjustments in arch length. The 3 mm

step-down allows gentle forces to be applied to anterior teeth. The stainless steel

posterior segment provides the heavier forces required to rotate or upright molars,

open or close bites and perform other adjustments. Highly recommended for

mixed and adult dentition cases according to manufacturers’ claim.

Bourauel C, Nolte LP, Drescher D (1992) noted that the loops made of

stainless-steel, cobalt chromium, titanium-molybdenum alloys follow a static

force system.The static force systems of fixed appliances made of these materials

are well known from experimental and numerical studies, but as they may change

during tooth movement, orthodontists are often confronted with problems in

therapy. The introduction of pseudoelastic nickel titanium alloys (NiTi) into

orthodontic treatment, offers the chance of improving the effectiveness and

reliability of orthodontic devices. In this study a plane finite element (FE) for the

analysis of orthodontic loops is presented. It enables the determination of the

nonlinear behaviour of pseudoelastic NiTi-alloys and is capable of simulating

large structural displacements and rotations accompanied by moderate strains. A

comparative numerical and experimental study shows the efficiency of this

element. The associated results reflect pseudoelastic effects on certain loop

designs, and reveal the benefits for the orthodontist and his patients.

Drescher D, Bourauel C, Their M (1992) proposed that during uprighting

inclined molars, to prevent occlusal trauma, an intrusive force has to be applied

to the molar in addition to the uprighting moment.Owing to their construction,

current mechanical devices for uprighting either do not meet this requirement, or

are difficult to adjust when in place. For this reason, an improved uprighting

spring is described by the authors which utilizes the properties specific to super-

elastic (pseudo-elastic) NiTi alloys. The most important property of super-elastic

wires is the fact that they produce constant forces or moments within a specific

deformation range. In order to utilize this useful property, certain design criteria

have to be met. Experimental measurements have shown that a super-elastic wire

(Sentalloy, 0.016” x 0.022”) having a length of 10 mm generates a constant

moment of 7 to 8 Nmm within a bending angle of 50 degrees to 180 degrees. On

the basis of these results, a table that permits the determination of the proper wire

length needed to provide a constant moment within a given range of bending

angles is proposed. The superelastic uprighting spring described here comprises

an NiTi wire segment having a length of 7 mm and a mesial and distal steel wire
segment. In the active state, the spring generates an uprighting moment of 8

Nmm and an intrusive force of 0.6 N.

Julie Ann Staggers and Dallas Margeson (1993) studied the effects of

sterilization on the tensile strength of Orthodontic wires. They concluded that

dry heat and autoclave sterilization significantly increased the tensile strength of

Sentalloy wires. The results of this study suggest that Orthodontists who choose

to recycle Nickel titanium or Beta titanium archwires do not need to be

concerned about reducing the wires’ ultimate tensile strength by sterilization

procedures.

Bourauel C, Drescher D, Nolte LP (1993) in their article stressed the

importance of keeping a constant moment-force ratio throughout space closure in

segmented arch technique using loops to achieve a purely translatory retraction.

The moment to force ratio (M/F) is determined by the occluso-gingival height,

but, as there are intraoral limitations to the spring height, the maximum possible

M/F is also limited. Consequently the M/F is no longer constant and activation of

the loop to achieve a specific M/F can become critical. This potential problem

can be overcome by the use of highly flexible wires, particularly those made of
the superelastic alloy nickel titanium. The data presented in this study result from

calculations arrived at with the help of a plane numerical model of

pseudoelasticity which in turn is based on the finite element method. The

calculations are compared with those resulting from experimentations using the

orthodontic measurement and simulation system. A variation in the different

parameters led to the design of a T-loop with a height and an apical length of 10

mm each. A T-segment made of superelastic NiTi alloy Sentalloy (0.016” x

0.022”) was joined to steel horizontal arms. This loop produces a constant M/F

ratio of -7 mm and requires no uprighting bends. The range of activation is

approximately 15 mm. A superelastic plateau was calculated between an

activation of 10.5 mm and 2.5 mm, with a distalizing force from 0.9 N to 0.5 N.

The experimental values corresponded to the numerical data. The clinical

application of the superelastic T-loop is thus demonstrated in this study.

Bourauel C,Drescher D (1994) based on the favorable results achieved by

the application of pseudoelastic T loops in the course of canine retraction,

investigated their application to the retraction of maxillary incisors. A modified

Burstone T loop was made of a pseudoelastic orthodontic nickel titanium wire

and then subjected to experimental testing. The results obtained were compared

with extensive numerical studies. The results of the tests showed that forces and
moments generated by the T loop are suitable for the retraction of upper incisors.

The clinical application of the pseudoelastic spring was performed using an

individualized retraction arch enclosing the whole front segment. Whereas during

canine retraction the experimental and clinical results corresponded very well,

such was not observed during the retraction of upper incisors. This result implies

that the location of the center of resistance of the upper incisors has not been

completely clarified. Thus the authors recommended that this matter should be

given further study.

Wichelhaus A and Sander FG (1995) in their study presented an

uprighting spring that consists of a combination of superelastic material which is

connected with a steel wire by means of a crimped connector. Pseudo-elastic

areas of such a spring can be used well by combining superelastic material with

steel. According to the authors the uprighting spring presented here yields the

following advantages: 1. The uprighting moment of the molar is between 10 and

20 N with a 40 degree tipping of molar.2. The uprighting springs exhibit a large

plateau in the area of 8 to 15 Nmm depending on a bending-in of an alpha-bend.

3. An intrusive force of approximately 0.5 to 1.0 N can be produced by varying

the alpha-bend. The preformed uprighting spring in combination with a cross

tube can be affixed without any problems, because only the alpha-activation must
be bent in. 5. Practically, a reactivation during uprighting is not required. 6. An

enlargement of the alpha-moment to produce an intrusive force makes great

demands on the anchoring element. For this reason, one must check in each

individual case, if an anchoring segment displays the required stability. 7. By

lengthening the SE material at the crimped connector, the alpha and beta-

moments become smaller, as does the intrusive (extrusive) force applied to

molars.

Wichelhaus A and Sander FG (1995) in their second part of the study used

the NiTi steel uprighting spring to upright 30 molars.The advantage of this spring

is that in large areas the pseudoelastic part of the spring transfers constant

moments and forces to the molars. In addition, the steel part makes it possible to

simply and easily adjust and fasten alpha-bends. Because of the relatively small

uprighting moments of 10 upto a maximum of 25 Nmm such an uprighting spring

can also be applied without any modifications in cases in which the molars are

tipped up to 50 degrees. The uprighting spring presented here proves to be an

effective method for achieving a fast and trouble free uprighting of molars.
 Sun z and Ion (1995) in their review on laser welding noted that the ability

to manufacture a product using a number of different metals and alloys greatly

increases flexibility in design and production. Properties such as heat, wear and

corrosion resistance can be optimized, and benefits in terms of production

economics are often gained. Joining of dissimilar metal combinations is,

however, a challenging task owing to the large differences in physical and

chemical properties which may be present. Laser welding, a high power density

but low energy-input process, provides solutions to a number of problems

commonly encountered with conventional joining techniques. Accurate

positioning of the weld bead, rapid heating and cooling, low distortion, process

flexibility, and opportunities for product redesign are its principal characteristics.

The review also describes the principles underlying laser welding of dissimilar

metal combinations and highlights the above benefits in a number of practical

applications. It is concluded that there is potential for its application in many

industrial and medical sectors.

Sander FG, Wichelhaus A, Schiemann C (1996) used the intrusion

mechanics according to Burstone with the NiTi- superelastic-steel uprighting

spring. Eleven important conclusions were made by the authors; 1. By applying

the NiTi-SE-steel uprighting spring, relatively constant forces can be exerted

over a large range of intrusion on both sides of the anterior tooth archwire. 2. By

bending a 150 degrees tip-back bend or a curvature into the steel portion, the

uprighting spring presented here is brought into the plastic range of the

characteristic curve of force. 3. Application of sliding hooks on the intrusion

spring permits readjustment for force transfer onto the anterior archwire. 4.

Connecting the anterior archwire with the posterior elements by means of a steel

ligature can be recommended only in some cases, because sagittally directed

forces may be produced. 5. The adult patients presented showed an average

intrusion of 0.6 mm/month, if a linear connection was presupposed. 6. An

intrusive effect on the incisors could first be detected clinically after 6 to 8

weeks. 7. Application of a torque-key proves especially useful in controlling the

incisor position during intrusion in order to avoid unnecessary radiography. 8.

Actual prediction of the centre of resistance with the help of a cephalometric

radiograph proved not to be feasible. 9. The calculated maximal intrusion of the

mandibular incisors was 7 mm. 10. The torque-segmented archwire with crimped

hooks and pseudoelastic springs between the molars and the crimped hooks

proved very effective for retrusion and intrusion of maxillary incisors. The

maxillary anterior teeth can be retruded by a total of 7 mm without readjustment.

11. Constant moments and forces could be transferred by applying preformed

arch wires and segmented arch wires.

 Bourauel C, Drescher D, Ebling J, Broome D, Kanarachos A (1997) made

an experimental investigation of force systems on superelastic nickel titanium

alloy retraction springs.. A modified Burstone T-loop was used to construct an

experimental canine retraction spring 10 mm in height and 10 mm in length.

Twenty-five NiTi T-segments were hand made from the superelastic orthodontic

alloys Ormco NiTi and Soar Sentalloy (dimensions 0.016 x 0.022”). The T-

segments were equipped with arms made of rectangular standard steel wire

(0.017 x 0.025”). The following geometrical and mechanical parameters of the

retraction springs were analysed: radius and bending angles of the T-segments,

distalizing force and M/F ratio during activation and the force/deflection rate of

the springs. The error in the geometric parameters was in the range of 5-10 per

cent, irrespective of the alloy used to produce the T-segments. On the other hand,

the force systems of the springs were strongly influenced by the alloy and the

batch under investigation. There were differences in the distalizing force of up to

100 per cent, i.e. at the beginning of the unloading plateau the distalizing force

varied from 0.4 to 2.5 N. The force/deflection rate varied between a value of 0.06

and 0.15 N/mm, whereas the moment/force ratio reached values of 6.5-7.0 mm.

Within a single batch, a reproducibility of these mechanical properties of

approximately 5 per cent could be obtained. These results confirm that each
orthodontic device made of superelastic NiTi alloys has to be calibrated

individually. The authors recommended that the manufacturers should pay more

attention to keeping the material properties of their NiTi alloys constant.

Stanley Braun, Robert C. Sjursen, Harry L. Legan (1997) proposed a

Variable modulus orthodontics advanced through an auxiliary archwire

attachment.They noted that reducing the load deflection rates of orthodontic

springs is important, for it provides relative constancy of the moment-to-force

ratio applied to the teeth with concomitant, forecastable dental movement.

Increasing patient comfort and reducing the number of office visits while

lowering potential tissue damage are additional features of lower load deflection

rate springs. A simple auxiliary attachment, which can be crimped into position

on an archwire or onto segments of an archwire, is described. This attachment

permits the clinician to incorporate a relatively high rate stiff wire to enhance the

anchorage of the reactive teeth in one area of the dental arch, while allowing the

use of wire of lesser stiffness (lower load deflection rate spring) to engage teeth

targeted for movement. The auxiliary allows the clinician to choose various

stiffnesses through the use of wire of one modulus (stainless steel, for example)

in one area of the arch, and wire of a differing modulus (NiTi, for example) in

another area of the same arch. The advantages and disadvantages of choosing
wires of differing moduli are reviewed. Alternative methods of transforming the

spring rate through changes in wire cross-section or length are also reviewed.

Practical clinical applications of the auxiliary attachment are shown.

GAC introduced a new variety of orthodontic wires called ‘BioForce’. The

manufacturers claim that it is the only single strand, superelastic orthodontic

archwire that provides forces that range gradually from 80 grams in the central

incisors to 320 grams at the molars.

Ibe DM, Segner D (1998) in their study evaluated archwire materials

which are claimed to be capable of exerting different force levels within one arch.

Such orthodontic archwires are of importance because the forces they exert are

supposed to be better adapted to different physiological force levels as required

by teeth with different root surface areas. Undesired side effects such as root

resorptions and pain should thus be minimized. The purpose of this study was to

test these types of wires and to evaluate whether and, if so, to what degree the

claimed properties are present. Load-deflection curves of 6 superelastic nickel-

titanium orthodontic wires by 4 manufacturers were recorded using a simple

beam bending test at mouth temperature. Activation-deactivation cycles with

varying maximum deflection were achieved using a computer controlled stepper

motor. Each archwire was tested at 4 different points on the wire. The resulting

forces were evaluated metrically and graphically. Great differences were found

between the superelastic properties claimed by the manufacturers and the

observations of this study and also between the different products.

Devanathan Deva (1999) from his investigations performed at the

Research Laboratories of TP Orthodontics, Indiana , described the development

of a new titanium alloy wire called Timolium. This wire has slightly higher

stiffness than Beta titanium but almost half the stiffness of stainless steel.

Sander FG (2000) claimed that their unit had successfully developed a

retraction spring that shows virtually constant retracting forces up to an activation

of about 4.5 mm through the use of various non-linear materials. Compared to all

other known retraction springs, an actual bodily retraction is possible over a large

range for the first time. The clinical application requires no more than one

reactivation. The anti-tipping moment is 10 Nmm and is to be considered

constant over the entire activation range. This anti-tipping moment produces an

extrusive force for the canine and an intrusive force for the molar. This side-
effect can be avoided by bending a sweep into the steel portion or compensated

by bending a step into the steel portion of this retraction spring. The anti-

rotational moment is about 3 to 5 Nmm measured over the entire activation range

. In contrast to many other springs, the favorable M/F ratio for the anti-tipping

movement allows an actual bodily retraction of canines. Even when the retracting

force is no longer active, the moment that moves the root of the canine distally is

still acting, so that the spring can also be used for the root movement. The M/F

ratio for the anti-rotational movement is between 3 and 5 mm and therefore

allows retraction of the canine without causing major distortions. Customary

brackets with a .018” or .022” horizontal slot can be used, as the spring is

designed for a .018” x .018” vertical slot. Each spring can be used for both the

left and the right canines. The steel portion allows second-order and, if desired,

third-order bends to be made. The hybrid retraction spring can also be applied for

en masse retraction of incisors if a cross-tube is used for the anterior area.

Brian K. Rucker, Robert P. Kusy (2002) studied elastic flexural properties

of multistranded stainless steel versus conventional Nickel Titanium archwires

for initial alignment phase.They concluded that when compared to the elastic

properties of the conventional NiTi wires, the triple and coax SS wires generally

matched the stiffness, but had only one-third to one-half of the strength and
range. Superiority of Nickel-Titanium as initial archwire for alignment is

confirmed in this study.

J Dutta Muzumdar and I Manna (2003) in their thesis made a reference that

under gravity conditions Nickel Titanium laser welding is possible. The laser

used was CW–CO2.They observed a decrease in Ms -start temperature and

ductility, and increase in amount of B2 phase and strength in the weldments .But

no change in shape memory effect are observed.

Edison Welding Institute (2003) claimed that it has developed and

demonstrated a technique for welding nitinol to stainless steel. Its approach was

aimed at overcoming some of the known difficulties, such as the formation of

brittle intermetallic phases usually found in nitinol-stainless steel fusion welds.

The process has been successfully demonstrated in laboratory settings with wire-

to-wire butt joints. The weld strengths are high enough to allow extensive

superelastic bend of the nitinol at the weld.

Vinod Krishnan and K.Jyotindra Kumar (2004) studied weld

characteristics of Orthodontic archwire materials and concluded that Beta

titanium alloys have superior weld characteristics followed by stainless steel.

Whereas Timolium exhibited poor weld characteristics.

 Wichelhause A, Sander C, Sander FG (2004) in an attempt to further

develop and improve both the clinical and the biomechanical properties of the

conventional transpalatal arch made an investigation on new design called

compound palatal arch. The biomechanical effects of the newly developed

Compound palatal arch were verified by comparing them with those of

commercially available conventional transpalatal arches. The recently developed

Compound palatal arch is made of one compound element: nickel-

titanium/stainless steel. The specific dimensions and design of the nickel-titanium

element are aimed at exploiting its superelasticity, even during active molar

movement. The newly developed Compound palatal arch showed substantial

advantages in molar derotation compared with conventional transpalatal arches.

Superelastic properties were achieved through the design and positioning of the

nickel-titanium element. Expansion with the Compound palatal arch was

comparable with that with conventional transpalatal arches. The clinical

advantage is in the fact that this appliance can be reactivated and that dental

asymmetries can be treated.

Kum M, Quick A, Hood JA, Herbison P (2004) in their in vitro study

investigated the loads (“forces”), moments and moment:force ratios (M:F)

generated during activation and deactivation of three closing loop designs

constructed from two different orthodontic wire alloys.In their study the forces

and moments of non-preactivated vertical U-Loops, symmetrical T-Loops, and

asymmetrical T-Loops (X-Loops) made from titanium molybdenum alloy (TMA)

and Japanese nickel titanium alloy (NiTi) were measured at 35.6 degrees C +/-

0.5 degrees C. The M:F ratios generated during activation and deactivation were

calculated for each loop. Analysis of covariance was used to identify statistical

differences between loop material and design. Their results showed that the

forces, moments and M:F ratios produced by the NiTi closing loops were

significantly less than those from the TMA loops. NiTi T-Loops produced a

relatively constant force during activation compared to the same design in TMA.

Garrec P, Tavernier B, Jordan L (2005) studied the evolution of flexural

rigidity according to the cross-sectional dimension of superelastic nickel titanium

orthodontic wire This study compared bending in 10 archwires made from NiTi

orthodontics alloy of two cross-sectional dimensions. The results were based on

microstructural and mechanical investigations. With conventional alloys, the

flexural rigidity was constant for each wire and increased largely with the cross-

sectional dimension for the same strain. With NiTi alloys, the flexural rigidity is

not constant and the influence of size was not as important as it should be. This

result can be explained by the non-constant elastic modulus during the martensite

transformation process. Thus, in some cases, treatment can begin with full-size
(rectangular) wires that nearly fill the bracket slot with a force application

deemed to be physiologically desirable for tooth movement and compatible with

patient comfort.

Peter C Hall (2005) of Edison Welding Institute USA obtained a patent

describing a method of welding titanium, and titanium based alloys, to ferrous

metals. Welding of titanium, and titanium based alloys, is plagued with poor

quality and highly brittle welds, substantially due to formation of Ti—Fe

intermetallics in the weld pool. The instant invention provides supplementary

filler material to alter the proportions of various elements in the weld pool.

Certain fillers, such as nickel or iron, added to the weld pool enable high quality

welds to be fabricated utilizing a wide variety of fusion welding techniques,

including laser welding, between titanium, or titanium based alloys, and ferrous

metals, including but not limited to the welding of nickel-titanium and stainless

steel. Filler material may be supplied in various forms, including foil, wire,

powders, preformed gaskets, and numerous others. Optionally, the titanium or

titanium based alloy may be stress relieved to achieve full recovery of the shape

memory strain prior to welding.

 Martin Geiger, Juergen Schneider and Franz G. Sander (2005) made a

finite element calculation of bone remodeling in orthodontics by using forces and

moments. In their work they simulated the orthodontic long-term tooth

movement of the canine retraction using the new hybrid retraction spring made of

Nickel-titanium. They concluded that this new hybrid retraction spring allows a

well- defined adjustment of the acting force system.

Laservall (2005) has come up with a basic manual laser spot welding

system that is available in both benchtop and floorstand configurations, and in

four power levels tailored to specific applications: orthodontic work/dental

laboratories, jewellery workshops (repair work and bespoke design), and

industrial applications. This 2 nd generation system features a particularly

ergonomic glove box that permits use for long periods without operator fatigue.

M.G.Li, X.M.Qui, D.Q.Sun, S.Q.Yin (2005) studied the properties of

laser-brazed joint of NiTi shape memory alloy and stainless steel orthodontic

wires. They concluded that the tensile strength of the laser-brazed joint could

reach to 340 MPa while the loss of superelasticity and shape memory effect of

NiTi heat affected zone is relatively low by strictly controlling brazing

parameters.
 Shivananda pai Mizar (2005) stated that recent advances in materials

engineering have given rise to a new class of materials known as active materials.

These materials when used appropriately can aid in development of smart

structural systems. Smart structural systems are adaptive in nature and can be

utilized in applications that are subject to time varying loads such as aircraft

wings, structures exposed to earthquakes, electrical interconnections, biomedical

applications, and many more. Materials such as piezoelectric crystals,

electrorheological fluids, and shape memory alloys (SMAs) constitute some of

the active materials that have the innate ability to response to a load by either

changing phase (e.g., liquid to solid), and recovering deformation. Active

materials when combined with conventional materials (passive materials) such as

polymers, stainless steel, and aluminum, can result in the development of smart

structural systems (SSS).

Girish P. Kelkar (2006) in his review on resistance and laser welding for

medical devices, describes laser welding is a non contact process. The properties

of monochromatic and coherent light energy allow the laser to be focused on a

very small spot with sufficiently high energy density to melt metals. The laser

source most commonly used for pulsed welding is an Nd:YAG laser, which emits

a near-infrared wavelength of 1.064 micro meter. Most metals that are not highly
electrically conductive or reflective, such as titanium and stainless steels, absorb

laser light reasonably well and therefore laser manipulation is not a problem.

Shaw and Grummons (2006) invented a new method (patent pending) to

construct light-weight, cellular structures from wrought Nickel-Titanium

(Nitinol) shape memory alloy (SMA) elements. The method consists of a

reactivebrazing process that creates a robust metallurgical bond between Nitinol

and itself that solves many longstanding difficulties in the fabrication of SMA

structures, and it facilitates the fabrication of a variety of built-up sparse

structures, including SMA foams, honeycombs, and meshes. Such structures can

be designed to be arbitrarily light-weight, yet retain the adaptive properties of the

underlying SMA material (shape memory effect and superelasticity). This

combination of sparse topology and adaptive properties represents a new class of

materials that can be used as multifunctional structural elements that respond to

changes in external loads and temperature. In addition, the sparse topology leads

to an order-of-magnitude improvement in recoverable strain capability and

thermal response time, as compared to monolithic Nitinol. Potential applications

are numerous, including reusable energy-absorbing structures, highly resilient

structures, lightweight armor, thermal actuation materials, vibration isolation, and

biomedical implants. These materials have broad application possibilities in the

aerospace, automotive, energy, and biomedical industries.

 MATERIALS AND METHODS

Specimen Preparation:

Neo Sentalloy (Nickel-Titanium shape memory alloy) orthodontic

wires were obtained from GAC International, Inc. Japan.The dimensions as

obtained from manufacturers are

0.018” x 0.025” x 7”

(0.46 x 0.64 x 177.8 mm)

The Stainless steel orthodontic wires were obtained from American Braces

and Components, USA. The dimensions are

0.018” x 0.025” x 15”

(0.46 x 0.64 x 381 mm)

A silver-based filler metal was adapted to braze Nickel-titanium and

stainless steel wires with the composition of 50% silver,24% copper, 18%

zinc, and 8% tin.

The lengths of Neo Sentalloy and Stainless steel wires were reduced to 55

mm and a total of 45 specimens were prepared in each type of base metal

alloy.

Prior to brazing, the brazing surfaces of base metals were polished with 600-

grit silicon carbide abrasive strips. Then the specimens were cleaned

ultrasonically in an acetone bath.

A fixture was made to hold the specimen passively along their butt ends.

The fixture further stabilized by an overlay hinged load in the vertical plane.

Nickel-titanium and stainless steel were brazed using a Nd:YAG laser

welding machine . The Brazing heat input was controlled by laser output

power and brazing time.

Q = Pt

Where, Q- Brazing heat input

P- Laser output power

t- Brazing time
Three brazing parameters were chosen for the investigation:

Group A – 50 W laser output power for 10 seconds brazing

Group B - 60 W laser output power for 15 seconds brazing

Group C - 70 W laser output power for 20 seconds brazing

Brazing was done with 15 sample pairs in each group. After Brazing , three

tests were performed namely i) Tensile test ii) Elasticity test and iii) Bending

test in these groups (five samples from each group for every test).

Elasticity and Bending tests were performed in five Nickel-titanium base

metal segments as control group to compare with brazed segments.

TENSILE TESTING:

Tensile testing was conducted at room temperature with a universal

testing machine at a cross head speed of 2 mm/min and a gauge length of 6

mm. In the tensile test the ends of test piece are fixed into grips, one of

which is attached to the load measuring device on the tensile machine and

the other to the straining device. The brazed joint was positioned such that it
occupies the centre portion of the gauge length segment. The values of

breaking stress and percent elongation were recorded.

ELASTICITY TESTING:

The superelasticity of heat affected zone of the Nickel-titanium

segment was investigated by stress-strain measurements carried out at room

temperature using the same universal testing machine. The gauge length of

3 mm was chosen in this investigation. The brazed joint along with stainless

steel segment, is inserted in the lower part of the tester. The heat affected

zone on the Nickel-titanium segment was exposed as gauge length. The

residual strain of Nickel-titanium shape memory alloy heat affected zone

was recorded after loading and then unloading with the maximal strain of

4%.

BENDING TEST:

The shape memory effect was measured by the cantilever bend test to

evaluate the shape recovery ratio (SRR) of Nickel-titanium heat affected

zone. The Nickel-titanium side of joint specimen was bent to 90 degree (D)

for 300 seconds. After this time an angle d1 was retained. Then the
specimen was put in boiling water (100 degree C) for 5 seconds. There was

further recovery in the angle d2. The shape recovery ratio of Nickel-

titanium heat affected zone was determined by the following formula

d1 – d2

SRR = ____________ X 100%

d1

STATISTICAL ANALYSES:

All of the test values were statistically analyzed by ANOVA [analysis

of variance]. Turkey’s test (+/-5) was chosen as the following multiple-

comparison technique when necessary.

 TENSILE TESTING RESULTS

Group Samples Breaking stress Elongation (%)

A 1 183 4

2 168 3.8

3 180 4.3

4 171 4.5

5 179 5.2

B 1 221 8.1

2 230 7.5

3 198 7.3

4 228 8.4

5 220 8.2

C 1 286 10.3

2 295 10.6

3 279 10.5

4 284 11

5 290 11.3
 BEND TEST RESULTS
Group Sample After unloading After kept in boiling water Shape recovery
no. (d1) t=5 sec (d2) ratio (%)
Control 1 47 3 93.61

2 45 3 93.33

3 48 2 95.83

4 54 4 92.59

5 51 3 94.11

A 1 40 6 85

2 38 10 74

3 42 8 80

4 45 10 77

5 40 10 75

B 1 62 15 75.8

2 60 18 70

3 58 20 65.5

4 52 22 57.6

5 61 20 67.2

C 1 72 30 58.3

2 70 32 54.28

3 # # #

4 84 45 46.42

5 75 38 49.33
 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS:

Tensile test;

Group C has the maximum mean breaking stress of 286.8 MPa followed by
group B (219.4) and group A (176.2)

As the breaking stress increases, the percentage elongation also increases.

As the output power increases the standard deviation in percentage

elongation of test specimens decreases.

The difference between the groups is statistically significant (p<0.01)

Elasticity test;

During elasticity test, the martensitic transformation occurred at mean stress

of 180 MPa.

A flat plateau upto maximum strain of 3.6% obtained. A residual strain of

0.2% obtained for NiTi base metal alloy after unloading.

Whereas the residual strain values for Group A,B,C are 0.5%, 0.9% and
2.7% respectively.

Bend Test;

Shape recovery is maximum (93.89 %) in control group.

As the brazing power is increased the amount of permanent deformation also

increased in the test specimen.

Among the test specimen Group A has the maximum shape recovery ratio
(SRR) of 91.6% and Group C has the minimum SRR of 62.1%. During the
bend test sample number 3 of Group C fractured near the heat affected zone
of nickel-titanium segment.
 DISCUSSION

A wire is a flexible structure or machine component having a working

length many times that of its cross-sectional dimension and the capability of

transmitting force along that length.

Wires have substantial structural presence in active and retentive

orthodontic therapy. Wires and auxiliaries fabricated from wire may deliver

force to produce dental displacements, they may attempt to prevent

unwanted displacements, or they may carry force from one location to

another within the dentofacial complex.

Burstone and Goldberg considered that an active orthodontic wire

should have three important characteristics – 1. High deflection without

permanent deformation (large spring back), 2. Low stiffness to produce light

force and 3. High formability.

The noble alloy wires used initially in the profession are too soft for

nearly all dental purposes. The constant increase in price and application of

more versatile stainless steel wires made the use of gold and silver alloy

wires obsolete for orthodontic purposes.

 The austenitic stainless steel have a high value of yield strength (50,000

to 2,80,000 psi) and very high modulus of elasticity (23000000 to 29000000

psi).The high modulus necessitates the use of smaller diameter wires for

alignment procedures where lower forces are indicated. Unfortunately,

decreased wire size results in poorer fit in the bracket and loss of control. So

increasingly heavier wires are needed to be replaced thereby eliminating the

play between the wire and the bracket. This method is called variable-cross-

section orthodontics in which stainless steel wires of low load-deflection rate

to high load-deflection rate are sequentially replaced one after in appropriate

time.

The cobalt-chromium alloys developed in 1950s have stiffness

properties similar to stainless steel. One added advantage is that the strength

and formability of this alloy can be modified by heat treatment.

After the discovery of unique potential of equiatomic Nickel-Titanium

by Buehler, George Andreasen introduced Nitinol to the orthodontic

profession in 1971. Nitinol has excellent spring back property. But it does

not possess shape memory or super-elasticity because it has been

manufactured by a work-hardening process.

Shape memory refers to the ability of the material to remember, its

original shape after being plastically deformed while in the martensitic form.
 Super elasticity refers to a very large reversible strains and a non-elastic

stress-strain curve. A super elastic archwire should exert the same amount

of force independent of the degree of activation within a wide range, a

phenomenon due to a stress-induced martensitic transformation from an

austenitic phase.

Nickel-titanium wires have limited formability, which contraindicates

its use for situations where bends with small radius are required. Its

springback properties are decreased after bending. These wires are not

amenable to conventional joining operations.

After a thorough review of orthodontic archwires many authors have

finally concluded that NO SINGLE ARCHWIRE IS IDEAL. In search of

single ideal archwire, GAC introduced BioForce wires. The manufacturers

claim that it is the only single strand, superelastic orthodontic archwire that

provides forces that range gradually from 80 grams in the central incisors to

320 grams at the molars.

OrthoOrganizers in an attempt to produce optimal orthodontic forces to

different teeth in a single wire, put forth Multi-Force Nitanium archwires.

Multi modulus Nitanium have three force regions, anterior (mild), canine-

premolar (moderate), and molar (high). But in vivo studies proved that these

wires are not as efficient as the manufacturers’ claim.

 In this scenario, joining of stainless steel and Nickel-titanium has

multiple applications and advantages.

James L. Cannon noted that small gauge, flexible archwires that

produce light forces over a large working range are useful during the initial

alignment of crowded, malposed teeth.

However wire spans at extraction sites are longer and more flexible,

and space closure with inter or intramaxillary traction and overbite

correction requires stability in the buccal segments. Space closure should be

delayed until a stiffer archwire can be used to prevent uncontrolled

mesiolingual rotation and mesial tipping of first molars due to lack of

archwire support with labial and lingual appliances. Cannon crimped the

stainless steel buccal segment with Nickel-Titanium anterior segment. The

rigid steel wire assist in bite opening and molar control, while the flexible

anterior segment is used for rapid alignment, leveling and retraction of

anterior teeth. He obtained patent for this design and named them Dual-Flex

wires.

Thompson used Dual-Flex wires in his combination anchorage

technique. Dual-Flex 1 has 0.016 inch stainless steel in the posterior section

and 0.016 inch Nickel-titanium (Titanal) in the anterior segment. In cases

that require heavy anterior resistance to minimize lingual movement of

anterior teeth, a Dual Flex 2 wire can be used. This wire has a round 0.018

inch stainless steel posterior segment and 0,016 X 0.022- inch Nickel-

Titanium anterior segment from canine to canine. The steel posterior

segment is seated in the gingival slot where the resistance is minimal and the

0.016 X 0.022- inch segment is used in anterior edgewise slots. The light,

flexible rectangular wire features greater bracket engagement, increased

frictional resistance and lingual root torque, and is used to establish

increased anterior resistance and facilitates incisor control as posterior teeth

are moved mesially in the light wire slot.

Composite molar uprighting spring is a 7 mm segment of Sentalloy in

the tilted molar region joined with stainless steel in the remainder of

archwire. In the active state, the spring generates an uprighting moment of 8

Nmm and an intrusive force of 0.6 N. This simultaneous intrusion and

uprighting prevent occlusal trauma, provide gentle forces from Nickel-

titanium and it is a fail-safe procedure since full slot engagement is

frequently achieved in a continuous wire.

The Nitanium adjustable utility arch uses NiTi anterior segment for

intrusion and the 3 mm step down posterior segment used to deliver heavier

forces required to rotate or upright molars, open or close bites and perform

other adjustments.
 The T-loop canine retraction spring joined to steel horizontal arms

found to deliver a constant moment-force ratio of 7 mm. Single activation

of 15 mm completes the whole space closure procedure. No uprighting

bends need to be given.

NiTi-superelastic-steel uprighting springs when incorporated in

Burstone intrusion mechanics, found to produce 0.6 mm/month average

intrusion. They also produced maximum intrusion of 7 mm in mandibular

incisors. The maxillary anteriors can be retracted by a total of 7 mm without

readjustments.

When superelastic segments are joined as auxiliaries in Variable

Modulus Orthodontics, a constant moment-force ratio is achieved. This

improves patient comfort, reduces number of office visits and lowers the

potential tissue damage.

Composite transpalatal arches made of Nickel-titanium and stainless

steel proved to be superior in molar derotation and unilateral expansions or

contractions can be achieved according to patient’s treatment need. Dental

asymmetries can thus be easily corrected.

 But joining of Nickel-titanium and stainless steel by crimps produce

weak, bulky joints. They often get detached in patient’s mouth. The size of

crimp is controlled by interbracket span.

Laser, an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of

radiation, is essentially a coherent, convergent and monochromatic beam of

electromagnetic radiation with wavelength ranging from ultra-violet to

infrared. Laser can deliver very low (_mW) to extremely high (1–100kW)

focused power with a precise spot size/dimension and interaction/pulse time

(10-3 to 10-15s) on to any kind of substrate through any medium . Laser is

distinguished from other electromagnetic radiation mainly in terms of its

coherence, spectral purity and ability to propagate in a straight line. As a

result, laser has wide applications. The initial foundation of laser theory was

laid by Einstein. Subsequently, Kopfermann & Ladenburg presented the first

experimental confirmation of Einstein’s prediction. In 1960, Maiman

developed a ruby laser for the first time. This was followed by much basic

development of lasers from 1962 to 1968. Almost all important types of

lasers including semiconductor lasers, Nd:YAG lasers, CO2 gas lasers, dye

lasers and other gas lasers were invented in this era. After 1968, the existing

lasers were designed and fabricated with better reliability and durability. By

mid 1970s more reliable lasers were made available for truly practical
applications in the industrial applications such as cutting, welding, drilling

and marking.

Girish P. Kelkar recommends Nd:YAG laser for pulse welding, which

emits a near-infrared wavelength of 1.064 micro meter. Most metals that are

not highly electrically conductive or reflective, such as titanium and

stainless steels, absorb laser light reasonably well and therefore laser

manipulation is not a problem. Manna and Muzumdar observed no change in

shape memory effect when Nickel-Titanium is laser welded.

But welding of titanium and titanium based alloys, to ferrous metals is

plagued with poor quality and highly brittle welds, substantially due to

formation of Ti-Fe intermetallics in the weld pool. Only Peter C. Hall of

Edison welding Institute holds a patent for the solution overcoming this

problem. His invention provides supplementary filler material to alter the

proportions of various elements in the weld pool.

Brazing is a joining process whereby a non-ferrous filler metal and an

alloy are heated to melting temperature above 450 degree C and distributed

between two or more close-fitting parts by capillary action.

At its liquid temperature, the molten filler metal interacts with a thin

layer of the base metal, cooling to form an exceptionally strong, sealed joint
due to grain structure interaction. When properly designed, a brazed joint

will yield a very high degree of serviceability under concentrated stress,

vibration, and temperature loads. In a properly designed brazement, any

failure will mostly occur in the base metal, and not in the joint.

The filler, which has a lower melting point then the metals to be joined,

is either pre-placed or fed into the joint as the parts are heated. In soldering,

a related process, the filler metal remains below 450 degree C. Brazed joints

are usually stronger than soldered joints.

In brazing, unlike welding, the parts are not melted. Brazing is best for

dissimilar or thinner metal parts and for parts difficult to weld or solder.

Although brazed joints are generally not as strong as welded joints, there are

certain advantages present in brazed joints over welded joints.

- the lower temperature of brazing is less likely to distort the work

piece.

- Brazing does not significantly change the crystalline structure

(creating a heat affected zone)

- Brazing does not induce thermal stress

- For thin work pieces, brazing is less likely to result in burn-through

 - Braze welded joints generally have smooth attractive beads that do not

require additional grinding or finishing.

M.G.Li et al studied the properties of laser-brazed joint of NiTi shape

memory alloy and stainless steel orthodontic wires. They concluded that the

tensile strength of the laser-brazed joint could reach to 340 MPa while the

loss of superelasticity and shape memory effect of NiTi heat affected zone

is relatively low by strictly controlling brazing parameters.

The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is the area of base material, either a

metal or a thermoplastic, which has had its microstructure and properties

altered by welding. The heat from the welding process and subsequent re-

cooling causes this change in the area surrounding the weld. The extent and

magnitude of property change depends primarily on the base material, the

weld filler metal, and the amount and concentration of heat input by the

welding process.

The amount of heat inputted by the welding process plays an important

role, as processes like oxyfuel welding use high heat input and increase the

size of the HAZ. Processes like laser beam welding give a highly

concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a small HAZ.

When orthodontic wires are bowed and seated in orthodontic brackets

attached to teeth, fatigue fractures often occur after repeated loading and
unloading in modes similar to brittle fracture. As a result, the tensile strength

and flexural strength of the composite orthodontic wires made of NiTi shape

memory alloy and stainless steel are required to withstand this stress. In this

study, the high stiffness of stainless steel and the super elasticity and shape

memory effect of NiTi shape memory alloy were required, so the loss of

super elasticity and shape memory effect in NiTi heat affected zone after

brazing must be minimal and the heat affected zone width of the two base

metals must be narrow.

In this investigation,Laser-brazing of stainless steel and Nickel-

Titanium shape memory alloy wire using silver-based filler metal at

different brazing parameters was performed. Tensile tests were done in the

samples to evaluate breaking stress and percent elongation. Performing

Elasticity tests in the samples revealed the superelasticity loss of NiTi wire

in the heat affected zone. Bend test in the samples made, to evaluate the

shape memory effect loss of NiTi wire in the heat affected zone.

The results of tensile testing showed that the combined strength of the

SS and the filler metal were high, resulting in all fractures of the specimens

occurring in the center of the brazing seam; in the NiTi SMA HAZ; or at the

interface layer between NiTi SMA and the filler metal. The stiffness in the

SS HAZ was slightly influenced by the narrow width of the SS HAZ of 1

mm. Since the width of SS HAZ was narrow (only 1 mm), attention was

mainly focused on the changes of properties of NiTi SMA HAZ of the laser-

brazed joint.

Newman et al. reported a maximum clinical load of 1.82 kg can be

applied without preventing blood circulation in the periodontal ligament.

The minimal tensile strength of the specimens after brazing was about 168

MPa (about 3.5 kg), bigger than 1.82 kg, satisfying the clinical requirements.

As a result, the main factors influencing the clinical application of the

composite archwires were flexural strength and the loss of super elasticity

and shape memory effect of NiTi heat affected zone.

SME and SE (or transformation pseudo- elasticity) are always related to

the thermo-elastic martensitic transformation from the B2 parent phase to

the B19’ monoclinic phase in an approximate equiatomic NiTi SMA . One of

the properties of the SME and SE of Niti SMA is the reversibility of

martensitic transformation in crystallography, i.e., the corresponding

relationship between the B2 parent phase and the B19 martensite must be

maintained. The interfacial energy of the coherent interface between B2

phase and B19’ martensite of NiTi SMA is very low but its elastic

distortional potential is high due to the distortion on the interface. This

maintains the corresponding relation on the coherent interface. When NiTi

SMA and SS were laser-brazed, the brazing heat cycle was fast and the

brazing temperature was high. The constant growing of new phases made

the elastic distortional potential increase consistently by the thermal effect.

The corresponding relation between B2 phase and B19’ martensite would be

destroyed by the plastic deformation due to the increasing elastic distortional

potential beyond the yield limit of the parent phase. As a result, the

corresponding relation between the parent phase and the martensite of NiTi

SMA were partially destroyed after NiTi SMA and SS wires were laser-

brazed at high brazing heat input, i.e., the SME and SE of NiTi SMA HAZ

were partially destroyed.

Quantifying the amount of super elasticity loss and shape memory loss

in the heat affected zone is very important.

In Group A (50W/10s) although shape memory effect and super

elasticity were relatively well maintained in the heat affected zone, the yield

strength is least compared to other groups. In Group C (70W/20 s) where

the breaking stress values are very high, the properties of shape memory

effect and super elasticity are drastically reduced in the heat affected zone.

One specimen from Group C fractured during the bend test. These results are

similar to those obtained by Li et al. But there is statistically significant

difference between all the three groups in all the three tests (Tensile,
elasticity and bend). This differs from the result of previous study.

From the obtained results it is found that if the clinical situation

requires moderate superelsticity and shape memory effect in the NiTi

segment and overall high breaking stress in the composite archwire, a

relatively high brazing heat input is required. When the NiTi segment need

more amount of bending to get engaged in the archwire (example-mesially

tilted molars), the composite archwire should be fabricated in a low brazing

heat input setup.

The above findings need to be confirmed by clinical studies and the

study can be further continued using NiTi and stainless steel wires of

different dimensions in the same archwire.

 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The clinical advantages of composite wires made of nickel-titanium

and stainless steel are well established in the literature by various authors.

They include high versatility of appliance system, decreased chair side time,

decreased number of appointments, increased comfort to the patients,

improved control of tooth movement, and decreased treatment time.

In this study, laser-brazing - a relatively new method of joining

stainless steel and nickel-titanium, is investigated under varying braze

parameters. It was found that composite nickel-titanium and stainless steel

wires with sufficient tensile strength for clinical use can be produced by this

method. The loss of super elasticity and shape memory effect in the heat

affected zone of nickel-titanium segment could be kept relatively low by

strictly controlling the brazing heat input.

The combination of active material (Nickel-titanium) with a passive

material (stainless steel) forms a smart structural system (SSS). Such

systems are adaptive in nature and can be utilized in applications that are

subject to time varying loads. These composite archwires can also be used to

make our statically indeterminate force systems more predictable because of

their constant moment-force ratio for a larger range. Thus composite wires
made of Nickel-titanium and stainless steel has good prospects for

orthodontic applications.

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