(a) Quantitatively describe the relationship between a symbol and a bit and the Bit Rate and the

Baud Rate.
(b) Describe how digital information is conveyed using various digital modulation techniques (ASK or OOK, FSK, PSK and QAM) and recognize
their waveforms, bandwidth, and constellations.
(c) Using a phase diagram analyze a M-ary PSK signal to determine its symbols and bits per symbols.
(d) Discuss the effect of noise on M-ary PSK and how Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) overcomes these detrimental effects.

1. Digital signals
Try to remember all the way back to lesson on Analog to Digital Conversion. We mentioned that we had analog signals that we wanted to represent
by digital signals. (i.e. Recording your Comm-O singing Mikey Js Thriller on karaoke night.) Now your Comm-O prides himself in being a good
singer, and decides he wants to broadcast his digital recording from karaoke night to the rest of the carrier group to raise morale (and maybe, just
maybe, get selected to go to American Idol).
All he needs to do is transmit the digital signal. Right?

Free Space

voltage

WRONG! Haha. Of course it cant be that easy. The digital binary (0 and 1) signals to which we are so accustomed are, typically, alternations
between 0Vs and 5Vs (aka. DC voltage). It just so happens, and you can just trust me on this one, antennas dont transmit DC voltage.

5V

0V

Binary digital
timesignal represent 1 or 0 using switched pulses.

We must come up with a method to transmit the digital information using radio waves (continuous sine waves).

v Vc sin 2 f ct 2. Digital Modulation

1

Voltage(V)

0.5

Does this equation look familiar?

-0.5
-1

A sinusoidal carrier can be modulated by varying its amplitude, frequency, or phase.

0

0.5

1.5

2
Time(msec)

2.5

3.5

4
-3

x 10

0.5
Voltage(V)

1.5

Voltage(V)

0.5
0

0
-0.5

-0.5

-1

Amplitude

-1

-1.5

0.5

Frequency
1

1.5

2
Time(msec)

2.5

3.5

Phase

-3

x 10

Now think about this question. What is it we are trying to transmit? Spectacular answer! Just 1s and 0s.
-2
0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005
0.006
T ime(sec)

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

So, how do we go about representing 1s and 0s using amplitude modulation? That, my Midshipman, is the question that is about to be answered.
Just as we can vary amplitude, frequency, and phase of a high-frequency carrier in accordance with an analog waveform, we can do the same to
represent bits and since bits shift values between 0 and 1, digitial modulation techniques to varying amplitude, frequency, and phase are referred to
as shift keying.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
The simplest digital modulation scheme is a form of ASK called on-off keying (OOK). This is analogous to Morse code. A radio wave is transmitted
when the binary signal is 1 and nothing is transmitted when the binary signal is 0.

Example
Draw a modulated OOK signal below the bit stream.
1

Before we continue, you need to learn some terms that are used frequently in communication systems. We already know from our mad binary skills
that N bits can be used to represent 2N values and when were talking shift keying, the 2N values are referred to as Symbols.

Each change in the

amplitude is termed
a Symbol.

S = 2N, where S is
the number of
symbols and N is the
number of bits
transmitted per
symbol.

NOTE: Read this equation again and make sure you understand it. It is a major
point that many people miss. In this example of OOK, there are only 2 symbols
with 1 bit per symbol, either 1 or 0. We will show shortly that there are often
times where there are many symbols and therefore many bits per symbol.

Dont freak out you really already know this. If you have 1 bit, you can either represent a 0 or a 1 thats it. Since you can only represent 2 binary
numbers, you have 2 symbols. If you have 2 bits, you have more options you can represent 4 numbers (00, 01, 10, 11), and therefore, 4 symbols.
Since the Comm-O is ultimately interested in getting all those 0s and 1s out fast (and through the limited bandwidth available at sea) so that his
karaoke night performance is available for everyone, the rate at which 0s and 1s are transmitted is important.

Bit Rate (Rb) is the speed of transfer of data, or the number of bits per second. Bit Rate is inversely proportional to Bit time (tb), or the
time required to transmit a single bit.

Rb

1
tb

Baud Rate (aka Symbol Rate) (RS) is the number of symbols transmitted per second, and is inversely proportional to the Symbol Period
(TS), or the time required to transmit 1 symbol.

RS

1
TS

The Bit Rate and the Baud (or Symbol) Rate are related by the number of bits per symbol (N).
Rb = R S * N

(where N = log2S)

The bandwidth associated with OOK is:

One digital modulation scheme down. What next?

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
The oldest form of modulation used in modems (Ah, good old dial-up), frequency(FSK) is the name of the method used to represent a binary signal using frequency modulation.

shift keying

With FSK, the binary bits are represented by different frequencies. The binary 0 has a lower frequency of 1070 Hz and the binary 1 has a higher
frequency of 1270 Hz.
The lower frequency, binary 0, is called the space. The higher frequency, binary 1, is called the mark.

Similar to OOK, now

were varying frequency.
Still representing a single
bit, so only two Symbols.
S = 2.
To determine the bandwidth associated with FSK, it is important to utilize the frequency domain.

Now lets take a closer look at the output of the modulator to get the Bandwidth.

+R
Rb

Example
You have an FSK transmitter using a carrier of 500 kHz sending 10 kbps and deviating 100 kHz, how much bandwidth do you need?

Of course, who still uses dial-up? What else is there?

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Another modulating option is phase modulation know as Phase-shift keying (PSK)
For binary phase shift keying (BPSK), the carrier phase is shifted by 0 or 180.
1 the carrier phase is unchanged.
0 the carrier phase is shifted by 180.
One difficulty in demodulating a BPSK signal is that the carrier must be recovered
determine the correct phase relationship.

to

To simplify demodulation, a version of BPSK known as Differential phase-shift

keying (DPSK) can be used.
For DPSK, there is no absolute phase reference. At the receiver, the phase of one bit is compared to the phase of the previous bit:
at the transmitter:
at the receiver:
logic 0 send the same phase
if receive the same phase logic 0
logic 1 change the phase
if the phase changes logic 1
(or vice-versa)
In other words, the receiver has to know if the first bit of the transmission is a 0 or 1. After that, if there is no change in the phase of the signal
received, each bit received will be the same as the previous bit received. Once an 180 o phase shift occurs, the receiver knows the bit has changed,
either 0 to 1 or 1 to 0. This continues throughout the receipt of the signal being transmitted.
DPSK when compared to BPSK:

is used in practice
simplifies demodulation
has bit errors that tend to come in pairs

Up to this point we have been looking at the possibility of one bit per symbol which means two symbols. As mentioned earlier, it is possible to have
more than one bit per symbol. In order to represent this in an easier to understand pictorial, you are about to be introduced to another representation
of the material you have learned.
Ready for the surprise?

3. Phasor diagram
We can represent the BPSK signal using a phasor diagram which shows the two possible BPSK symbols.

The picture on the right is called a signal constellation diagram.

BPSK and DPSK are limited to transmitting just one bit per symbol.
We have finally gotten through three modulation techniques. Here is the crux. In todays time, no one wants to wait on information. We want it
now! How many times have you wanted to throw your phone across the room because of the annoyingly long time it is taking to download a
Youtube video of Flavor Flav? I mean, really. Think back to the beginning of this lesson. The Comm-Os going to lose his job if the carrier group
commander doesnt get his morale improved soon!
There are a couple of ways to get this information across more quickly. On way is to send more bits per second. If we choose to use this path, you
need to realize this means an increase in bandwidth. What did we say was a major limiting factor for communication systems? Thats right.
Bandwidth. Sure, you can spend millions of dollars to get a little more bandwidth, but eventually the FCC will say, No more. So, what to do?
As Theo Huxtable used to say, No Problem!
We can preserve bandwidth if we keep the symbol rate the same and increase the number of bits per symbol.
Instead of transmitting just 2 possible phase shifts (0and 180), we could transmit 4 possible phase shifts per symbol (45, 135, 225, and 315).
This is called quadrature or quaternary PSK (4-PSK or QPSK).
Sweet. Now S can be greater than two.
QPSK
In QSPK, because there are 4 possible symbols and we are transmitting 2 bits per symbol.
[bits per symbol = log2 (# of possible symbols)]

Consider the bit stream below and the resulting QPSK signal.

10 bit01stream
(315)
(135)

11
(225)

00
(45)

10
(315)

11
(225)

Weve seen these equations earlier, but to re-emphasis:

or log 2 S=N
Where N = number of bits per symbol
And S = number of symbols
N

2 =S

What? Did I hear you correctly? You want to know if you can add even more bits per symbol. Absolutely!
M-ary PSK
We can further increase the number of bits per symbol by increase the number of possible phase shifts.
Consider the 8-PSK constellation below.

90

270
180

How many bits per symbol are transmitted?

S=8

log 2 S=3

So 3 bits/symbol

8 PSK
Consider the bit stream below and the resulting 8-PSK signal.

stream
100 bit
011
(315)(90)

101
(270)

001
(45)

100
(315)

Yeah baby! Lets do that again. Give me more.

16 PSK

111
(225)

We could further increase to 4 bits/symbol using 16-PSK.

Whats S now? Yep, S = 16.

Wow, those dots are getting close together. At this rate, I imagine those dots
touching. If thats your thought, you might be on to something.

will soon be

To demodulate 16-PSK, the receiver must determine the phase within 11.25. Think about it. If you have 16 symbols, you have 360o/16 = 22.5o
between each symbol. That leaves you a buffer of 11.25 on either side of a symbol.

22.5o
11.25o
4. Noise effects
As weve mentioned so many
times, the number 1 most limiting factor of
communication systems is noise. In all transmissions, the received signal will be degraded by noise.

This can be depicted in the phasor domain (constellation diagram) as follows.

A BPSK receiver must make a decision to determine the phase of a received signal to determine the corresponding binary signal.
Now consider the same noise in the presence of a QPSK or 8-PSK signal.
Noise effects (8-PSK)

So is this it? Were limited to just a few symbols. Or did someone so handsome, so smart think of a method
limitations noise is playing on our abilities to transmit?

to overcome, to an extent, the

Think about it for a second. Up to this point, we have manipulated amplitude, frequency, or phase.
What if, and I mean WHAT IF, we were to change, say, phase and amplitude at the same time. I

know. Crazy. Right?

CRAZY AWESOME!!!!!

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

In order to increase the distance between points in the signal constellation, another
option is to modulate both the amplitude and the phase.
This is called Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

8-QAM

8-QAM
Consider the bit stream below and the resulting 8-QAM signal. Note that there are both phase and amplitude changes.

And it doesnt stop there.

Higher level QAM signals
QAM signals can be extended to have a larger number of signal symbols, which then gives a much higher bit rate (because there are more bits per
symbol).
64-QAM and 256-QAM are common in cable modems, satellites, and high-speed fixed broadband wireless.

In 256-QAM, you find that for each symbol you are transmitting (2 8=256) 8 bits of information. What that means is for the same bandwidth, you are
sending 8 times more information when you use 256-QAM than when you use OOK, FSK, or BPSK.
Now thats powerful!
All that singing the Comm-O
wants the carrier group to hear gets sent out at a high bit rate, morale is up, and everyone is happy.
90

270

Example
180

Using the signal constellation below, answer the following questions.

a)

What type of modulation does this represent?

b)

How many symbols are represented?

c)

How many bits per symbol can be used?

d)

If the Baud Rate is 10,000 symbols/second. What is the bit rate?

e)

Would 16 QAM be more of less susceptible to noise than this signal?

Example
Label the modulation schemes.

10