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ar t ic l e in f o
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Article history:
The oil palm tree is an ancient tropical plant that originated from West Africa. Palm oil has
centuries' long use as food and medicine. This review covers the recent signicant
materials found in the literature on palm oil processing, rening, and use in frying
30 December 2014
especially in blends with other vegetable oils. Crude palm oil (CPO) is obtained from the
fruit of the oil palm tree (Elaeis guineensis). The oil is rich in palmitic acid, -carotene and
vitamin E. CPO has been fractionated mainly into liquid palm olein and solid palm stearin
in order to diversify its food applications. Palm oil is highly stable during frying especially
a shift from the use of animal fats and hydrogenated vegetable oils in frying and other food
applications. The use of naturally stable oils such as palm oil and composite oils like
blends of palm oil and other fats and oils is practiced to ensure that maximum benets are
5280450)
derived from the oils. Blending offers functional, nutritional and technical advantages,
such as tailoring the oil to suit frying applications. The objective of this review is to
5280934)
combine and condense the body of research on the processing, characterization and use of
palm oil especially in frying as well as suggest areas that need further research.
due to the synergistic activity of -carotene and tocotrienol. In recent years there has been
5280489)
Vitamin A (PubChem CID: 445354)
Alpha-tocopherol (PubChem CID:
14985)
Gamma-tocotrienol (PubChem CID:
5282349)
Alpha-tocotrienol (PubChem CID:
5282347)
Vitamin E (PubChem CID: 1548900)
Keywords:
Palm oil
Characterization
Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 514 398 7776; fax: 1 514 398 8387.
Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 514 398 7779; fax: 1 514 398 8387.
E-mail address: marie-josee.dumont@mcgill.ca (M.-J. Dumont).
nn
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2015.01.003
2212-4292/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
27
Nutrients
Antioxidants
Frying
Blending
Contents
1.
2.
3.
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Processing and rening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. Physicochemical characterization of palm oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. Fatty acid characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3. Micronutrients characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Use in frying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Blending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.
Introduction
27
28
30
31
31
33
34
36
37
38
38
28
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2007
Coconut Oil
Palm Oil
Rapeseed Oil
2008
2009
Year
Cottonseed Oil
Palm Kernel Oil
Soybean Oil
2010
2011
Olive Oil
Peanut Oil
Sunflower Oil
when compared to high oleic oils. This review aims at highlighting and evaluating the physicochemical characteristics,
nutritional, functional and frying qualities of palm oil. It also
focuses on the processing, rening and characterization of
palm oil. The suitability and sustainability of blending CPO
with other unsaturated vegetable oils for use in the food
service and processing industries as a cost effective and
healthy alternative to partial hydrogenation will be explored.
2.
liquid, usually water, is used to extract the oil from the milled
palm fruits. Hot water or steam is used to leach out the oil
from ruptured oily cells of the palm fruits. The hot water
treatment also hydrolyzes gums, resins and any starch
present as well as coagulates proteins. The gums and resins
cause the oil to foam during frying. The hydrolyzed and
coagulated products are removed during oil clarication. The
extracted oil is recovered after evaporating the moisture
(Obibuzor, Okogbenin, & Abigor, 2012; Poku, 2002). In the
dry method, a hydraulic press or a screw press or centrifugation is employed. The screw press is generally more
applicable in continuous extraction systems while the
hydraulic press is commonly used in batch or semi-batch
extraction systems (Poku, 2002). During pressing, the crude
palm oil drains from the brous mesocarp leaving behind
ber materials that still retains about 56% of oil. In order to
avoid cracking the palm kernels, the pressure is normally
reduced and oil retention increases to 1012% (Corley &
Tinker, 2003; Obibuzor et al., 2012). The resulting press liquor
is a mixture of water, oil, dirt, and fruit debris in varying
concentrations. The liquor is processed further to maximize
oil yield and reduce the moisture content in the CPO to r10%
(Poku, 2002). This process, besides being critical to the quality
of the CPO, leads to oil loss and environmental pollution.
After most of the oil has been recovered, palm oil mill efuent
(POME) is left behind. More oil can be recovered from POME when
food grade solvents such as hexane and petroleum ether are
used for the oil extraction (Obibuzor et al., 2012). The CPO stock is
further puried by centrifugation and drying. Vacuum drying has
been suggested to avoid further degradation of the oil quality,
especially the FFA content. The dried oil is then cooled and
pumped to storage tanks or other suitable containers (Bassim,
Abdul, & Ng, 2003; Obibuzor et al., 2012). Norhuda and Mohd
Omar (2009) reported the feasibility of using supercritical carbon
dioxide extraction method for the extraction of CPO. This is more
applicable for the extraction of PKO from the crushed kernels.
Similarly, solvent extraction process is used in high capacity
mills for PKO extraction. It involves three main unit operations:
kernel pre-treatment, oil extraction, and solvent recovery from
the oil and meal. Poku (2002) reported that the yields and quality
of the extracted oil depend on the initial oil and moisture
contents, operating temperature, heating time and the applied
pressure.
The crude oil is usually washed with a solution of sodium
hydroxide or sodium carbonate to reduce the FFAs content,
remove the PLs and other polar lipids. This operation is
generally referred to as alkali rening. Alkali rening alone
cannot remove all objectionable compounds that may be
present (molk & Pokorn, 2000). Other rening procedures
and targeted impurities are shown in Table 1. Dunford (2012)
reported a rening process involving heating the crude oil
with water or an aqueous solution of phosphoric acid. The
gums are subsequently removed by centrifugation. Pigments
are removed by bleaching with activated clay or charcoal,
while volatile oxidation products are removed through steam
distillation at high temperatures and reduced pressure. The
resulting oil is usually colorless, bland, and has good storage
stability (molk & Pokorn, 2000; Dunford, 2012). molk and
Pokorn (2000) reported that the disadvantages of alkali
rening include: losses of neutral triacylglycerols, high
29
Targeted impurity
Hydration/degumming
Neutralization
Bleaching
Deodorization
energy requirement, high cost of equipment, time consuming, and generates large amounts of efuents that pollutes
the environment. For these reasons, physical methods of
rening are recommended. Physical rening is based on the
higher volatility of FFAs and TAGs at high temperatures and
low pressures. During physical rening, volatile compounds
including FFAs are volatilized and neutral oil droplets are
carried in the current of the stripping steam. These methods
include: steam rening, inert gas stripping, molecular distillation, membrane rening, hermetic system, supercritical
carbon dioxide, etc. (Dunford, 2012; Gunstone, 2011).
The quality of extracted palm oil determines the grades
and the premium payable. Generally, palm oil with low FFA
and moisture content, very low levels of impurities and good
bleachability index is considered to be of high quality. The
quality of palm oil dictates and directs its use. Broadly
speaking, high quality palm oils are used in the edible oil
industry while lower quality oils are used in the non-edible
industry for biofuels, candles, cosmetics and soap (Henson,
2012). Good quality oil contains more than 95% neutral TAGs
and 0.5% or less FFA. As an industry rule, the FFA content of
rened oils must be r0.1%. Most crude oils usually contain
13% of FFA. Where the oil has high FFA, physical rening is
recommended (Dunford, 2012; Gunstone, 2011). CPO containing 12% FFA has been reduced to 1.3% FFA at 220 1C and 0.5%
FFA at 230 1C by physical rening at a pressure of 0.8 kPa
(molk & Pokorn, 2000). However, care must be taken since
high temperatures lead to destruction of carotenes. The
consequence is oil with reduced nutritional quality and color.
Lower deodorization temperatures are recommended
(Aparicio & Harwood, 2013). A two-step process for rening
CPO has also been reported. This involved acidifying to
remove PLs and other gums and steam stripping at lower
temperatures (180 1C and 200 1C). This procedure yielded oils
with satisfactory avor. Steam stripping at higher temperatures 240270 1C at 0.251.32 kPa has been reported (Derksen
& Cuperus, 1998). The effectiveness of two modern deodorization devices, Mellapaks and Optiows, which guarantee
satisfactory mass transfer and a substantially improved
steam distribution have been reported (molk & Pokorn,
2000; Faessler, 1998). The red color of palm oil is generally
accepted by the consumers. High carotene content is desirable because of its pro vitamin A and antioxidant activities.
Ooi, Choo, Yap, and Ma (1996) proposed the use of a molecular distillation unit which reduces the FFA content of CPO
to r0.1%, while retaining more than 80% of the carotenes
and tocopherols.
Sometimes, the food service and manufacturing industries
require CPO with bland and light color. CPO can be rened by
30
Physical Refining
Chemical Refining
Degumming
Alkali Neutralization
Bleaching
Bleaching
Deodorizing
Deodorizing
Refined Bleached
Deodorized (RBD)
Palm Oil
Neutralized
Bleached Palm Oil
Fractionation
Fractionation
RBD Palm Stearin
RBD Palm Stearin
3.
Characterization
31
Physical
Fractionation
Dry
Advantages
Disadvantages
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Destruction of carotenes
Loss of deep red color
High oxidative damage
Likely loss of Vitamins E
Reduced storage stability
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Simple
Cheap
No chemicals
No efuent
No losses
No additional substance
Multi-step operation possible
Detergent
Solvent
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
3.1.
Reduced viscosity
Short process time
High separation efciency
Improved yield
Higher purity of products
The Mongana report of 1955 was one of the earliest comprehensive research works on palm oil characterization. It dealt
with palm oil milling and CPO quality in Africa. Then, CPO
quality was mainly dened in terms of total percentage of
FFA, moisture and impurities. After the Second World War, a
more complex quality grading system was introduced to
regulate oil production by cottage industries. A ve point
grading system was introduced. Grade 1 oils must have
FFAo1% while grade 5 oils have FFA436%. Grades 2, 3 and
4 oils have FFA ranges of 918%, 1827%, and 2736%,
respectively. This grading system stimulated the small scale
producers to improve their oil quality. Later, the specication
Special Grade palm oil with maximum FFA level of 4.5% at
the point of sale was introduced. Further adjustment put the
maximum FFA at 3.5%. Trade reports showed that by 1965
more than 80% of CPO export from Africa was of the Special
Grade quality (Berger & Martin, 2000; Iwuchukwu, 1965).
Since the 1990s, some countries such as Malaysia have the
set limits of FFA to r5% and a maximum of 0.25% for
moisture and impurities for locally produced CPO (Chong,
2012).
The physicochemical properties of palm oil and its fractions were extensively studied during the 1980s and 1990s.
3.2.
32
Typical
Range
Reference/source
54.0
37.5
16.9
0.8920.899
53.060.0
33.045.0
16.619.0
1.4491.456
230.0235.0
35.042.0
34.5
14.0
11.0
7.4
5.6
4.7
45.0
53.0
196.0
0.5
13.5
0.5
30.039.0
11.517.0
8.014.0
4.011.0
2.59.0
2.07.0
0.8880.889
45.049.0
46.056.0
3.175.0
0.110.0
0.64.65
190.0209.0
0.150.99
9.4719.50
0.415.0
49.954.7
37.139.2
8.110.5
OBrien (2010)
OBrien (2010)
OBrien (2010)
OBrien (2010)
OBrien (2010)
OBrien (2010)
OBrien (2010)
Berger (2005)
OBrien (2010), Edem (2002)
Chong (2012)
OBrien (2010)
Chong (2012)
OBrien (2010), Chong (2012)
OBrien (2010)
Almeida et al. (2013), Berger (2005)
Berger (2005)
Tan and Nehdi (2012)
Gunstone (2011), Tan and Nehdi (2012)
Gunstone (2011), Tan and Nehdi (2012)
OBrien (2010)
Typical
Rangea
Rangeb
0.0a
1.1a
44.0a
0.1a
4.5a
39.2a
10.1a
0.4a
0.4a
0.11.0
0.91.5
41.846.8
0.10.3
4.55.1
37.340.8
9.111.0
0.40.6
0.20.7
0.00.4
0.52.0
40.048.0
0.00.6
3.56.5
36.044.0
6.512.0
0.00.5
0.01.0
0.89.0
38.550.3
31.844.4
4.89.8
3.07.6
a
b
c
OBrien (2010).
Firestone (2006).
Tan and Nehdi (2012).
Range (ppm)
Carotenoids
-Carotene
-Carotene
Lycopene
Total carotenoids
30.035.16b
50.056.02b
1.01.30b
500700b
Tocopherol
-Tocopherol
-Tocopherol
-Tocopherol
-Tocopherol
Total tocopherol
129215a
2237a
1932a
1016a
500600a
Tocotrienols
-Tocotrienol
-Tocotrienol
-Tocotrienol
-Tocotrienol
Total tocotrienols
4473a
4473a
262437a
70117a
10001200a
Phytosterols
Phospholipids
Squalene
Ubiquinones
Aliphatic alcohols
Triterpene alcohols
Methyl sterols
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
326527b
5130b
200500b
1080b
100200b
4080b
4080b
50b
a
b
OBrien (2010).
Zou et al. (2012).
33
3.3.
Micronutrients characterization
34
4.
Use in frying
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Palm Oil
Palm Olein
Palm Stearin
Super Olein
Palm Mid-Fraction
35
36
6
6
17575
17575
17575
French fries
5
180
Frozen par
fried potato
French fries
French fries
820020,800
8.2
1200
1388
Phytosterol
(mg/100 g)
Total polyphenol
(CAE mg/100 g
Time
(min)
Temperature
(1C)
Total carotene
(mg/100 g)
Total
tocopherol
(mg/100 g)
Total
tocotrienol
(mg/100 g)
References
Micronutrients
Frying conditions
Blending
Food
5.
Table 6 The distribution of micronutrients in products fried in palm oil or palm olein.
37
6.
Conclusion
Palm oil has nearly equal amounts of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Palmitic acid is the major saturated fatty
acid while oleic acid is the monounsaturated fatty acid. The
oil is semi-solid at room temperature; it does not require
hydrogenation. With about 500700 ppm of carotenoids, palm
oil is nature's richest source of -carotene and lycopene.
It is also very rich in vitamin E, especially tocotrienols
and tocopherols. The carotenoids and the vitamins E act
synergistically as powerful natural antioxidants. They confer
Table 7 Summary of effects of blending palm oil/palm olein and other vegetable oils.
Oil blends
Blend ratio, %
(palm oil:
other oil)
Effect
Reference
Palm oil:sunower
oil
Palm olein:olive oil
80:20
60:40
75:25
50:50
50:50
50:50
88:20
Palm olein:sunower
oil
Palm olein:peanut oil
50:50
Palm oil:sunower
oil
65:35
75:25
75:15:10
90:10
to 60:40
52:48
38
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Tertiary Education Trust Fund
(TETfund) Abuja Nigeria and the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada for their nancial support (grant no. RGPIN 217012).
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