CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents (1) the background of the study, (2) research
questions, (3) purposes of the research, (4) scope of the study, (5) research
significance, and (6) explanation of some main key terms that applied in this
research.
1.1 Background of the Study
Learning is a process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience. The interaction of the experience and environment
takes a role in developing the content of learning and instruction. Gardner as cited
in Curtis and OHagan (2005:33) maintains that a system of discrete informationprocessing operations that deal with the different kinds of information that
humans encounter during their everyday lives. The information-processing
operation brought in the children linguistic intelligence is the ability to use
language effectively in a communication with others.
The use of language in the classroom is real communication that takes
place in the classroom interaction. In classroom interaction, teachers always use
language to accelerate the process of interaction. Teachers as human who have an
important role in the learning process always use speech as a medium to convey
ideas to students. Therefore, the language has a central role in the development of

the intellectual, social, and emotional of the students and is the critical key to
success in the study of all fields of study.
A teacher opens up unknown or knowledge; he makes things clear; he
makes things as simple as possible. He enables pupils to do more things and to do
them better, to understand more things and to understand it better (Marland, 1993
in Capel et al., 1995: 79).
Similarly, Schleppegrell (2004:19) states that teaching and learning in
school can be done successfully through the appropriate use of language. The
language plays an importance role in the teaching and learning process
specifically in the speech act of the teachers. Getting along with the position of a
teacher, Allwright & Bailey (1991) state that teacher-students interaction is
important to the time of the class. Teacher-students interaction and classroom
speech acts management are inseparable classroom practices. Both are crucial in
determining the lesson objectives attainment (Brown, 2001).
Otherwise, the teachers roles in the classroom depend upon the function
of the language employed by the teacher (Christie & Unsworth, 2000). Therefore,
the effect of the language used in classroom settings is an important educational
question (Nunan, 1989). Cazden (1988) maintains that communication in
classroom has some essential features. First, spoken language in the classroom is
used as an educational medium, in which teachers transfer their educational
objectives to students, and students demonstrate what they have learned from the
teacher. Second, the interactions of teacher and students take place in the
classroom. The teacher takes role as the director of classroom activities that are in
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charge of controlling all the speech that occurs in the class session and raising the
effectiveness of education. And at last, spoken language viewed as an important
part of the same initiation of all the participants.
Teachers

and

students

come

from

different

identities,

cultural

backgrounds, and use the classroom as the first large institution to integrate their
expectations individually or overtly, that causes many problems of ineffective
teaching and learning. For this reason, it is critical that classroom interaction
should be improved to enhance the effectiveness of the teaching and learning
process.
Teacher helps students acquire information, ideas, skills, values, ways of
thinking and means of expressing themselves; and also teach them how to learn.
When teaching is designed to do a particular goal of learning, it may be successful
with the use of language. The teaching is carried out by using language that is
known widely as classroom speech act (Curtis and OHagan, 2005: 48).
Then, to other research studies around discourse analysis as well as
teachers and students interaction in the classroom, several research studies have
been done. Mehan (1985), for example, conducted a study on the organization of
classroom instruction. This study suggests that participation in the classroom
involves a unification of social and academic matters. Wells (1985) focused his
study on how different contexts have a relation to different language use. Wells
acknowledges that language use is about the context in which the interaction takes
place:

During the course of a normal day, a child engages in many activities,

which involve different fellow-actors and different materials. Some of these
activities are familiar routines, such as getting dressed; others are more or
less novel. In some activities it is the child who is the initiator, in others a
parent, and in still others it may be another child. Each of these dimensions
is likely to have an effect on the language that occurs. (Wells, 1985: 322)

One of Wells findings was that children use more control speech - a set
of different directives, commitments and declaratives- during pretend play,
especially when children played with peers. Control speech also tends to be more
aggravated and repeated more often in peer interaction, compared to the control
speech children use with their teachers.
Hilsom and Cane (1971) and Dalin et al. investigated the role of the
teacher in Colombia in which the teachers act as developers, organizers and
motivators for their students. Then, Stubbs (1996, cited in Maolida, 2005)
analyzes classroom speech act using discourse analysis based on the
matacognitive functions that characterize teachers speech. Using this analysis, he
showed clearly some strategies employed by teachers to keep in touch with their
students.
Eggins (2000) conducted one research about everyday speech act between
two men and a woman under the analyses of mood choices shown that the speaker
used declarative clauses, suggesting that the speaker initiates and prolong more
exchanges. Overall, these findings are consistent with the general trends identified
in mixed-sex interaction: women ask more questions, talk less about themselves
than about others and respond rather than initiate in the teaching and learning.

Wrench, et.al, (2009), furthermore, maintains that teaching is about

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establishing effective and affective communication relationships among the

teachers and students. Wrench, et al. also state that effective teachers are effective
communicators. The teachers are those who understand that communication and
learning that are interdependent; the knowledge and attitudes students take with
them from the classroom are selectively drawn from a complex collection of
verbal and nonverbal messages about the subject, the teacher, and themselves.
They also maintain that teachers are those who are more concerned with what the
students have learned than with what they have taught, recognizing those two
things are not necessarily synonymous. They are those who consciously and
strategically make decisions about both what is communicated and how it is
communicated. Then, instructional communication is the process of the teacher
establishing an effective communication (speech) relationship with the learner. So
that, the learner has the opportunity to achieve the optimum of success in the
instructional environment/context.
Based on those ideas, the linguistic matters and social structure are
working together in classroom communication. Generally thinking, this has been
reflected specifically in the concept of the speech act used in classroom. Hymes
(1972) defines it as the level (which) mediates immediately the usual level of
grammar and the rest of a speech event in that it implicates both linguistic form
and social norms (Manes, 1983: 96).
When a person speaks, he/she performs certain acts within a speech event
in a situation. For example, if someone asks the time on the street, he/she would
say, What time is it? The response would be Its X. Finally, the interlocutor
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would say Thank you. Asking the time (speech event) happens when one doesnt
know the time and want to know the time (a situation). The participants perform
three speech acts in this situation with such language functions as asking the time,
giving the time, and thanking (Scollon & Scollon, 1997: 19). As shown in this
example, speech acts involve certain language functions and speakers in
communication perform and transfer language functions through speech acts.
Murphy & Neu (1996) state that speech acts must take place in a specified
context of situation to be performed successfully. They give an example when a
teacher asks an elementary student what the time is, this is a different speech
event. The speech event can be testing the concept of telling the time. It normally
consists of three speech acts: asking the time, giving the time, and teachers
evaluation/complimenting. The speech events can be outlined as follows:
At the classroom

(speech situation)

Testing for the concept of telling time

(speech event)

Teacher: What time is it?

(speech act 1)

Student: It is ten to nine

(speech act 2)

Teacher: Very good, thank you

(speech act 3)

The meaning of sentences is interpreted by understanding the context of

speech event in which it occurs. Speech event is also defined as set of utterances
produced in such situation. It is an activity in which participants interact via
language in some conventional ways to arrive at some outcomes. It includes one
obvious central speech act. It also includes other utterances leading up to and is
subsequently reacting to the central action.
As presented in these two examples, the same linguistic forms are not
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always used in the same situations for the same functions. Rather, they are used in
various ways following pragmatic rules of language use. Thus, participants in
speech events should know how certain linguistic forms function differently and
appropriately in a specific context for successful communication.
Searle (1969) defines speech act as the basic unit of language in which the
production of a token in the context of a speech act. While, Austin (1962) states
that people perform action via utterances; action performed by producing an
utterance consists of three related acts: locutionary act, illocutionary act and
perlocutionary act. Locutionary act is basic act of utterance; it produces a
meaningful linguistic expression. Next, the illocutionary act relates to the function
or communicative force of utterance; this can be a statement, an offer, an
expression, etc. And the perlocutionary act defined as the intended effect of the
action.
Bach and Harnish (1979) contend that two types of inferences operating in
communication can lead to two types of acts: the direct and indirect speech acts.
On one side, the direct speech act involves the literal strategy of analyzing a
speech act. And on the other side, the indirect speech act inference looks beyond
the literal meaning of the act to understand the speakers intention. It is the belief
that the speaker and hearer share that enables them to communicate effectively in
the specifically situation. This also happens in the communication of classroom
context.

The classroom speech acts determines the quality of verbal interaction.

This provides invaluable information for teachers. Whereby the teachers know
their typical teaching behaviour, they use extensively in communicating with the
students. When making an interaction in the classroom, teacher is assisting or
helping the students. This is implemented in conducting a dialogue through
questioning and sharing of ideas and knowledge that happen in the instructional
conversation. It means that the teachers and students cannot get rid of using
language, using speech acts. Teaching functions as explaining, classroom
management and questioning (Cole and Chan, 1987:5) cannot be avoided and
separated from the use of language.
Brown and Yule (1983) state that the daily humans interaction
characterized by language. Because the function of language is communication, it
is typically interested in and aware of the speaker intention is using a sentence.
Speaker has intention that he/she intends to have some effects on their listeners by
acting in a linguistic. Austin (1962) states that a person act through language,
doing thing through words, getting other to do things through words. Furthermore,
Searle (1985: 16) states that speaking a language is performing speech acts, acts
such as making statement, giving command, asking questions, making promise,
and so forth. In addition, he urges that communication involves speech acts.
When someone is speaking, he/she does not transfer information only, but
also convey his/her intention by performing activity as suggesting, promising,
inviting, or even prohibiting the addressee from doing something. Thus language
activity is not just transferring information, but also it is an activity by which we
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do things with words, thing as demanding or displaying our erudition about

something.
Furthermore, as the basic idea for the researcher that to achieve a better
understanding about the language used in teaching and learning was the
motivation to conduct this speech acts study. Getting good understanding in
teaching and learning process specifically the use of certain speech acts, teachers
are wished to increase the students academic, social and personal development.
This study covers the use of teachers and students speech acts. This
research was conducted as an attempt to break up the scarcity. In other words, it
was urgent to have an observation of classroom life and what happen in it. In an
idea that this study inspired at inquiring the interpersonal discourse management
in the classroom interaction namely, the speech acts used and how they were
realized in classroom interaction. Interpersonal discourse management in
classroom interaction should be fully noticed and understood by the teachers as
this is an important component that contributes students achievement on learning.
Ideally, teachers should able to manage interpersonal communication in the
classroom to achieve successful communication in which both students and
teachers can understand and interpret the messages being sent or received.
Therefore, study is expected to give enough information for the teachers
specifically in elementary level about their typical teaching behaviour and how
well they teach and motivate the students.
Moreover, this study was conducted since the analysis of classroom
discourse is relevant to various important phenomena of language use, texts, and
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conversational interactions or communicative events in the classroom (cf. Van

Dijk, 1985; Cazden, 1988). However, the study of classroom interaction under
analysis of speech act used that focuses on the role and communicative functions
of the classroom participants in elementary schools was rarely been investigated
intensively. Hence, it is necessary to conduct this research that focuses on speech
acts features of teachers and students in their interaction in the classroom.
1.2 Research Questions
Based on the rationale above, generally, this research aimed at answering
the question: How do the teachers interact with students and produce speech acts
in facilitating the teaching and learning process in the classroom at the Elementary
School in East Lombok?
Making it clearer, specifically, the question above can be broken down into
four questions as follows.
1) What types of speech acts are produced by the teachers and students of SDN
10 Pringgasela-East Lombok?
2) What are the communicative functions of the speech acts produced by the
teachers and students of SDN 10 Pringgasela-East Lombok?
3) What are the instructional functions of speech acts produced by the teachers
and students of SDN 10 Pringgasela-East Lombok?
4) What politeness strategies are used by the teachers and students of SDN 10
Pringgasela-East Lombok when conveying the speech acts?

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1.3 Research Purposes

Generally this study was intended to describe, analyze and explain the
speech acts produced by the teachers and students of Elementary School in East
Lombok. That is, how speech acts are produced in the teaching and learning
situation. Teachers speech acts include the kinds of questions that teacher used;
the amount and type of speech acts that the teachers and students produce and
does and the speech act modification the teacher makes when talking to learners.
Specifically, the purposes to be accomplished in this study are as follows.
1) To investigate the types of speech acts are produced by the teachers and
students of SDN 10 Pringgasela-East Lombok during classroom interaction.
2) To investigate the communicative function of speech acts that are produced
by the teachers and students of SDN 10 Pringgasela-East Lombok during
classroom interaction.
3) To investigate the instructional functions of speech acts produced by the
teachers and students of SDN 10 Pringgasela-East Lombok.
4) To investigate the politeness strategies used by the teachers and students of
SDN 10 Pringgasela-East Lombok when conveying the speech acts.
1.4 Scope of the Study
As has been stated above, the role of teachers speech acts and studentsteacher interaction in management of learning were important. Here the researcher
paid more attention to the numbers and types of speech acts the teachers and
students did. The types of speech acts were produced by the teachers and students
in the classroom interaction observed.
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The researcher also investigated some managerial and pedagogical

aspects of feedback received by students. Instructing students and providing
feedback on performance were the two commonly conceived classroom functions
of the teacher. Feedback and error correction in assertives speech acts are other
important aspects of the teachers speech acts. At this view, the researcher
observed how and when feedback (answers) was provided, regardless the
feedback was negative or positive, and who receives the feedback.
1.5 Research Significance
Pedagogically, this study contributed to education especially in teaching
and learning process. The description of speech acts could be methodologically
useful for the teachers. It contributed to the process of teaching and learning. This
study become a reflection for the researcher and every teacher to observe and
evaluate their speech acts in teaching and learning process. The result of this study
is expected to provide valuable information about the linguistic features of
classroom life to provide information about textual analysis, particularly analysis
of classroom discourse. So that, this study gains many insights into this
relationship, that in turn contribute, even probably in the small scale, to theories of
(language) education, teaching and learning language (Huda, 1999; Allwright and
Bailey, 1991; van Lier, 1989; Ellis, 1986). In other word, this research determined
to give important information about the use of speech acts in teaching and
learning process to teachers, students and other researcher as follow.
1) This research was expected to give a collection of valuable information for
teachers about their teaching behaviour especially whether or not they used
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good language to manage the classroom interaction. Besides, it could help the
teachers to improve their interpersonal discourse management so the
educational standard level could be increased.
2) This research was expected to give information to the students about the
language they used during the classroom interaction so they could improve
their language understanding for communication.
3) The result of this study is probably attracting further research for those who are
interested in conducting classroom research. It is hoped that this study will
provide information about the role and communicative functions of teachers in
classroom and also will provide information about the linguistic features of
classroom life for students and teachers. More studies on classroom interaction
will of course enrich insights of teachers, also language teachers in particular,
to have more awareness and options to teach their students effectively and
constructively.
1.6 Explanation of Key Terms
This part explores and explains the key terms covered in this study
especially the speech act theory based on Searles theory (1969). This decided to
choose the theory as it was more comprehensive and might cover the speech acts
produced by teachers and students in classroom. They are as follows:
Speech Act

: the smallest unit of linguistic communication.

Assertives

: the illocutionary point of these acts is to commit

the truth of the expressed proposition. For
examples:

stating,

suggesting,

boasting,
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complaining and reporting.

Directives

: to produce an effect through some actions which

are done by the hearers. The examples are order,
command, and advice.

Commissives

: these acts commit the speaker to do some future

action. The examples are promise, offer, and vow.

Expressives

: the illocutionary acts which have a purpose to

express a psychological state of the hearer in the
situation where the hearer is engaging. For
examples: thanking, congratulating, apologizing,
threatening, and condoling.

Declarations

: affecting a correspondence between propositional

content and reality. The examples are baptizing,
naming, and appointing. This speech act can be
made by people who have an authority.

Communicative function

: The function of a language in communication

generally.

Instructional function

: The function of a language in attaining the

objectives in classroom (education) area.

Politeness strategies

: Strategies used to formulate messages in order to

save the hearers face when face-threatening acts
are inevitable or desired (affiliated with Brown
and Levinsons Theory).
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