MED102

CH32~34,40~44

CH32
CH33
CH34
CH40
CH41
CH42
CH43
CH44

Content
Ch 32 An Overview of Animals Diversity1
Ch 33 An Introduction to Invertebrates8
Ch 34 The Origin and Evolution of Vertebrates14
Ch 40 Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function24
Ch 41 Animal Nutrition34
Ch 42 Circulation and Gas Exchange39
ch 43 The Immune System48
Ch 44 Osmoregulation and Excretion54

Ch 32 An Overview of Animals Diversity

32.1 Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from
embryonic layers

several characteristics of animals (exceptions to nearly every criterion in distinguishing
animals)

- Nutrition Mode:

1. heterotrophs

2. animals ingest foods and use enzyme to digest food in their body (unlike fungi)

- Cell Structure and Specialization

1. multicellular

2. lack cell wall > variety of proteins external to the cell membrane provide structural
support to cells end connect them ex. collagen (figure 6.30)

3. two type of specialized cell (only found in animals)

(a) muscles cells

(b) nerves cells

Both are central to the animals lifestyle and are organized into tissues, which
provide the ability to move and conduct nerve impulses

Reproduction
and Development

1. most animals reproduce sexually

1 The zygote of an animal
2. diploid stage dominates the life cycle

undergoes a series of
mitotic cell divisions
3. sperm and egg cells are
called cleavage.
produced directly by meiotic
division (unlike plants andfungi)

Zygote

4. early embryonic development

Cleavage

2 An eight-cell embryo

is formed by three
rounds of cell division.

Eight-cell stage
Cleavage
Blastocoel

3 In most animals,

cleavage produces
a multicellular
stage called a
blastula. The blastula is typically a
hollow ball of cells
that surround a
cavity called
the blastocoel.

Blastula

Cross section
of blastula

4 Most animals also undergo

gastrulation, a process in which
one end of the embryo folds
inward, expands, and eventually
fills the blastocoel, producing
layers of embryonic tissues: the
ectoderm (outer layer) and the
endoderm (inner layer).

Gastrulation
5 The pouch formed
by gastrulation, called the
archenteron, opens to the
outside via the blastopore.

Blastocoel
Endoderm
Ectoderm

6 The endoderm of the

archenteron develops
into the tissue
lining the animals
digestive tract.

Archenteron
Cross section
of gastrula

Blastopore

Figure 32.2 Early embryonic development in animals.

Ch 32 An Overview of Animals Diversity

(e) For most animals, life cycle include at least one larva stage, and larva eventually
undergo metamorphosis.

<Note1> larva: a sexually immature form of an animal that is morphologically
distinct from the adult

1. eats different food

(2)may even have a different habitat

<Note2> metamorphosis: a developmental transformation that turns the animals
into a juvenile that resembles an adult but is not yet sexually mature

(b) Despite the wide variety of animals morphology, developmental genes (control the
expression of other genes) contain a set of DNA sequences called homeoboxes.
Most animals share a unique homeobox containing family of genes known as Hox
gene. In vertebrates, insects, and most other animals, Hox genes regulate the
formation if the anterior-posterior axis, as well as other aspect of development.

32.2The history of animals spans and more than half a billion years

- Neoproterozoic Era (1 billion-542million years ago)

1. the first generally accepted macroscopic fossils of animals date from 565 to 550
million years ago Ediacaran Biota (members of an early group of soft bodied
multicellular eukaryotes)

Ch 32 An Overview of Animals Diversity

2. 575-million-year-old microfossils discovered in China appear to exhibit the basic
structural organization of present-day animal embryo

3. the fossil record shows that the late Neoproterozoic era was the time of increasing
animal diversity

- Paleozoic Era (542251 million years ago)

1. before Cambrian explosion, only a few animal phyla have been observed; however,
after Cambrian explosion old fossils of half of all extent animal phyla were found

<Note> Cambrian explosion: another wave of animal diversification occurred 535
525 million years ago (during Cambrian period)

2. there are three hypothesis explaining for why the increase diversity in animal phyla
during Cambrian while the decline in the diversity of Ediacaran life-forms

(a) predator-prey relationship: during Cambrian, predators acquired novel adaptation
(ex. new way to catch prey) while prey species acquired new defense(ex.
protective shell); as new predator-prey relationship emerged, natural selection
may lead to the decline of some groups and the rise of others

(b) atmospheric changes: there is an increase in atmospheric oxygen proceeding in
the Cambrian explosion; more oxygen would have enabled animals with higher
metabolic rates and larger body size to thrive, while potentially harming other
species

(c) changes in the regulation development: the origin of Hox genes and other genetic
changes affecting the regulation of developmental genes facilitated the evolution
of new body forms

These hypothesis are not mutually exclusive; however, they may each have
played a role.

3. after the Cambrian period, animal diversity continued to increase

(a) vertebrates (fishes) emerged as the top of predators of the marine food web

(b) By 460 million years ago, Arthropods began to adapt to terrestrial habitats.

(c) Around 365 million years ago, vertebrates made the transition to land and
diversified into numerous groups(amphibians, amniotes)

- Mesozoic Era (25165.5 million years ago)

Animal phyla that had evolved during the Paleozoic began to spread into new habitats

1. In the ocean, the first coral reefs formed, providing new habitats for other animals;
some reptile return to the water. (their descendants: plesiosaurs, other large aquatic
predators)

2. On land, descendants with modification in some tetrapods led to the origin of wings
and other flight equipment (pterosaurs and birds); dinosaurs emerged, both as
predators and herbivores. At the same time, the first mammals appeared. (tiny
nocturnal insect-eaters)

- Cenozoic Era (65.5 million years ago to the Present)

Mass extinctions of both terrestrial (nonflying dinosaurs) and marine (marine reptiles)
animals ushered in a new era.

1. The fossil record of the early Cenozoic documents the rise of large mammalian
herbivores and predators

2. The global climate gradually cool throughout the Cenozoic, triggering significant
shifts in many animal lineages.

32.3Animals can be characterized by body plans

<Note> body plan: a particular set of morphological and development traits, integrated into
a functional wholethe living animal

- Symmetrya basic feature of animal bodies

1. lack symmetry altogether, ex. sponge

2. radial symmetry

Ch 32 An Overview of Animals Diversity

(a) have top-bottom side

(b) have no front-back end and no left-right end

(c) many radial animals are sessile or planktonic; their symmetry equips them to meet
the environment equally well from all sides

3. bilateral symmetry

(a) have a dorsal(top) side and ventral(bottom) side; a left side and right side; an
anterior(front) side and posterior(back) side

(b) Most bilateral animals have a central nervous system (brain) that enables them to
coordinate the complex movement

- Tissues

While sponges and a few other groups lack true tissues, in all animals, the embryo
becomes layered through the process of gastrulation

<Note> true tissues: collections of specialized cells isolated from other tissues by
membranous layers

1. germ layers

(a) ectoderm: the germ layer covering the surface of the embryo, give rise to the
outer covering of the animal and, in some phyla, to the central nervous system

(b) endoderm: the innermost germ layer, give rise to the lining of the digestive tract
(or cavity) and organs such as the liver and lungs of vertebrates

(c) mesoderm: fills much of the space between the ectoderm and endoderm, forms
the muscles and most other organs between the digestive tract and the outer
covering of the animals

Ch 32 An Overview of Animals Diversity

<Note> germ layers: concentric layers from the various tissues and organs of the
body

2. types of animals distinguished on germ layers

(a) diploblast: animals that have only two germ layers (ectoderm and endoderm)
ex. jellies, corals and comb jellies

(b) triploblast: animals that have three germ layers, and all bilateral animals are
triploblast

- Body Cavity (also called coelom)

<Note> body cavity (in triploblast only): a fluid- or air-filled space located between the
digestive tract and the outer body wall

1. types

(a) coelomates: animals with a true coelom, which forms from tissues derived from
mesoderm

(b) pseudocoelomates: some animals body coelom is formed from mesoderm and
endoderm; despite its name, a pseudocoelom is not false, whereas it is a fully
functional body cavity

(c) acoelomates: animals lack a body cavity altogether

Ch 32 An Overview of Animals Diversity

2. functions

(a) its fluid cushion the suspended organs, helping to prevent internal injury

(b) in soft-bodied animals, the coelom contains noncompressible fluid that acts like a
skeleton against which muscles work

(c) the cavity also enables the internal organs to grow or move independently of the
outer body wall

<Note> Coelom and pseudocoelom have been independently gained or lost
multiple times in the course of animal evolution. Thus, while describing an
organism as a coelomate or pseudocoelomate can be helpful in describing certain
of its features, these terms must be interpreted with caution when seeking to
understand evolutionary history.

- Protostome and Deuterostome Development

1. cleavage

(a) Protostome development undergo spiral cleavage, which is determined cleavage.
Cells from early cleavage division states cannot develop into a complete embryo

(b) Deuterostome development is predominantly characterized by radial cleavage,
which is undetermined cleavage, meaning each cell produced by early cleave
division retain the capacity to develop into a complete embryo

2. coelom formation(see the figure above)

3. fate of blastopore(see the figure above)

32.4 New views of animal phylogeny are emerging from molecular data

- Points of Agreements

1. all animals share a common ancestor

2. sponge are basal animals

3. Eumetazoa is a clade of animals with true tissues

4. most animal phyla belong to the clade Bilateria

Ch 32 An Overview of Animals Diversity

<Note>The Cambrian explosion was primarily a rapid diversification of bilaterians.

5. chordates and some other phyla belong to the clade deuterosmia

- Progress in Resolving Bilateria Relationships <explain the different of the two
phylogenetic tree, it will be better to read the article in the textbook (p.709-p.710)

Ch 33 An Introduction to Invertebrates
33.1 Sponges are basal animals that lack true tissues. Porifera
-Animals in this phylum are known as sponges.
-Monophyletic
-Suspension feeders: They capture food particles suspended in the water passing
through their body.
-Basal group for the phylogenic tree of animal
-Hermaphrodites: They are sequential hermaphroditism, functioning first as one sex
and then as the other.
-Sponge gametes arise from choanocytes or amoebocytes. Eggs reside in the
mesophyl; sperm are carried out by the water current. Fertilization occurs in the
mesophyl.
-Sponges produce various antibiotics and other defensive compound.
-Figure33.4
33.2 Cnidarians are an ancient phylum of eumetazoans. Cnidaria
-All animals except sponges and a few other groups belong to Eumetazoa, animals
with true tissues.
-Gastrovascular cavity: central digestive compartment with a single opening
functioning as both mouth and anus
1. Two stages: polyps and medusae
2. Some exist only as polyps or medusae; some have both stages in their life cycle.
-Carnivore
-Figure33.5
-Cnidocytes:
1. function in defense and prey capture
2. contain cnidae, capsule-like organelles capable of exploding outward.
(Specialised cnidae called nematocysts contain a stinging thread that penetrates the
body of prey; others entangle or stick prey.)
-In cnidarians contractile tissues and nerves occur in their simplest forms.
(Sensory structures distributed around the body detect stimuli from all directions.)
-Four major clades:
1. Hydrozoans
(a)Most alternate between the polyp and medusa forms.
(b)Hydras, among the few cnidarians found in fresh water, are usual hydrozoans.
(c)In favorable conditions, they reproduce asexually by budding, otherwise sexually.
2. Scyphozoans
(a)Medusa is predominant in most scyphozoans.

(b)Most live as jellies.

3. Cubozoans
(a)They have a box-shaped medusa stage.
(b)They have complex eyes embedded in the fringe of their medusae.
(c)They are strong swimmers.
(d)Most live in tropical oceans and have highly toxic cnidocytes.
4. Anthozoans
(a)Sea anemone and corals
(b)They only occur as polyps.
33.3 Lophotrochozoans, a clade identified by molecular data, have the widest range
of animal body forms. Lophotrochozoa
-The most diverse bilaterian clade in terms of body plan.
-Flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes)
1. Flukes and tapeworms
2. Acoelomates: animals that lack a body cavity
3. Excretory apparatus: protonephridia, networks of tubules called flame bulbs
4. Most have a gastrovascular cavity with only one opening.
5. Two lineages: Catenulida and Rhabditophora
(a) Catenulida: chain worms
(b) Rhabditophora:
Free-living species: Predators and scavengers
Parasitic species: They have suckers. Reproductive organs occupy nearly the
entire interior of these worms. Two subgroups are trematodes
and tapeworms.
-Rotifers(phylum Rotifera)
1. They are multicellular and hve specialized organs but smaller than many protists.
2. Alimentary canal: a digestive tube with two openings
3. parthenogenesis: a type of asexual reproduction, females produce more females
from unfertilized eggs
4. Fertilized eggs develop into resistant embryos capable of remaining dormant for
years.
5. Pseudocoelom: a body cavity not completely lines by mesoderm
6. Figure33.13
-Lophophorates: Ectoprocts and Brachiopods (phyla Ectoprocta and Brachiopoda)
1. Lophophore, a crown of ciliated tentacles around their mouth.
2. U-shaped alimentary canal
3. Absence of a distinct head

4. True coelom completely lined by mesoderm

5. Ectoprocts, colonial animals that superficially resemble clumps of moss, have
exoskeleton studded with pores, through which the lophophores extend.
6. Brachiopods, or lamp shells, superficially resemble clams and other hinge-shelles
molluscs, but their shells are dorsal and ventral rather than lateral, as in clams.
-Molluscs
1. Figure33.15
2. Snails, slugs, oysters, clams, octopuses, and squids
3. 2nd diverse phylum of animals after the anthropods
4. Slugs, octopuses and squids have a reduced internal shell or completely lose their
shell.
5. Body parts:
(a)A muscular foot
(b)A visceral mass contains most of the internal organs.
(c)A mantle, a fold of tissue that drapes over the visceral mass and secretes a shell
6. Clades
(a)Chitons have an oval-shaped body and a shell composed of eight dorsal plates.
Their body, however, is unsegmented.
(b)Gastropods account for 3/4 of living molluscs. They undergo a distinctive process,
torsion. As a gastropod embryo develops, its visceral mass rotates up to 180 degrees.
After torsion, some bilateral organs may be reduced in size, while others may be lost
on the side of the body. Most have a single, spiraled shell and a distinct head with
eyes at the tips of tentacles. Terrestrial snails lack the gills typical of most aquatic
gastropods. Instead, the lining of their mantle cavity functions as a lung.
(c)Bivalves include clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops. Their shell are divided into
two halves, which are hinged and drawn tightly together by muscles to protect their
soft body. They have no distinct head. The radula has been lost. Some have eyes and
sensory tentacles along the edge of the mantle.
(d)Cephalopods, active marine predators, use their tentacles to grasp prey. The foot
of a cephalopod has become modified into a muscular excurrent siphon and part of
the tentacles. The shell is generally reduced and internal or missing. They are the
only molluscs with a closed circulatory system. They also have well-developed sense
organs and a complex brain. Shelled cephalopods are called ammonites.
-Annelids
1. Polychaetes have segments with paddle-like or ridge-like structures called
parapodia that function in locomotion and in many also as gills. Each parapodium has
numerous chaetae, bristle made of chitin.
2. Oligochaetes

(a)Earthworms are hermaphrodites, but they do cross-fertilize. They exchange

sperms by aligning themselves in opposite directions. The received sperms are stored
temporarily while an organ called the clitellum secretes a cocoon of mucus. The
cocoon slides along the worm, picking up eggs and then sperms. The cocoon then
slips off the worms head and remains in the soil while the embryos develop.
(b)Leeches include some parasitic species. They use bladelike jaws to slit the skin of
the host or secrete enzymes that digest a hole through the skin. They also secrete
anesthetic and hirudin, which keeps the blood from coagulating.
33.4 Ecdysozoans are the most species-rich animal group. Ecdysozoa
-Cuticle
-Molting
-Nematodes
1. Their bodies often taper to a fine tip at the posterior end and to a blunter tip at
the anterior end.
2. A nematodes body is covered by a tough cuticle.
3. They lack a circulatory system. Nutrients are transported in the pseudocoelom.
4. Usually they reproduce sexually. Females are larger.
5. They play an important role in decomposition and nutrient cycling.
6. This phylum includes many parasitic species.
-Arthropods
1. Segmented body, hard exoskeleton, and jointed appendages
2. The evolution of body segment diversity in arthropods may have been driven by
changes in the sequence or regulation of existing Hox genes.
3. The body of an arthropod is completely covered by the cuticle, an exoskeleton
constructed from layers of protein and the polysaccharide chitin.
4. Arthropods have well-developed sensory organs.
5. Open circulatory system: hemolymph, sinuses, hemocoel(not part of the coelom)
6. Most aquatic species have gills with thin, feathery extensions that place an
extensive surface area.
7. Chelicerates are named for clawlike feeding appendages called chelicerae. They
have an anterior cephalothorax and a posterior abdomen. They lack antennae and
most have simple eyes. Arachnids, including scorpions, spiders, ticks, and mites, have
a cephalothorax with six pairs of appendages: the cheicerae; a pair of pedipalps that
function in sensing, feeding or reproduction; and four pairs of walking legs.
8. Myriapods are terrestrial. They have a pair of antennae and three pairs of
appendages modified as mouthparts, including the jaw-like mandibles. Each trunk
segment of a millipede is formed from two fused segments and bears two pairs of

legs. Unlike millipedes, centipedes are carnivores. Each segment of a centipedes

trunk has one pair of legs.
9. Insects(See Figure33.35): Studies indicate that increases in the diversity of
particular insects groups were often associated with radiations of the flowering
plants on which they feed. Flight is one key to the great success of insects. Because
the wing are extensions of the cuticle and are not true appendages, insects can fly
without sacrificing any walking legs.
10. Crustaceans have highly specialized appendages. Lobsters and crayfishes have a
toolkit of 19 pairs of appendages. The anterior-most appendages are antennae;
crustaceans are the only arthropods with two pairs. Walking legs are present on the
abdomen. A lost appendage can be regenerated at the next molt. Small crustaceans
exchange gases across thin areas of the cuticle; larger species have gills. Sexes are
separate in most species.
33.5 Echinoderms and chordates are deuterostomes. Deuterostomia
-Echinoderms
1. A thin epidermis covers an endoskeleton of hard calcareous plates.
2. Water vascular system, a network of hydraulic canals branching into extensions
called tube feet that function in locomotion and feeding
3. The internal and external parts of most echinoderms radiate from the center, often
as five spokes. Their larvae have bilateral symmetry.
4. Clades:
(a)Asteroidea, sea stars and sea daisies. Sea stars have arms, the underfaces of which
bear tube feet. By a combination of muscular and chemical actions, the tube feet can
attach to or detach from a substrate. The gripping action results from adhesive
chemicals, not suction, though sea stars have flattened disks resembling suction cups.
A sea star turns part of its stomach inside out to eat. They have considerable powers
of regeneration. Sea daisies (Figure33.41) are armless species. They absorb nutrients
through a membrane that surrounds their body.
(b)Ophiuroidea, brittle stars, have a distinct central disk and long, flexible arms. The
base of the tube foot lacks the flattened disk found in sea stars but does secrete
adhesive chemicals. They are suspension feeders, predators, or scavengers.
(c)Echinoidea, sea urchins and sand dollars, have no arms but they do have five rows
of tube feet that function in slow movement. Sea urchins have muscles that pivot
their long spines, which aid in locomotion as well as protection. The mouth of a sea
urchin is ringed by highly complex, jaw-like structures that are well adapted to eating
seaweed. Sea urchins are roughly spherical, whereas sand dollars are flat disks.
(d)Crinoidea, sea lilies and feather stars, use their arms in suspension feeding. Sea

lilies live attached to the substrate by a stalk; feather stars crawl about.
(e)Holothuroidea, sea cucumbers, lack spines, and their endoskeleton is much
reduced. However, they have five rows of tube feet. Some of the tube feet around
the mouth are developed as feeding tentacles.
-Chordates(See Chapter34)

Ch. 34 The Origin and Evolution of Vertebrates

34.1 Chordates are bilaterian(bilaterally symmertrical) and belong to Deuterostomia.

- Derived characters

Many species possess some of these traits only during embryonic development
1. Notochord
(1)located between the digestive tube and the nerve cord
(2)provides skeletal support
(3)reduced in humans and becoming a part of the gelatinous disks

2. Dorsal, Hollow Nerve Cord:

develops into the central nervous system: the brain and spinal cord
3. Pharyngeal Slits or Clefts
Function: in many invertebrate chordatessuspension-feeding devices
in vertebrates except for tetrapodsgas exchange, gill slits
In tetrapodsparts of the ear
4. Muscular, Post-Anal Tail:
helps propel many aquatic species in the water
- Lancelets
1. the most basal group of living chordates
2. invertebrate
3. segmentation
4. marine suspension feeders
5. retain characteristics of the chordate body plan as adults
- Tunicates(Urochordata)
1. also called sea squirts for shooting water through their siphon when attacked
2. losing some chordate characters in the adult stage

- Early Chordate Evolution

1. the vertebrate brain is an elaboration of an ancestral structure similar to the lancelets simple
nerve cord tip
2.
Genes
associated with

Animals

Nonchordate
invertebrates

Cordate
invertebrates

Vertebrates

vertebrate organs such as the heart X

and thyroid gland

the long-range transmission of

nerve impulses

34.2 Craniates are chordates that have a head.

- Derived characters of Craniates
1. two or more sets of Hox genes because of gene duplicationadditional genetic complexity
2. neural crest
3. in aquatic craniates, the pharyngeal clefts evolved into gill slitsallow water to be pumped
through
4. higher metabolic rate
5. much more extensive muscular system
6. a heart with at least two chambers
7. red blood cells with hemoglobin
8. kidneys
- The Origin of Craniates
Haikouella, Myllokunmingia: having both traits of lancelets and craniates
- Hagfishes (Myxini)
1. the most basal group of craniates
2. have a skull made of cartilage
3. lack jaws and vertebrae
4. all species are marine
5. produce slime

34.3 Vertebrates are craniates that have a backbone.

- Derived characters of Vertebrates
1. underwent another gene duplication involving Dlx family
2. a more extensive skull
3. a backbone composed of vertebrae, which enclose the spinal cord and have taken over the
mechanical roles of the notochord
4. in aquatic vertebrates: fin rays; a more efficient gas exchange system in the gills
-Lampreys(Petromyzontida)
1. parasites
2. cartilage contains no collagen
3. notochord persists as the main axial skeleton in the adult
- Fossils of Early Vertebrates
Example. Conodonts (jawless but had mineralized mouthparts)

34.4 Gnathostomes are vertebrates that have jaws.

- Derived characters of Gnathostomes
1. some skeletal rods that had previously supported the anterior gill slits evolved
into jaws
2. remaining gill slitsrespiratory gas exchange
3. enlarged forbrainenhanced senses of smell and vision
4. lateral line systemsensitive to vibrations in the surrounding water
- Fossil Gnathostomes
1. anatomical features: paired fins and tail(also found in jawless vertebrates)
2. Example: placoderms, acanthodians disappeared but diverged into jawed vertebrates today
- Chondrichthyans(sharks, rays and their relatives)
1. have a skeleton composed most of cartilage
2. sharks: (1)dont maneuver well
(2)gains buoyancy by storing much oil in the liver
(3)swim or use muscles to let water flow through the gills, and therefore
gas exchange occurs
(4)short digestive tract
(5)have spiral valve in the intestine to increase surface area
(6)acute senses
(7)no eardrums
(8)fertilized internally
(9)oviparous: eggs hatch outside the mothers body
ovoviviparous: eggs are in the oviduct
viviparous: the young develop within the uterus
(10)cloaca: the posterior opening that serves as the only opening for the
intestinal, reproductive, and urinary tracts
3. rays: (1)bottom dwellers
(2)whiplike tails, some of which are venomous
- Ray-Finned Fishes and Lobe-Fins
1. Osteichthyans includes bony fishes and tetrapods, which have an ossified(bony)
Endoskeleton
2. operculum: a protective bony flap
3. swim bladder: air sac that can control buoyancy; evolved from lungs
4. (1)ray-finned fishes(Actinopyterygii): most common
(2)Lobe-fishes(Sarcopterygii): have rod-shaped bones surrounded by a thick layer of muscle in
pectoral and pelvic finswalk underwater
3 lineagescoelacanths(Actinistia), lungfishes(Dipnoi), tetrapods

34.5 Tetrapods are gnathostomes that have limbs.

- Derived characters of Tetrapods
1. four feet
2. neck the head could swing from side to side
3. bones of pelvic girdle are fused to the backbone
4. adults dont have gills: during embryonic development, the pharyngeal clefts give rise to the
ears, certain glands and other structures
- The Origin of Tetrapods
Example: Tiktaalik

- Amphibians
1. rely heavily on their moist skin for gas exchange
2. fertilization is external in most amphibians
3. three lineages
(1) salamander(Urodela ): adults retain the tail; larvae and adults are alike
(2) frogs(Anura ):
i. more specialized for moving on land
ii.During metamorphosis, the tadpole develops legs, lungs, a pair of external eardrums, and
a digestive system adapted to carnivorous, while the gills and the lateral line system(in
some species) disappear.
(3) caevilians(Apodina ): larvae and adults are alike

34.6 Amniotes are tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg.

- Derived characters of Amniotes

1. Amniotic egg contains the amnion(encloses
a compartment of fluid to absorb hydraulic
shock), the chorion, the yolk sac, and the
allantois, allowing the embryo to develop
on land.
2. eggs of most reptiles have a shell slows
dehydration
3. use their rib to ventilate their lungs
- Reptiles
1. unlike amphibians, they have scales that contain the protein keratin, which help protect the
animals skin from desiccation and abrasion
2. internal fertilization
3. many species of snakes and lizards are viviparous
4. ectothermic: lizards, snakes, etc.
endothermic: birds
- Lepidosaurs
1. tuataras: only found in New Zealand
2. squamates:
(1)lizards

(2)snakes:
i. descended from lizards
ii. no eardrums
iii.heat-detecting organs
iv. flicking tongue helps fan odors
v. loosely articulated jawbones and elastic skinswallow large prey
- Turtles
1. the boxlike shell is fused to the vertebrae, clavicles, and ribs
2. side-necked or vertical-necked
- Alligators and Crocodiles
- Birds
Derived characters of birds
i. lacking a urinary bladder
ii. only one ovary
iii. the size of gonads change with the season
iv. toothless
v. wings and feathers flight, retain body heat
vi. efficient respiratory system
vii. having color vision and excellent eyesight
viii. eggs with shells
ix. internal fertilization
x. brooding

34.7

Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk.

- Derived characters of Mammals

1. mammary glands
2. hair
3. endothermic
4. efficient respiratory and circulatory systems
5. diaphragm helps ventilate the lungs
6. differentiated teeth shearing, crushing and grinding
- Early Evolution of Mammals
1. Mammals belong to synapsids(), which have the single temporal fenestra.
2. The first true mammals arose during the Jurassic.
3. three major lineages: monotremes(egg-laying mammals), marsupials(mammals with a pouch),
and eutherians(placental mammals)
- Monotremes
1. found only in Australia and New Guinea
2. lay eggs
3. have hair and produce milk, but lack nipples
- Marsupials
1. the nursing young are held within marsupium
2. have nipples and placenta
3. convergent evolution of marsupials and eutherians resulted in similarity
- Eutherianscomplex placenta
Example. Primates
Derived characters of primates
i. hands and feet adapted for grasping and flat nails
ii. a large brain
iii. short jaws
iv. forward-looking eyes
v. well-developed parental care and complex social behavior
vi. a big toe that is widely separated from the other toes(except for human)
vii. monkeys and apes have opposable thumb
viii. overlapping visual fieldsenhance depth perceptionhelp branchiate
- Living Primates
1. monkey: New World monkeys and Old World monkeys
i. mostly diurnal
ii. the New World monkeys are all arboreal while the Old World monkeys include some
ground-dwelling species.
2. apes: other group of anthropoids
i. diverged from Old World monkeys

ii. long arms, short legs, and no tail

iii. only gibbons and orangutans are primarily arboreal

34.8 Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion.
- Derived Characters of Humans
1. bipedal
2. much larger brain
3. the use of complex tools
4. reduced jawbones and jaw muscles
5. a shorter digestive tract
- The Earliest Hominins
1. paleoanthropology: the study of human origins
2. homonins: extinct species that are more closely related to humans than to
Chimpanzees
3.

(1)Australoipiths
i. many of the hominins from 4 to 2 million years ago
ii. bipedal and had human-like hands and teeth
iii. small brain
iv. two lineages:
Traits

Robust australopiths

Gracile australopiths

Sturdy skulls
Powerful jaws

Lighter feeding equipment

Large teeth
Food

Hard, tough foods

Softer foods

Example Paranthropus boisei

A.afarensis (Lucy)
A.africanus

(2)Early Homo
i. a shorter jaw and a larger brain
ii. using sharp stone tools
iii. Example
Homo habilis: 2.4 to 1.6 million years ago,
Homo ergaster: 1.9 to 1.5 million years ago
Relatively short and straight fingersdidnt climb trees
Reduced sexual dimorphismmore pair-bonding
Homo erectus: the first homonin to migrate out of Africa
(3)Neanderthals(Homo neanderthalensis)
i. found in Germany
ii. lived in Europe, the Near East, central Asia and southern Siberia
iii. whether they are the direct ancestor of Homo sapiens or not is still debated
(4)Homo sapiens: originated in Africa (supported by analysis of mitochondrial DNA and Y
chromosomes)

Ch 40. Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

-Anatomy : biological form
-Physiology : biological function
-Anatomy and physiology are correlated, and evolve simultaneously along adaption.
(Natural selection favors those variations in a population that increase relative
fitness.)
40.1 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization
-The body plan of an animal is not only determined by the contemporary
environment, but rather the result of s pattern of development programmed by
the genome.
-Natural selection often results in similar adaptions when diverse organisms face the
same environmental challenge.
-Evolution of Animal Size and Shape : Animal size and shape are limited by the
following factors---strength, diffusion, movement, and heat exchange
-Exchange with the environment : The ratio of outer surface area to total volume
Is the dominate factor to the efficiency of the exchange with the environment.
In fact, the efficiency of single-celled organisms are greater than that of
multicellular organisms. For multicellular organisms, internal body fluids
(interstitial fluid)

-Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans :

Cells----tissues----organs----organ systems----organisms
(1) Epithelial Tissue : Cover the outside of the body and line organs and cavities
within the body. Serve as a protection, support, and even secretion.
(Cubodial/Simple Columnar/Simple Squamous/Pseudostratified Columnar/
Stratified Squamous Epithelium)
-The Polarity of epithelia

(2) Connective Tissue : Consisting of various types of cells.(Actually, if not

epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, nervous tissue, we can catergorize this
Certain type of tissue into connective tissue)

(3) Muscle Tissue : Responsible for nearly all of the body movements (in
multicellular organisms). Muscle cells consist of filaments containing actin and
myosin.
cell shape

Number of nucleus/cell

Position of
nucleus

others

Skeletal
muscle

long strain

multiple

side of cell

sacromeres gives the

cell striated appearance

Smooth

spindle-shaped one

middle

cannot be controlled by

Muscle
Cardiac

mind
long strain

one

middle

muscle

have fibers that interact

via intercalated disks

skeletal muscle

smooth muscle

cardiac muscle

(4) Nervous Tissue : Contains neurons that transmit impulses, and glial cells that
give support. (The various types of glia help nourish, insulate, and replenish
neurons, or even modulate neuron function)

-Coordination and Control

Endocrine and nervous systems are two approach of communication inside
the body.

40.2 Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals

-Regulating and Conforming
Regulator : Uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the
face of external, environmental fluctuation.
Conformer : Allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes.
An animal can at the same time be a regulator and a conformer
-Homeostasis : Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a steady state or internal
balance regardless of external environment (human: body temperature, blood
pH, and glucose concentrationetc)
(1) Mechanisms of homeostasis serves as the nonliving example below

(2) Negative feedback : The buildup of the product shuts down the system.
Positive feedback : Amplifies the process and does not work as homeostasis.
Acclimatization : The process to adjust to the external environment.
Circadian rhythm : A set of physiological changes that correspond to the
regulated changes (usually 24 hours)

40.3 Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and

behavior
-Thermoregulation : The process animals maintain the internal temperature in a
tolerable range, enabling themselves to function normally.
-Endothermy and Ectothermy :
Endothermic animals : Generate heat by metabolism, can maintain a stable body
temperature even under huge fluctuation of in the environmental temperature.
But endothermy is much more energy expensive.(birds, mammals)
Exothermic animals : Gain heat from external sources, their body temperature will
be influenced by the environmental temperature.( most invertebrates, fishes,
amphibians, and nonavian reptiles)
-Variation in Body Temperature
Poikilotherm : Animal whose body temperature varies with its environment.
Homeotherm : Animal whose body temperature is relatively constant.
Poikilotherm/ Homeotherm and Exothermic/ Endothermic have no fixed relation.
-Balancing Heat Loss and Gain :
(1)Organisms exchange heat by radiation, evaporation, convection,and conduction
(2) Five adaptations of thermoregulation :
-Insulation
Insulation decrease the opportunity of heat exchange between animals and
external environment, it is a major thermoregulatory adaptation in mammals
and birds (skin, feathers, fur, and blubber), also it is especially important in
marine mammals.
-Circulatory adaptations
Regulation of blood flow near the body surface significantly affects
thermoregulation.
Vasodilation : Blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat loss.
Vasoconstriction : Blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss.
Countercurrent Change : Marine mammals, birds, bony fish, sharks, many
insects use this system to alter body temperature. Countercurrent heat
exchangers transfer heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions and
reduce heat loss.

-Cooling by evaporative heat loss

Panting, Sweating, Bathing
-Behavioral responses
Both endotherms and ectotherms use behavioral responses to control body
temperature when facing certain environmental changes.
-Adjusting metabolic heat production
Thermogenesis is the adjustment of metabolic heat production to maintain
body temperature.
Shivering movement : Help generate heat by muscle activity.
Nonshivering movement : Generate heat without the activity of muscle
movement. For example, certain hormones in some mammals can cause
mitochondria to increase their metabolic activity and produce heat instead
of ATP.

(3) Physiological Thermostats and Fever

Hypothalamus : A particular region in the brain that control the

thermoregulation. Thermostat(a group of nerve cells) in the hypothalamus
respond to the body temperature when it is out of range. Fever is the result
of a change to the set point for a biological thermostat
40.4 Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment
-Energy Allocations and Use
Basic concept : Animals will first fulfill its physical needs then use the extra energy
to generate extra substances (as a means of storage for fear of crisis)

-Quantifying Energy Use

Metabolic rate : The amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time. It can be
determined by (1)heat loss (2) The amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide
produced.
Minimum Metabolic rate : BMR (basal metabolic rate) is the minimum metabolic
rate of a nongrowing endotherm that does not do any activity an is at a
comfortable temperature. SMR(Standard metabolic rate )is the metabolic rate
of an ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature.
-Size and Metabolic Rate
Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass to the power of three quarters (m3/4).
The difference of size and metabolic rate will directly influence a species` energy
budgets.

-Other details :
-Torpor is a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases
-Hibernation is long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food
scarcity

Chapter 41 Animal Nutrition

Animal nutrition : Food taken in, taken apart, taken up.
Animal consume food for energy and organic molecule used to assemble new molecules.
41.1 An animals diet must supply chemical energy, organic molecules, and essential nutrients.
-An adequate diet must satisfy three nutritional needs:
1. Chemical energy for cellular processes (produce ATP)
2. Organic building blocks for macromolecules (organic carbon [sugar] and organic nitrogen [protein])
3. Essential nutrients

-Essential nutrients
Essential amino acids are amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the animal.
Adults humans require 8 types of essential amino acids, infants requires a ninth.(histidine)
Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by the animal.
They are unsaturated fatty acids, which can be from vegetables, seeds oil.
Vitamins are organic molecules that have diverse functions and are required in the diet in very small amounts.
Classified as water-soluble (Vitamin B, C) and fat-soluble (Vitamin A, D, E, K)

Vitamin B generally functions as coenzymes,

Vitamin C is required for production of connective tissues,
Vitamin A is incorporated into visual pigments of the eye,
Vitamin K functions in blood clotting
Excess in fat-soluble vitamins may result in accumulating toxic levels of these compounds in body fat.

Minerals are inorganic nutrients that are usually required in small amounts.
Some are cofactors built into the structure of enzymes; magnesium in enzymes that split ATP.
Vertebrates use iodine specifically to make thyroid hormones, and large quantities of calcium and phosphorus
for building and maintaining bones.

Dietary Deficiencies
A diet that lacks one or more essential nutrients or consistently supplies less chemical energy than the body
requires results in malnutrition.
Grazing animals obtain missing nutrients by consuming concentrated sources of salt or other minerals.
Spiders adjust for dietary deficiencies by switching to prey that restores nutritional balance.
Golden rice, to overcome Vitamin A deficiencies.
Undernutrition
A diet that fails to provide adequate sources of chemical energy results in undernutrition.
The body uses up store carbohydrates and fat, begins to break down its own proteins for fuels.
Some damage may be irreversible
Might be result of eating disorder such as anorexie nervosa.
41.2 The main stages of food processing are ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination
Ingestion is the act of eating.
Digestion
Mechanical digestion breaks food into smaller pieces, increasing surface area for chemical processes.
Chemical digestion breaks down food into small molecules that can be absorb by the body.
Breaking bonds with the addition of water, enzymatic hydrolysis.
Absorption, absorb the small molecules into the cell.
Elimination passes out the undigested materials from the digestive system.
Digestive compartments
Digest food within a specialized compartment, to avoid digesting their own cells and tissues.
Intracellular digestion Hydrolysis of food inside vacuoles
Food vacuoles are the simplest digestive compartments, fused with lysosome allowing digestion to occur.
Example: sponges.

Extracellular digestion Breakdown of food in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animals
body. (Able to devour much larger pieces of food than phagocytosis)
Digestive compartment with a single opening gastrovascular cavity
-Functions in digestion and distribution of nutrients.
-undigested materials are eliminated through the same opening the food entered.
Digestive tube extending between two openings alimentary canal (complete digestive tract)
-can ingest food while earlier meals are still being digested.
Four main feeding mechanisms of animals
1. Suspension feeders, filter feeders mostly aquatic animals, filter like structure - baleen.
2. Substrate feeders animals that live in or on their food source. (caterpillar, maggots
3. Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host. (some might benefit the host, moving pollen
between flowers)
4. Bulk feeders eat large pieces of food
41.3 Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive system
Peristalsis alternating waves of contraction and relaxation of smooth muscles lining the alimentary canal.
Sphincters ringlike valves, regulate passage between compartments.
Oral cavity salivary glands, produce saliva that contains amylase, hydrolyzes starch and glycogen into smaller
polysaccharides and maltose. Protective effect is provided by mucus, contains slippery glycoproteins
called mucins. Chewing and shaping the food into a ball called bolus.
Esophagus swallowing reflex, epiglottis covers the glottis, directing the bolus into the esophagus. Contains both
striated and smooth muscle; striated muscle is at the top of esophagus, active during swallowing;
smooth muscle governs peristalsis.
Stomach secrets gastric juice, mixture of food and gastric juice is called chyme. Gastric juice contains HCl and
pepsin. Low pH denatures proteins in food, exposing peptide bonds, more easily attacked by pepsin,
breaking into smaller polypeptide. Parietal cells expels H+ ions through ATP-driven pump, Cl- diffuse
through specific membrane channels. Chief cells release inactive form of pepsin called pepsinogen,
which is activated by HCl by clipping of a small portion of the molecule and exposing the active site.
Pepsin helps activate the remaining pepsinogen. (Positive feedback)
Pancreas alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate, trypsin and chymotrypsin. Secreted into duodenum in inactive
forms, activated only when in the duodenum lumen.
Liver
produces bile that contains bile salts that act as emulsifiers of lipid. Bile is stored in gallbladder.
Small intestine digestive enzymes are either secreted into the lumen of duodenum or bound to the surface of the
epithelial cells. Most digestion are completed in duodenum, jejunum and ileum function in the
absorption of nutrients and water.
Studded with finger-like projections called villi, each epithelial cells of the villi has micro villi. (Brush
border) increase rate of nutrient absorption. Capillaries and veins with nutrient-rich blood from the
villi converge into the hepatic portal vein that leads directly to the liver. This regulates the
distribution of nutrients to the rest of the body, and remove toxic substances before the blood
circulates broadly, by the liver.
triglycerides are broken down into fatty acids and monoglycerides and diffuse into epithelial cells,
which then reformed into triglycerides. Triglycerides are incorporated into water-soluble globules
called chylomicrons which leave the cells by exocytosis into the lacteal.
Large intestine includes colon, cecum and rectum. Cecum is important for fermenting ingested materials,
especially herbivores. Appendix has negligible role in immunity. Colons function is to recover water
that has entered the alimentary canal, water is reabsorbed by osmosis when Na+ and other ions
are pumped out of the lumen of the colon. Symbiotic bacteria that produces vitamins such as
vitamin K, biotin and folic acid lives in the colon. Between rectum and anus are two sphincters,
inner one being involuntary and the outer one being voluntary.

41.4 Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet.

Dental adaptations

Carnivores have large pointed incisors and canines, jagged premolars and molars.
Herbivores have premolars and molars with broad ridged surface, some herbivores dont have canines.
Adult humans have 32 teeth.
Stomach and intestinal adaptations
Carnivorous vertebrates have large, expandable stomachs as they may got for a long time between meals.
Herbivores and omnivores have longer alimentary canals, vegetation is more difficult to digest.
Mutualistic adaptations
Mutualistic bacteria and protists in fermentation chambers that digest cellulose to simple sugars and other
compounds that animal can absorb.
Tubeworms have no mouth or digestive system, they rely entirely on mutualistic bacteria to generate energy and
nutrients from the carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen sulfide and nitrate available at the deep-sea hydrothermal
vents.
Rabbits and rodents have mutualistic bacteria in large intestine and cecum. They are coprophagy (dung eating)

feeding on some of their feces and then passing the food through the alimentary canal a second time.
41.5 feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite
Regulation of digestion arrival of food triggers the secretion of substances that promote the next stage of chemical
digestion, as well as muscular contractions that propel food farther along the canal. A part of nervous system called
the enteric division regulate these events and peristalsis in small and large intestine. Endocrine system like the
hormones released by the stomach and duodenum regulates digestion. They are transported in the bloodstream too.

Regulation of energy storage

First sites used for energy storage are liver and muscle cells. Stored as glycogen. Additional excess energy is stored
in fat in adipose cells. Expends liver glycogen first and then draws on muscle glycogen and fat.
Glucose Homeostasis
Regulated by pancreas hormone insulin and glucagon.
Regulation of appetite and consumption
Overnourishment causes obesity.
Several hormones regulate long-term and short-term appetite by affecting a satiety
centre in the brain.
Gherelin is secreted by stomach wall, triggers the feelings of hunger as mealtime
approached.
Insulin suppresses appetite by acting on the brain.
Leptin produced by adipose tissue suppresses appetite. When the level of body fat
falls, leptin levels fall, appetite increase.
PYY screted by small intestine after meals, appetite suppressant that counters
gherelin.
ob gene is required to produce satiety factor, codes for leptin
db gene is required to respond to the factor, codes for leptin receptor.

Ch.42 Circulation and Gas Exchange

-Circulatory systems help multicellular organisms transfer metabolic materials between its inner cells and
the environment.
-Respiratory systems control gas exchange, providing media for O2 and CO2 diffusion.
-Both systems maintain homeostasis for creatures under different physiological and environmental
conditions.

42.1 Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells through the body.
-Its important for organisms to gain O2, nutrients, and shed CO2 and wastes by diffusion. However, its rapid
only over very short distances.
-Solution through natural selection:
1. Gastrovascular cavities function in both digestion and distribution of substances throughout the body.
2. Circulatory systems.
-A circulatory system has:
(1) A circulatory fluid.
(2) A set of interconnecting vessels.
(3)A muscular pump, the heart.
-Two basic types of circulatory systems:
(1)Open circulatory system
In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs, blood bathes the
organs directly in an open circulatory system.
No distinction between blood and interstitial fluid, and this
general body fluid is called hemolymph.
(2)Closed circulatory system
-Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial
fluid.
-Closed systems are more efficient.
-Annelids, cephalopods, and vertebrates have closed circulatory
systems.
-Vertebrate circulatory systems:
1. Single circulation- bony fishes, rays, and sharks.
2. Double circulation- amphibian, reptiles, and
mammals, of which oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich
blood are pumped separately.
-Adaptations of Double Circulatory Systems
(1)An amphibians ventricle pumps blood into a
forked artery that splits the ventricles output into
the pulmocutaneous circuit and the systemic
circuit.

(2)Reptiles, except birds, have a three-chambered heart: two atria and one ventricle.
(In alligators, caimans, and other crocodilians a septum divides the ventricle.)
(3)Mammals and birds, which are endotherms, have a four-chambered heart with two atria and two
ventricles. Because endotherms require more O2 than ectotherms, oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood are
separated to increase respiratory efficiency.

42-2 Coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation in mammals.

-The mammalian cardiovascular system and the organ heart overview:

-The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle. One complete sequence is called a cardiac cycle.
-The contraction phase is called systole, and the relaxation phase is called diastole. The volume pumped
per minute is called cardiac output.
-Cardiac output is determined by heart rate and stroke volume.

-Three stages of the cardiac cycle:

1. Atrial and ventricular diastole: blood flow from
veins to atria and to ventricles.
2. Atrial systole and ventricular diastole: blood flow
from atria to ventricles.
3. Ventricular systole and atrial diastole: blood flow
from ventricles to main arteries.
-Valves prevent blood from flowing back.
1. Atrioventricular (AV) valves are anchored by strong
fibers that prevent them from turning inside out.
2. Semilunar valves, located between the ventricle
and the arteries, can prevent significant backflow
during relaxation.
-The control of heart rhythm:
(1) Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable,
meaning they contract without any signal from
the nervous system.
(2) The sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker, sets
the rate and timing at which cardiac muscle
cells contract.
(3) Impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle
can be recorded as an electrocardiogram (ECG
or EKG).
(4) Impulses from the SA node travel to the atrioventricular (AV) node.
(5) At the AV node, the impulses are delayed and then travel to the Purkinje fibers that make the ventricles
contract.
-The pacemaker is regulated by nervous systems, hormones and temperature.
-Nervous system influences: The sympathetic division speeds up the pacemaker, while the
parasympathetic division slows down the pacemaker.

42.3 Patterns of blood pressure and flow

reflect the structure and arrangement of
blood vessels.
-Blood Vessel Structure and Function
1. A vessels cavity is called the central lumen.
2. The epithelial layer is called the endothelium,
which is smooth and minimizes resistance.
3. Capillaries have thin walls, the endothelium
plus its basal lamina, to facilitate the exchange
of materials.

4. Arteries and veins have an endothelium, smooth

muscle, and connective tissue.
5. Arteries have thicker walls than veins to
accommodate the high pressure of blood, while in the
thinner-walled veins, blood flows back to the heart
mainly as a result of muscle action.
-Comparison: blood velocity, pressure and crosssectional area (right side picture).
-Pulse: the rhythmic bulging of the artery walls with
each heartbeat.
-Regulation of blood pressure
1. Blood pressure is determined by cardiac output and
peripheral resistance due to constriction of arterioles.
2. Vasoconstriction is the contraction of smooth muscle in arteriole walls; it increases blood pressure.
3. Vasodilation is the relaxation of smooth muscles in the arterioles; it causes blood pressure to fall.
4. Nitric oxide (NO) is a major inducer of vasodilation, while the peptide endothelin acts in a contrary way.
-Capillary functions:

-Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System

1. The lymphatic system returns fluid that leaks out from the capillary beds.
2. Fluid, called lymph, reenters the circulation directly at the venous end of the capillary bed.
3. The lymphatic system drains into veins in the neck.
4. Valves in lymph vessels prevent the backflow of fluid.
5. Lymph nodes are organs that filter lymph and play an important role in the bodys defense (Ch. 43).

42.4 Blood components contribute to exchange,

transport, and defense
-Blood components and functions
1. Plasma: influence blood pH, osmotic pressure, and viscosity.
2. Cellular elements:
(1) Erythrocytes: lack nuclei in order to leave more space for
hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein that transports O2.
The hormone erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates erythrocyte
production when O2 delivery is low
(2) Leukocytes: fight infections (some via phagocytosis). They
can be found outside the circulatory system.

(3) Platelets: cytoplasmic fragments of specialized marrow cells. They are responsible for blood clotting.

-Blood clotting
1. When the endothelium is damaged, platelets
adhere to collagen fibers and release a substance
that makes nearby platelets sticky.
2. Platelets form a plug to
protect against blood loss.
3. The plug is reinforced by
a fibrin clot when vessel
damage is severe.
-Cardiovascular diseases
-Cholesterol metabolism and inflammation play a crucial role in
cardiovascular diseases.
-Low density lipoprotein (LDL) v.s. High density lipoprotein (HDL): The
former delivers cholesterol to cells for membrane production, while
the latter scavenges cholesterol for return to the liver.
-LDL is the main reason for cardiovascular diseases.
<Note>: Recent studies have shown that inactivating the gene of a liver
enzyme PCSK9 can lower plasma LDL level, hence reduce the risk of
getting atherosclerosis. (See the picture shown at the right side.)

-Common diseases:
1. Atherosclerosis is caused by the buildup of plaque deposits
within arteries.
2. A Heart attack, or myocardial infarction, is the death of
cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more
coronary arteries.
3. A stroke is the death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually
resulting from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head.
4. Hypertension, or high blood pressure, promotes
atherosclerosis and increases the risk of heart attack and
stroke.

42.5 Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces

-Gas exchange requires partial pressure gradient,
respiratory media, and enough respiratory surfaces.
1. Partial pressure gradient: Countercurrent
exchange maximizes efficiency. (eg: fish gills)
2. Respiratory media: Animals can use air or water
as a source of O2, or respiratory medium. Obtaining
O2 from water requires greater efficiency than air
breathing.
3. Large and moist respiratory surfaces include the
outer surface, skin, gills, tracheae, and lungs.
(1)Gills in aquatic animals
-Ventilation moves the respiratory medium over the
respiratory surface.
-Aquatic animals move through water or move water
over their gills for ventilation.
(2)Tracheal Systems in Insects consist of tiny branching tubes that penetrate the body. The tracheal tubes
supply O2 directly to body cells. <Note>: The respiratory and circulatory systems are separate.
(3)Lungs in most tetrapods, especially mammals, combine respiratory and circulatory systems together.
-Mammalian Respiratory Systems <Notes>
1. The systems consist of branched ducts (larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles), which lead air to
alveoli, where gas exchange occurs. Alveoli lack cilia and are susceptible to contamination. Secretions
called surfactants coat the surface of the alveoli in order to counter surface tension.
2. Air inhaled through the nostrils is warmed, humidified, and sampled for odors. (Olfactory sensing)
3. The pharynx directs air to the lungs and food to the stomach. Swallowing tips the epiglottis over the
glottis in the pharynx to prevent food from entering the trachea.
4. Exhaled air passes over the vocal cords in the larynx to create sounds.
5. Cilia and mucus line the epithelium of the air ducts and move particles up to the pharynx. This mucus
escalator cleans the respiratory system.

42.6 Breathing ventilates the lungs

-An amphibian ventilates its lungs by positive pressure
breathing, which forces air down the trachea.
-Birds have eight or nine air sacs that function as bellows
that keep air flowing through the lungs. This way increases
respiratory efficiency.
-Mammals ventilate their lungs by negative pressure
breathing, which pulls air into the lungs.
<Notes>
The tidal volume is the volume of air inhaled with each
breath. The maximum tidal volume is the vital capacity.
After exhalation, a residual volume of air remains in the
lungs.
-Homeostatic control of breathing
1. Main breathing control centers are in two regions
of the brain, the medulla oblongata and the pons.
2. Medulla oblongata regulates the rate and depth of
breathing in response to pH changes in the
cerebrospinal fluid, while the pons regulates the
tempo.
3. Secondary control: Sensors in the aorta and
carotid arteries monitor O2 and CO2 concentrations in
the blood.

42.7 Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases
-Respiratory pigments
1. Definition: proteins that transport oxygen, greatly
increase the amount of oxygen that blood can carry.
2. Varieties:
(1) Arthropods and many molluscs have hemocyanin
with copper as the oxygen-binding component
(2) Most vertebrates and some invertebrates use
hemoglobin which is often contained within
erythrocytes.
<Notes>
(a)The hemoglobin dissociation
curve shows that a small change
in the partial pressure of oxygen
can result in a large change in
delivery of O2.
(b)CO2 produced during
cellular respiration lowers blood
pH and decreases the affinity of
hemoglobin for O2; this is called
the Bohr shift.

-Carbon dioxide transport

-The overview of the circulatory system and gas exchange pathways

G0Campbell ch 43

The Immune System

(All animals)

(vertebrate only)

Figure1.
Innate Immunity
Invertebrate: take insects as example
Barrier Defense:
1. Insects rely on their exoskeleton as a first line of defense against infection.
2. A chitin-based barrier is also present in the insect intestine, where it blocks infection by many
pathogens with food.
3. lysozyme in digestive system
Internal Defense:
1. Some hemocytes carry out the defense called phagocytosis, others trigger the production of
chemicals that kill pathogens and help entrap large parasites.
2. The activation of Toll protein on the hemocytes can trigger the synthesis of certain kind of
antimicrobial peptides.

Figure2.
Vertebrate
Barrier Defense:
1. Epithelium tissue
2. Mucus & lysozyme

Internal Defense:
1. Mammalian hemocytes have Toll-like receptor(TLR) binding to fragments of molecules characteristic
of a set of pathogens.
2. Phagocytosis and others
phagocytic cells

1. neutraphils
2. macrophages
3. dentritic cells: mainly populate tissues, such as skin. They
stimulate adaptive(acquired) immunity by presenting
antigens on their cell membrane.
4. eosinophils: have low phagocytic activity but are
Important in defending against muticelluler invaders, such
as parasitic worms.

not phagocytic cells

1. natural killer cells(NK):release chemicals that lead to cell

death, inhibiting further spread of the virus or cancer.

3. Interferon: Virus-infected body cells secrete interferons, which induce nearby uninfected cells to
produce substances that inhibit viral reproduction.
4. Complement system: consists of roughly 30 proteins in blood plasma. These proteins circulate in an
inactive state and are activated by substances on the surface of any microbes.
5. Inflammatory response:
Histamine, which is stored in the vesicles of mast cells is an important inflammatory signaling
molecule. It triggers nearby blood vessel to dilate and become more permeable.
Activated macrophages and neutrophils discharge cytokines, signaling molecule that promote blood
flow to the site of injury or infection.
Adapted(acquired) Immunity
The adapted response relies on lymphocytes-T cells and B cells.
Any substances that elicits a response from a B cell or T cell is called an antigen. The small and accessible
portion of an antigen that binds to an antigen receptor is called an epitope or antigenic determinant.
B cell and T cell development
1. Each people makes more than 1 million different B cell antigen receptors and 10 million different T cell
receptors. Yet there are only about 20,000 protein-coding genes. Then, How can this happen?

Figure3. 40*5=200

2. Because antigen receptor genes are randomly rearranged, some immune lymphocytes produce
receptors specific for epitopes on the bodys own cells. Therefore, as lymphocytes mature in the bone
marrow or thymus, their antigen receptors are tested for self-reactivity.
Antibody or immunoglobulin(Ig)

Figure4.
The antigen receptors on B cells and T cells:

Figure5.
T cells bind only to fragments of antigens that are displayed or presented on the surface of host cells.
The host protein that displays the antigen fragment on the cell surface is called an MHC(major
histocompatibility complex) molecule.
Class I MHC and class II MHC:

Figure6.
Class I MHC are found on every nucleated cells in the body; Class II MHC can only be found on
antigen-presenting cells. Professional antigen-presenting cells can be dendritic cells and macrophages.
An overview of the adaptive immunity

Figure7.
The role of the helper T cells

Figure8.

The role of the cytotoxic T cells

Figure9.
The colonal selection and the effector cells
Colonal selection: An encounter with an antigen selects which lymphocyte will divide to produce a clonal
population of thousands of cells specific for a particular epitope.
Effector cells: short-lived cells that take effect immediately against the antigen
The effector cells forms of B cell are plasma cells
The effector cells forms of T cell are TH and TC cells
Immunological memory-primary response and secondary response

Figure10.
The antibody-mediated mechanisms of antigen disposal

Figure11.

Active and Passive Immunization

immunization

Description and features

Application

Active immunization

the defense that arises when a pathogen infects the body

Vaccination

Passive immunization

1. When the IgG antibodies in the blood of a pregnant

female cross the placenta to her fetus, the transferred
antibodies can immediately react with specific pathogens
in the fetus.

Antivenin

2. IgA antibodies in breast milk provide additional passive

immunity to the infants developing immune system.
Disruption and malfunction in immune system
Allergies

Autoimmune Diseases
1. lupus: the immune system generates antibodies against histones and DNA released by normal
breakdown of body cells.
2. type I diabetes: the insulin-producingcells of the pancreas are the target of Tc.
3. multiple sclerosis: T cell infiltrate the central nervous system, causing the destruction of myelin sheath
of neurons.
Immunodeficiency
1. SCID(severe combined immunodeficiency): innate disease
2. AIDS(acquired immune deficiency syndrome)& HIV
latency: After infecting a host, some viruses enter a largely inactive state.
The HIV both escapes and attacks the adaptive immune response. They can infect T cells by binding
specifically to the CD4 accessory protein. HIV also infects cell types that have low CD4 level. They can
infect: helper T cells, dendritic cells, macrophages and brain cells.

Ch44. Osmoregulation and Excretion

-osmoregulation the process by which animals control solute concentrations and
balance water gain and loss
-excretion the process that rids the body of nitrogenous metabolites and other
metabolic waste products
44.1 osmoregulation balances the uptake and loss of water and solutes
-osmosis the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane
-osmolarity moles of solute per liter of solution
-sea water has an osmolarity of about 1000 mOsm/L (equivalent to 1M)
-if two solutions have the same osmolarity, they are said to be isoosmotic

-osmotic challenges
-osmoconformer: to be isoosmotic with its surroundings (all osmoconformers are
marine animals, and many of them live in water that has a stable composition)
-osmoregulator: to control internal osmolarity independent of that of its
environment
-stenohaline: cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolarity
-euryhaline: can survive large fluctuations in external osmolarity (include many
barnacles and mussels, examples of euryhaline osmoregulators are the striped bass
and the various species of salmon)
-marine animals
-most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers; however, since these animals
differ considerably from seawater in the specific solutes, they most actively transport
these solutes to maintain homeostasis
-many marine vertebrates and some marine invertebrates are osmoregulators, in
ridding themselves of salts, the make use of their gills and kidneys

-gills: specialized chloride cells actively transport Cl- out and allow Na+ to follow
passively
-kidneys: excess Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42- are excreted with little water
-chondrichthyans (such as sharks): like bony fishes, they have an internal salt
concentration lower than that of seawater, while they are not hypoosmotic to
seawater. The explanation is that shark tissue contains high concentrations of urea. A
sharks body fluids also contain trimethylamine oxide(TMAO), an organic molecular
that protects proteins from damage by urea. Sharks are often considered
osmoconformers.
-freshwater animals
-freshwater animals solve the problem of water balance by drinking almost no
water and excreting large amounts of very dilute urine. Chloride cells in their gills
actively transport Cl- into the body, and Na+ follows
-when the salmons migrate to the ocean, they produce more of the steroid
hormone cortisol, which increases the number and size of salt-secreting chloride
cells

-animals that live in temporary waters

-anhydrobiosis: life without water, tardigrades (also called water bears, these tiny
invertebrates are found in marine, freshwater, and moist terrestrial environments.
They contain about 85% water by weight in their active while dehydrate to less than
2% water and survive in an inactive state)
-studies of anhydrobiosis roundworms show that desiccated individuals contains
large amounts of sugars. A disaccharide called trehalose protects the cells by
replacing the water that is normally associated with proteins and membrane lipids

-land animals
-the body coverings of most
terrestrial animals help dehydration
-the waxy layers of insect
exoskeletons
-the shells of land snails
-the layers of dead, keratinized skin
cells covering most terrestrial
vertebrates
-many desert-dwellers are nocturnal,
which reduces evaporative water loss
because of the lower temperature and
higher humidity of night air
-energetics of osmoregulation
-osmoregulation accounts for 5% or more of the resting metabolic rate of many
freshwater and marine bony fishes
-minimizing the osmotic difference between body fluids and the surrounding
environment decreases the energy the animal expends for osmoregulation
-transport epithelia in osmoregulation
-transport epithelia: one or more layers of epithelial cells specialized for moving
particular solutes in controlled amounts in specific directions
-the salt solution of marine birds body fluid was produced by nasal glands while
salt glands eliminate the excess salt from the bodies

44.2 An animals nitrogenous wastes

reflect its phylogeny and habitat
-NH3 is very toxic, in part because its ion,
NH4+, interferes with oxidative
phosphorylation
-humans and some other animals generate
a small amount of uric acid as a product of
purine breakdown
-gout: a painful joint inflammation caused
by deposits of uric acid crystals
-endotherms/predators produce more
nitrogenous waste than ectotherms/prey

44.3 diverse excretory systems are variations on a tubular theme

-a generalized version of the process of
-survey of excretory systems
excretion
-protonephridia(flatworms)
-during filtration, the beating of the
cilia draws water and solutes from the
interstitial fluid through the flame bulb,
releasing filtrate into the tubule
network; the processed filtrate then
moves outward through the tubules and
empities as urine into the external
environment

-protonephridia are also found in rotifers, some annelids, mollusc larvae, and
lancelets; the function of them varies as well
-metanephridia(most annelids, such
as earthworms)
-each segment of a worm has a
pair of metanephridia
-as the cilia beat, fluid is drawn
into a collecting tubule, which
includes a storage bladder that
opens to the outside
-earthworms metanephridia
balance the water influx by
producing urine that is dilute

-malpighian tubules
-extend from dead-end tips immersed in
hemolymph
-some terrestrial insects have an
additional adaption for water balance: their
rectal end of their gut enables water uptake
from the air

-kidneys
-vertebrate kidneys are
typically nonsegmented, but
hagfishes, which are
invertebrate chordates, have
kidneys with segmentally
arranged excretory tubules.
This suggests that the
excretory structures of
vertebrate ancestors also may
have been segmented

44.4 the nephron is organized for stepwise processing of blood filtrate

-from blood filtrate to urine
-proximal tubule
-NaCl in the filtrate diffuses into the cells of the transport epithelium, where Na + is
actively into the interstitial fluid, with the passive transport of Cl-water follows by osmosis
-cells of the transport epithelium secrete H+ and NH3 into the lumen of the tubule,
which acts as a buffer, and a mammals urine usually contains some NH3 from this
source
-the proximal tubules also reabsorb about 90% of the buffer HCO3- from the filtrate,
contributing further to pH balance in body fluids
-descending limb of the loop of Henle
-numerous aquaporin proteins make the transport epithelium freely permeable to
water; there are almost no channels for salt and other small solutes
-the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid increases progressively from the outer
cortex to the inner medulla of the kidney; as a result, the filtrate loses water
-ascending limb of the loop of Henle
-the ascending limb has a transport epithelium studded with ion channels, but not
water channels
-the epithelium actively transports NaCl into the interstitial fluid
-distal tubule
-secrete the K+ and reabsorb NaCl
-contribute to pH regulation by the controlled secretion of H+ and reabsorption of
HCO3-

-collecting duct
-under normal conditions, 1600L of blood flows through a pair of human kidneys
each day, about 300 times the total volume in the body; the nephrons and collecting
ducts process about 180L of initial filtrate, leaving only about 1.5L of urine to be
transported to the bladder
-hormonal control of permeability and transport determines the extent to which
the urine becomes concentrated
-some urea diffuses out of the duct and into the interstitial fluid. Alone with NaCl,
this urea contributes to the high osmolarity of the interstitial fluid in the medulla
-in producing dilute urine, the epithelium lacks water channels, and NaCl is actively
transported out of filtrate-solute gradients and water conservation

-human kidneys can excrete urine up to four times as concentrated1200mOsm/L

-the two-solute model
-countercurrent mechanisms: involve passive movement along either an oxygen
concentration or a heat gradient
-countercurrent multiplier system: expend energy to create concentration
gradients, involving the loop of Henle maintains a high salt concentration in the
interior of the kidney
-although isoosmotic to the inner medullas interstitial fluid, the urine is
hyperosmotic to blood and interstitial fluid elsewhere in the body

-adaptations of the vertebrate kidney to diverse environments

-mammals
-mammals that excrete the hyperosmotic urine have loops of Henle that extend
deep into the medulla; in contrast, aquatic mammals have nephrons with relatively
short loops
-birds and other reptiles
-nephrons of birds have loops of Henle that extend less far into the medulla than
lose of mammals; thus, bird kidneys cannot concentrate urine to the high
osmolarities, and their mainly have uric acid as the nitrogen waste molecule
-the kidneys of other reptiles, which have only cortical nephrons , produce urine
that is isoosmotic or hypoosmotic to body fluids; the epithelium of the chamber from
which urine and feces leave the body(the cloaca) helps conserve fluid by reabsorbing
water from these wastes
-freshwater fishes and amphibians
-freshwater fishes kidneys contain many nephrons, produce filtrate at a high rate;
they conserve salts by reabsorbing ions from the filtrate in their distal tubules
-in fresh water, the skin of amphibians accumulates certain salts from the water by
active transport; on land, they reabsorb water across the epithelium of the urinary
bladder
-marine bony fishes
-marine fishes have fewer and smaller nephrons which lack a distal tubule, and
their kidneys have small glomeruli or lack glomeruli entirely; filtration rates are low

and very little urine is excreted

-the main function of kidneys in marine bony fishes is to get rid of divalent ions,
they secrete the ions into the proximal tubules; secretion by the gills maintains
proper levels of monovalent ions
44.5 Hormonal circuits link kidney function, water balance, and blood pressure
-South American vampire bats: kidneys offload much of the water absorbed from a
blood meal by excreting large volumes of dilute urine as it feeds
-roosting bats: their kidneys shift to producing small quantities of highly
concentrated urine(up to 4600 mOsm/L)
-antidiuretic hormone(vasopressin)
-produced in the hypothalamus of the brain and stored in the posterior pituitary
gland
-only the gain of additional water in food and drink can fully restore osmolarity to
300 mOsm/L

-diabetes insipidus: mutations that prevent ADH production or that inactivate the
ADH receptor gene block the increase in channel number and thus the ADH response

-the rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone
system
-JGA: juxtaglomerular apparatus
-ACE: angiotensin converting enzyme,
many drugs used to treat
hypertension are specific inhibitors of
it, which catalyzes the second step in
the production of angiotensin II
-renin released from the JGA acts on
angiotensinogen, forming angiotensin
I; ACE in vascular endothelium,
particularly in the lungs, then splits off
two amino acids from angiotensin I,
forming active angiotensin II

-homeostatic regulation of the kidney

-the release of ADH is a response in blood osmolarity; the RAAS responds to the
drop in both salt and body fluids(blood volume and pressure)
-ANP: atrial natriuretic peptide, opposes to the RAAS; it inhibits the release of
rennin from the JGA, inhibits NaCl reabsorption by the collecting ducts, and reduces
aldosterone release from the adrenal glands
-ADH, the RAAS, and ANP provide an elaborate system of checks and balances that
regulate the kidneys ability to control the osmolarity, salt concentration, volume,
and pressure of blood