1.

Application of the Energy Equation to Open Channel Flow

1.1 Energy Equation
The energy equation was discussed in the Fluid Mechanics course in relation to pipe flow. Similar
principles apply to open channel flow. So in relation to the open channel flow in figure 1, the energy
equation can be applied between sections 1 and 2. This gives

Figure 1

Applying the energy equation to open channel flow over a step.

y1 +

v1
v
= y 2 + 2 + z2
2g
2g

Since for rectangular channels the flow rate per unit width q = y2 x v2,

y2 +

v
q2
= y1 + 1 z2
2
y2 2 g
2g

Usually y1, v1, q and z are known. This means the equation 1 yields three possible values of flow
depth, y2. The solution to this equation is discussed next.

1.2 Specific Energy and Alternate Depths

The specific energy is be defined as

v2
E=y +
2g
or in the form of equation 1, ie. v = q/y

E=y +

q2
y2 2g

This specific energy equation can be depicted in figure 2 below. The figure shows how the specific
energy varies with the flow depth. At the upstream section, section 1, the specific energy is equal to
E1. This gives a depth at section 1 of y1.
At section 2, the specific energy is E2 which is less than E1 by the amount z2 ie. E2 = E1 - z2. Therefore
at section 2, where the specific energy is E2, figure 2 shows that there are three possible flow depths.
One flow depth is negative and this solution can be neglected. But there are two other valid flow

depths which will give the required specific energy E2. These depths are shown as B and B on figure
2 and are called alternate depths.

Figure 2

Solution to the specific energy equation

The question is which of the two alternate flow depths, the one on the upper limb of the curve in
figure 2 or the one on the lower limb, is the valid answer. The answer depends on what is happening
to the flow depths between sections 1 and 2 or the transition between sections 1 and 2.
The Transition Problem
Between section 1 and 2 there is a step up in the floor of the channel. The flow depth varies
according to the energy equation as described by equation 1. As the floor rises, the flow depth is
represented by a point on the upper limb of the curve in figure 2, with a horizontal displacement from
A equalling to the rise in the floor level. So as the floor rises the flow depth reduces in a manner
described by the upper limb of the curve between points A and B.
In this problem the realistic solution is given by the upper limb of the curve. A solution on the lower
limb is not possible, in this instance, because at no stage between sections 1 and 2 is it possible to
cross-over to the lower limb where the solution B lies.
Accessibility of Flow Regimes
In the situation of figure 1, the flow depths represented by the lower limb of the curve cannot
normally be assessed. This is because nowhere between sections 1 and 2 does the flow depth reduce
to the point C. If this were possible the flow can go around the curve and access the flow depths
represented on the lower limb.
For this to be possible, between sections 1 and 2, there should be an extra step up such that the
difference in elevation between 1 and 3, the crest of the step, is such that C (the point on the curve
corresponding to section 3) lies at the position where the energy is minimum, ie. at the left-hand most
point of the curve.
Then between 3 and 2 there is a step down. Point B is a point to the right of C, a distance equal to
the difference in elevation between 3 and 2.
The second way the flow depths on the lower limb can be accessed is if between section 1 and 2 the
channel narrows and then widens again. When the channel narrows the discharge per unit width
increases. The effect of narrowing the channel width on the curve is shown in figure 2, ie. it displaces
the curve as a whole, to the right.

When the curve is displaced to the right, as the channel narrows, the point C on the curve, the left
hand most point on the curve, comes into line with point A. This means that from A the flow depth
can access the point C as the channel narrows.
When the channel expands again, the curve is displaced to the left and ultimately returns to its
original position, the flow depth on the lower limb can be accessed. This is because having reached
point C, the left hand most point on the curve, the flow can physically access the lower limb. So the
solution to the problem is now point B on the lower limb.
So in summary, for the problem in figure 1, the flows on the lower limb can be accessed if there is a
local step or if the channel locally narrows between sections 1 and 2.
Alternatively if the flow depth at section 1 (A) in figure 1 is on the lower limb then the flow depth at
section 2 (B) will also be on the lower limb.

1.3 Subcritical and Supercritical Flow

Flow depths represented by points on the upper limb are subcritical. Subcritical flow is tranquil with
low velocity and usually high flow depth.
Flow depths represented by points on the lower limb are supercritical. Supercritical flow is shooting
flow, with high velocity and relatively low flow depth.
The Froude number is used to determine whether flow is super or subcritical. The Froude number is

v
g/y

F=
where v - flow velocity
y - flow depth
g - gravity

When the flow velocity is greater than v(gy), ie. if F > 1, the flow is supercritical. Conversely if the
flow velocity is less than v(gy), ie. if F < 1, the flow is subcritical.
v(gy) is the speed at which a small disturbance travels in water. The classic example is the ripples
that propagate in all direction resulting from a stone dropped into a pond. The speed at which those
ripple waves propagate is at a speed v(gy). The idea is that if a disturbance or some other influence
affecting the properties of water flow occurs, it propagates in all direction at a speed equal to v(gy).
This means that if a disturbance occurs in supercritical flow it cannot propagate in the upstream
direction. This is because the flow velocity is faster than the velocity at which the disturbance
propagates. So supercritical flow, is not affected by whatever is occurring downstream simply
because any impact cannot travel upstream.
Subcritical flow, on the other hand, is affected by downstream impacts. This is because the flow
velocity is less than v(gy) so impacts can propagate upstream.

1.4 Critical Flow

Critical depth or critical flow is the transition between supercritical and subcritical flow. It is defined
by the condition
Froude Number, F = 1
Critical depth is defined by the point C in figure 2, ie. the left hand most point on the E vs y curve.
This interesting feature leads to all flow depths on the upper limb being subcritical and all flow
depths on the lower limb being supercritical.
In rectangular channels, the critical depth and critical flow is defined by the following equations

yc =

q2
g

and

yc =

2
E
3

In other shaped channels there are no similarly straight forward equations and this is discussed
further in the next section.
Critical depth is closely related to channel controls. Channel controls are any feature in the channel
that determines the depth-discharge relationship. Examples of channel control are sluice gates, weirs
and spillways. Usually because channel controls determine the depth-discharge relationship at a
location in the channel, it also influences the flow depth upstream and downstream of the control.
Usually in such cases the flow depth upstream of the control is sub-critical and that downstream is
supercritical. Example of this is the sluice gate and dam spillways. In these cases the depth at the
channel control is critical depth.

1.5 Non-Uniform Channels

The relationships developed for critical flow and critical depth for rectangular channel are relatively
simple equations. Unfortunately equations for other shaped channels like spherical or trapezoidal are
not simple. This is because the relationship between depth and area, and hence depths vs discharge is
not simple.
In the absence of easy to use relationships graphical procedures were developed to determine critical
depth features in common shapes of open channels. These can be obtained in Henderson (1966) Cp.
2, pg. 50-57.
However nowadays with the common usage of personal computers and readily available spread sheet
programs, it is far easier to determine the critical depths and flows by direct computation of the E vs
y curve. Once the curve is known the left hand most point is determined and hence the critical depth,
flow etc.