Unlocking Reading Comprehension: Writing Is the Key

This T/TAC William and Mary Considerations Packet starts out with a brief
review of research supporting the inclusion of writing to enhance reading comprehension,
and goes on to highlight a specific instructional strategy, R.A.R.E. (Restate the question;
Answer the question; Reasons given; and Examples from the text). Using the R.A.R.E.
strategy, students at both the elementary and secondary levels learn how to respond
accurately in writing to specific comprehension questions in all content areas. The packet
also describes how to develop questions that teach and assess comprehension in all the
purposes for reading.

Why Teach Reading Comprehension Strategies?

Reading comprehension occurs when a reader links new information with prior
knowledge or personal experience to derive meaning from what was read. From the
process, the student becomes a critical reader -- a problem solver. Reading
comprehension, therefore, is not just a result of reading text. It begins before the reader
even reads the text with the prediction of story outcomes based on prior knowledge
(Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). Predicting outcomes, clarifying vocabulary, creating
questions while reading, identifying main ideas and themes, and summarizing the story
are all strategies employed before, during, and after reading that contribute to the ability
to derive meaning (Harvey & Goudvis, 2000). Proficient readers employ these strategies
independently while reading. Students who are poor or marginal readers do not. Thus,
learning how to comprehend what is read is an individual process. No one particular
reading method works for all students all the time. Reading instruction requires
individualized and creative methods to successfully enhance comprehension for all
learners (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2000;
Lyon, 1998). For students who are not fluent readers including those students receiving
special education services in reading comprehension, explicit instruction of
comprehension strategies must be an integral part of reading instruction (Forness, 2001).

Which Instructional Method Best Teaches the Strategies for

Comprehending Text?
Reading instruction should be flexible, adapting to individual needs; be creative
and entertaining; integrate a variety of modalities; and be strategic, incorporating ongoing
assessment of student progress (NICHD, 2000). One strategy for teaching reading
comprehension that meets these criteria integrates writing with reading instruction.
Because reading and writing are interrelated, what students learn in one area influences
and reinforces what they learn in the other (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). In terms of the
NICHD guidelines, writing can be easily modified to provide an instructional match;
writing instruction is strategic and serves as an authentic assessment of student
understanding. Teaching students to answer reading comprehension questions in writing
is one way to strategically incorporate writing to enhance reading comprehension. Using
Considerations: Unlocking Reading Comprehension: Writing Is the Key
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this approach, teachers craft questions that elicit specific responses related to the material
read.
There are multiple benefits to answering comprehension questions in writing
including:

Students demonstrate the degree of their understanding of what has been read
based on the content of their answers.

Students learn to manipulate words to form complete sentences that demonstrate

an understanding of the text.

Written responses give students the opportunity to use key vocabulary from the
text to increase vocabulary development (T/TAC Considerations: A Word
About Vocabulary, 2001).

Students learn to reference the text in order to retrieve examples as support for
statements and opinions.

Students learn, review, and apply spelling, capitalization, and punctuation rules.

The skill can be taught to a variety of learners at both the elementary and
secondary instructional levels across all academic areas.

Developing Quality Reading Comprehension Questions

Since eliciting specific responses to comprehension questions is essential to
understanding, crafting quality comprehension questions is key to effectively teaching
reading comprehension. Comprehension is typically broken down into three levels of
understanding: literal comprehension, inferential comprehension, and critical analysis
(Salvia & Hughes, 1990). The chart provided below is an adaptation of Salvia and
Hughes chart showing the components and subcomponents of reading comprehension.
Students can be taught the various levels of comprehension by the kind of
question asked at their respective instructional level. Additionally, each level of
comprehension can be taught over the three purposes of reading (reading for a literary
experience, reading to be informed, and reading to perform a task) in all content areas of
instruction (Howard County [MD] Public School System [HCPSS], 1997; Rosenblatt,
1991).

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Levels of Reading Comprehension

Literal
Comprehension

Recall details

Sequence events

Retell the story

Inferential Comprehension

Infer main idea and

details
Predict outcomes

Critical
Analysis

Identify authors
point of view

Distinguish between
fact and opinion

Distinguish between
fact and fantasy

Relate to personal
experience

Compare/contrast

Infer cause and

effect

Make value
judgments

Draw conclusions

Identify bias

Paraphrase

Judge
adequacy/worth

Summarize

Apply ideas to solve

problems

(Adapted from Salvia & Hughes, 1990)

Examples of Quality Reading Comprehension Questions Across the

Purposes for Reading

Literal Comprehension Questions (who, what, where, when, & how)

~ Who are the main characters in the story? (Literary Experience)

~ Where did the event take place? (Information)
~ What materials were needed to make the kite? (Perform a Task)

Inferential Comprehension Questions

~ When the author used the expression .. in the story, it had a double
meaning. Explain each meaning. (Inferences: Literary Experience)
~ Explain how your knowledge has changed or remained the same based on the
information you read. Use examples from the text to support your ideas.
(Compare/Contrast: Information)
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~ What information did the author have to know before writing the directions for this
activity? List at least three things he had to know. (Draw Conclusions: Perform a
Task)

Critical Analysis

~ Do you think the author chose the best title for this poem? Explain why or why not
using specific information from the poem. (Literary Experience)
~ What did the author do to present the information in a clear way? Support your
answer with specific examples from the text. (Information)
~ Are the directions clear enough? Explain why or why not giving examples from the
directions. (Perform a Task)
(Adapted from HCPSS, 1997)

Considerations When Crafting Reading Comprehension Questions

Teach the vocabulary specific to reading comprehension. Examples include

Purposes for Reading: For a Literary Experience, For Information, To Perform a
Task; criteria; question; response; target or well-developed response; example;
reason; and text.

Provide specific criteria for a well-developed response. Include written criteria

with oral explanation. Display in the classroom.

Model a well-developed response to the class. Compare to a weak response.

Discuss using a visual organizer.

Create meaningful questions. Ask yourself: Is this more than a simple recall
question? Is the question about something meaningful in the text? Can the
student support it with examples from the text?

Dont ask too many questions about the same subject matter.

Consider varying the format of your questions. Not all responses have to be in
sentence form. Consider charts, lists, drawings, and labels as possible responses.

Write the response yourself to see if the question can be answered according to
the established criteria.

Consider the instructional levels represented within your class. Ask yourself:
Should all of the students answer all of the questions? Do some of the students
require modified criteria for responses (e.g., graphic, framed sentences, or
sentence starter)?

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(Adapted from HCPSS, 1997)

A Formula for a Well-Developed Reading Response

Teaching comprehension strategies is a powerful instructional tool for special
education students who have reading comprehension difficulties. An instructional
intervention of even greater value, according to research, is the use of mnemonic
strategies (Forness, 2001). Mnemonic instruction supplies a student with a concrete
connection between a students prior knowledge and information that is unknown or to be
learned. Research shows mnemonic instruction is particularly effective for students with
memory deficits that impact their ability to recall information necessary for
understanding (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1999). A major benefit of mnemonics is that they
can be used in all academic disciplines to evoke factual information or formulas. For
example, the following mnemonics assist students in remembering the order of the
planets in science and the order of operations in mathematics.

Mnemonic Examples
My
Very
Educated
Mother
Just
Served
Us
Nine
Pizzas

= Mars
= Venus
= Earth
= Mercury
= Jupiter
= Saturn
= Uranus
= Neptune
= Pluto

Please
Excuse
My
Dear
Aunt
Sally

=
=
=
=
=
=

Parenthesis
Exponents
Multiplication
Division
Addition
Subtraction

The Mnemonic R.A.R.E.

When applied to answering a reading comprehension question in writing, a mnemonic
can provide a visual prompt for recollecting a formula, which if acted upon by the
student, will produce a well-developed response. An example of such a mnemonic
strategy is R.A.R.E., which stands for:
Restate the question
Answer the question
Reasons given
Examples from the text
(Adapted from HCPSS, 1997)
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Restate the question

The student is supplied a question in one of the levels of comprehension. After the
student reads the question twice and chooses a stance, the R in the mnemonic reminds
the student to restate the question, changing it to a statement.

Did the character change or remain the same?

Student Response: The character changed

Answer the question

The student provides the answer to the question, which in this example is whether or
not the character changed or remained the same.
Student Response: The character changed

Reasons given
Looking back into the text, the student finds and paraphrases the reason why the
character changed.
Student Response: The character changed because he became aware of slaverys
horrors.

Examples from the text

Using the text as a reference once again, the student finds an example from the text to
support the reason for the stance taken. Note: The number of examples required depends
on the criteria given to the student at the beginning of the assignment.
Student Response: The main character changed because he became aware of slaverys
horrors. For example, a slave boy named James told him how his mother was taken
away from him when he was a baby and sold to a plantation owner. (The preceding
response was taken from Soldiers Heart by Gary Paulsen, 1998)

Example of Modified Response Using R.A.R.E.

Consider the instructional levels presented within your class. Ask yourself:
Should all of the students answer all of the questions? Do some of the students require
modified criteria for responses? A frame or sentence starter can be employed as a
modification for a quality response. Colored markers can be used to highlight the parts of
the question needed for restatement.
Sample Question:
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Who might be an appropriate audience for this article? Explain why.

CRITERIA
1. NAME who would be an appropriate audience
2. Use R.A.R.E.
Restate the question
Answer the question
Reasons given
Examples from the text
3. Give 2 reasons from the text or from prior knowledge

FRAME
An appropriate audience for this article is ___________________. I think this
because ______________________________, and ________________________.

SENTENCE STARTER
An appropriate audience for this article is ___________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.

HIGHLIGHTED QUESTION
is
Who might be an appropriate audience for this article

Explain why.

An appropriate audience for this article is

Ensure an Instructional Match

It is important to design an instructional assessment (IA) that provides baseline
data on (a) what students know about answering comprehension questions in writing;
(b) what they do when they answer a question in writing; (c) how they think; and (d)
how they approach a written response (Rosenfield & Gravois, 1996; T/TAC
Considerations: Instructional Assessment, 2002). To score the IA teachers need a
well-developed rubric that will serve as a scoring tool throughout the instructional
period.
An example of an instructional assessment:
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1. Provide the students with a familiar reading passage in one of the purposes for
reading.
2. Make sure the reading passage should be at the appropriate instructional reading
level for the students.
3. Have the students listen to the passage being read to them as they read along.
4. Instruct the students to answer in writing a predetermined number of
comprehension questions at each of the levels of comprehension.
5. Score the results using the rubric (see below).
6. At regular intervals, administer this instructional assessment to measure growth
and guide instruction (Rosenfield & Gravois, 1996; T/TAC Considerations:
Instructional Assessment, 2002).

A Rubric for a Well-Developed Reading Response Using R.A.R.E.

0
1

No response

Response reflects only two elements of R.A.R.E. and includes only parts of the
criteria of the assignment (e.g., restatement and answer and one requirement of
the criteria*).

Response reflects three elements of R.A.R.E. and follows the criteria* of the
assignment.

Response reflects the four elements of R.A.R.E. and follows the criteria* of the
assignment.

Response reflects only one element of R.A.R.E. and does not follow the
criteria* of the assignment (e.g., restatement only).

*Criteria The criteria of the assignment can be designed to reflect ongoing instruction
in grammar, sentence structure, key vocabulary, or transition words, for example.

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A TARGET RESPONSE

1
21
3
4

A TARGET RESPONSE can be visually displayed in the classroom along with the
rubric. It is an effective tool when modeling or critiquing student responses. In addition,
students are able to refer to a displayed rubric when participating in a peer evaluation
activity or self-monitoring.

R.A.R.E. for Comprehension in All Academic Areas

In the following, we will look at using R.A.R.E. in various academic subjects.

Language Arts

Mastery of R.A.R.E. is not only beneficial when used within the purposes of
reading, but also across the purposes for writing (expository, narrative, and persuasive),
thus, the format of R.A.R.E. generalizes readily to the formula for a well-developed
paragraph: topic sentence, supportive details, and a closing sentence. The transition from
answering a comprehension question in writing to writing a paragraph is logical to the
student. The basic components of a well-developed written response to a comprehension
question and a well-developed paragraph are similar. Keeping in mind the mnemonic
R.A.R.E. and the purposes of writing, consider the organizer for an expository paragraph
provided below.
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EXPOSITORY WRITING ORGANIZER

Form:
_____________________________________________
Audience: _____________________________________________
Topic:
_____________________________________________
Purpose: _____________________________________________
Interesting topic sentence:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Three details to support the topic:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Concluding sentence:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Social Studies/History

Incorporating R.A.R.E. into social studies and history units reaps a variety of
benefits for the learner as well as the teacher. Specifically, R.A.R.E. challenges students
to think critically. Depending on the level of questioning, a student can make
comparisons, infer cause and effect, or make judgments. To provide support for the
answer given, the student learns to reference the text, paraphrase from the text, and refer
to class notes and organizers for supportive information. The student then synthesizes the
information into sentences to complete the response. Such a process teaches valuable
research skills. For the teacher, the finished product provides an authentic assessment of
students understanding of the unit. Also, the criteria can be instructionally matched to
be adapted to all instructional levels.
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Example Grade 3
Different Regions, Different Resources

Region

Natural
Resources

Products

Capital
Resources

Human
Resources

Deserts

Rainforests

Criteria:
Use R.A.R.E. to answer the following question
Use the R.A.R.E. organizer to help organize your ideas
Use the answers you wrote in the chart to support your answer
Use complete sentences
Use C.U.P.S. (capitalization, usage, punctuation, & spelling)
R estate
A nswer the question
R easons given
E xamples from the text

How are the resources of the desert and the rainforest different? Support your answer
with three examples from the Different Regions, Different Resources chart above.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
(Adapted from HCPSS, 1997)

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R.A.R.E. Organizer
Answer the following question using R.A.R.E. Use the R.A.R.E. organizer to help you
answer the questions. Copy your complete answer in final form on the assignment
worksheet. Staple your R.A.R.E. organizer to the final copy of your question.

How are the resources of the desert and the rainforest different?
Restate the question here:

Answer the question here:

Give a Reason for the answer here:

Locate three Examples from the chart to support your reasons:

Write complete R.A.R.E. response here:

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Science

Science investigations lend themselves well to writing responses at all

instructional levels: questions are formulated; hypotheses are made; independent,
dependent, and controlled variables are identified; data are collected; and conclusions
are drawn. These are all opportunities for students to produce well-developed written
responses. The differentiated instruction in science curricula coupled with R.A.R.E.
allows students, even at primary instructional levels, to explain scientific relationships
clearly and with understanding.
Grade 4 Electricity and Magnetism Unit Example

Using the Simple Switch

1. Illustrate and label the simple circuit with a switch just like the simple circuit your
group constructed.

2. Explain how the electricity passes through the circuit.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Could the metal switch have been replaced with a plastic or wooden switch? Explain
your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Criteria:
Use R.A.R.E. for your responses
Use complete sentences
Use C.U.P.S. (capitalization, usage, punctuation, & spelling)
R estate the question
A nswer the question
R easons given
E xamples from the text
(Adapted from HCPSS, 1997)
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Mathematics

In the past decade, the delivery of mathematics instruction has been under
scrutiny due to the mediocre performance of U.S. students on international assessments
(cited in Maccini & Gagnon, 2002) according to researchers McLaughlin, Shepard, and
ODay. In response, educators, parents, administrators, and the National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) have developed a rigorous set of standards that
address the critical components of teaching mathematics. Included in these standards is a
requirement to teach students to communicate their understanding of mathematic
concepts and applications (NCTM, 2000). This standard infers that students must
demonstrate the ability to communicate orally or in writing a firm understanding of
applied mathematical theory.
The NCTM is now calling for a different approach to teaching mathematics.
Traditionally, mathematics instruction has been skill- and formula-based with a
secondary focus on application of theory or problem solving. Specifically, the charge of
the NCTM is to make use of instructional tools that provide a formula for communicating
solutions to mathematics application problems. The mnemonic R.A.R.E. serves as one
strategy to foster these skills.
The benefits of using R.A.R.E. in mathematics are numerous and include:

The mnemonic provides the student with a formula for a written response thereby
generating critical thinking skills to solve problems. For example, to solve word
problems students must recall the operations needed to calculate the problem.
While doing so, students demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship.

When required to write their thought process, students explain why they chose
specific operations and how those operations resolve problems.

The process teaches and reinforces the application of mathematic concepts.

For the teacher, the process provides an authentic assessment of student

understanding.

Using graphic displays or representations illustrating word problems and

instruction on problem-solving strategies (e.g., guess and check, logical reasoning,
look for a pattern) prior to introducing an assignment using R.A.R.E. further enhance
students ability to produce accurate, well-developed responses that reflect true
understanding (Jitendra, 2002).

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Example Primary-Level Word Problem

Days

Computers
received

10

15

Mr. Reid is the technology teacher at Jones Elementary School. He is setting up the
new computer lab. Mr. Reid is keeping a table to show how many computers he
receives for six days. If he continues to receive computers according to the pattern
on his table, how many new computers will he receive on day 6?
Identify the key vocabulary:
________________________________________________________________________
What problem-solving strategy did you use?
_______________________________________________________________________
CRITERIA:
Use R.A.R.E. to write the answer to the word problem you just solved
R estate the question
A nswer the question
R eason
E xample of pattern
Use complete sentences
Use C.U.P.S. (capitalization, usage, punctuation, & spelling)
Restate: Mr. Reid will receive
Answer: 30 new computers by the Day 6
Reason: He receives 5 computers each day
Example: Day1 he received 5 computers. On Day 2 he received 5 more computers
Completed response:
Mr. Reid will receive 30 new computers in 6 days for Jones Elementary Schools new
computer lab. The reason being he is receiving 5 new computers each day for 6 days.
For example, on Day 1 he received 5 new computers. On Day 2 he received 5 more new
computers, which equals 10 new computers. On Day 3 he received 5 more new
computers to equal 15. By Day 6 with the pattern of adding 5 more computers each
day, he will have a total of 30 new computers for the lab.
Day 1
0+5=5
Day 4
15 + 5 = 20
Example:
Day 2
5 + 5 = 10
Day 5
20 + 5 = 25
Day 3
10 + 5 = 15
Day 6
25 + 5 = 30

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Example Secondary-Level Word Problem

Bob and Sue worked in a large sporting goods shop. Over a two-week period, Sue
sold 10 more cans of tennis balls than Bob. Together they sold 50 cans of tennis
balls. How many cans of tennis balls did each person sell?

50

Bob

Sue

X + 10

Identify the key vocabulary:

________________________________________________________________________
What problem-solving strategy did you use?
_______________________________________________________________________
What information in the problem was not needed?
_______________________________________________________________________

CRITERIA:
Using R.A.R.E., write the answer to the word problem you just solved
R estate the question
A nswer the problem
R eason for answer
E xample of equation
Use complete sentences
Use C.U.P.S. (capitalization, usage, punctuation, & spelling)
Use the completed equation for your example
(Adapted from Jitendra, 2002)

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Restate: Each person sold

Answer: Bob sold 20 cans of balls and Sue sold 30 cans of balls, totaling 50 cans
Reason: Problem solved with a two-step equation because there is a variable
Example: Example of two-step equation
Completed response:
Each person sold the following number of tennis balls: Bob sold 20 cans of balls and
Sue sold 30 cans of balls. This totals 50 cans of tennis balls. This problem is solved
with a two-step equation because there is an unknown number, called a variable.
The number of cans of tennis balls Bob sold is a variable, or X. If Bob sold X
number of cans, then Sue sold X + 10 because she sold 10 more cans than Bob. Here
is the example of the two-step equation:
Example:

X + (X + 10) = 50
2X + 10 = 50
-10 -10
0 40
2X = 40
2
2
X = 20
Check: 20 + (20 + 10) = 50

Conclusion
Reading comprehension is a critical skill for all students in all academic content
areas. Teachers must be deliberate, analytical, strategic, sensitive, and creative in their
quest to teach reading comprehension. Linking reading and writing for improved
comprehension provides a valuable experience for internalizing learning (Fountas &
Pinnell, 1996). The mnemonic strategy R.A.R.E. challenges students at both the primary
and secondary instructional levels to construct meaning through reading and writing. It
facilitates explicit instruction and serves as an authentic, multidisciplinary assessment for
all students, especially those with memory difficulties that interfere with their ability to
comprehend.

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References
Forness, S. R. (2001). Special education and related services: What have we learned from
meta-analysis? Exceptionality, 9, 185197.
Fountas, I. C., & Pinnell, G. S. (1996). Guided reading: Good first teaching for all
children. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2000). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension to
enhance understanding. York, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.
Howard County (MD) Public School System. (1997). Offices of Language Arts, Science,
& Social Studies Curriculum. Ellicott City, MD: Language Arts, Science, &
Social Studies Curricula Writing Teams.
Jitendra, A. (2002). Teaching students math problem-solving through graphic
representations. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34, 3438.
Lyon, G. R. (1998). The NICHD research program in reading development, reading
disorders and reading instruction: A summary of research findings, keys to successful
learning: A national summit on research in learning disabilities. Washington, DC:
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED430 366)
Maccini, P., & Gagnon, J.C. (2002). Perceptions and application of NCTM standards by
special and general education teachers. Exceptional Children, 68, 325344.
Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T.E. (1999). Teaching students ways to remember:
Strategies for learning mnemonically. Cambridge, MA: Brookline.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000). Principles and standards for
school mathematics. Retrieved July 25, 2003, from
http://standards.nctm.org/document/chapter1/comm.htm.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000). Report of the
national reading panel: Teaching children to read: Findings and determinations of the
national reading panel by topic areas. Retrieved July 11, 2003, from
http://nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/findings.htm
Paulsen, G. (1998). Soldiers heart. New York: Random House.
Rosenblatt, L. (1991). Literature S.O.S. Language Arts, 68, 444448.
Rosenfield, S.A., & Gravois, T.A. (1996). Instructional consultation teams:
Collaborating for change. New York: Guilford Press.
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Salvia J., & Hughes C. (1990). Curriculum-based assessment: Testing what is taught.
New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.

Additional Resources
The following Considerations Packets are available through the T/TAC website at
http://education.wm.edu/centers/ttac/index.php

An Essential Tool for Designing Effective Instruction

A Word about Vocabulary
Explicit Instruction to Improve Inferential Comprehension
Instructional Assessment

The following resources are available for loan through the T/TAC Library. Visit the
T/TAC website at http://education.wm.edu/centers/ttac/index.php for a complete listing
of materials. Select the Library link on the home page and enter your selection.
Title
Best Practices in Literary
Instruction
Teaching Our Children to
Read: Components of an
Effective Comprehension
Reading Program
Reading with Meaning:
Teaching Comprehension in
the Primary Grades
The Fluent Reader
Reading to Learn in the
Content Areas
When Kids Cant Read
What Teachers Can Do

Author
Gambrell, L., Morrow L,
Neuman, S. B., & Pressley, M.
Honig, B.

Call letters
CRD 139
TT153

Miller, D

CRD 205

Rasinski, T.V.
Richardson, J.S., Morgan, R.F.,
and Fleener, C.
Beers, K.

CRD 247
CRD 255
CRD 256

This Considerations Packet was prepared by Louise LeBron, July 2003.

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