WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?

Intelligence has been defined as inborn all-round mental efficiency and also as mental
energy capable of being transferred from one activity to another. People have different standards of
judging it. A teacher might consider her student intelligent if he masters the school curriculum and if
he can show good result in the examination . A nurse may be regarded as intelligent by the matron
or the doctor if she can understand , remember and carry out instruction correctly. For a layperson ,
may be the ability to profit by past experiences, or it may be identified as common sense.
David Wechsler (1944) defines intelligence as The aggregate or the global capacity of the
individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.
David G. Myers (2004) defines it as the mental quality consisting of the ability to learn
from experience, solve problem, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Professor Kumria in his book Intelligence and Its Testing says that intelligence is the right
perception of a situation to achieve a purpose. An intelligent person correctly perceives the situation
at the right and at the right time. As such , she is able to adapt to a new situation easily.

USES OF INTELLIGENCE
From the various definitions and analysis of intelligent behavior given above, we can summaries the
uses of intelligence as follows:

It helps us adapt to new or changed situations quickly and correctly .

It is important for learning and solving problems .
We are to observe relationships and detect absurdities.
It helps in building our resourcefulness.
It is important for making effective decisions and choices in life.
It helps us in our interpersonal relationships.

TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE
Edward L. Thorndike described intelligence as being of three types:
1. Abstract intelligence or the ability to understand and manage ideas, verbal and mathematical
symbols. Intelligence testing has tended to concentrate on abstract intelligence.
2. Mechanical or concrete intelligence which pertains to our ability to manipulate concrete
objects. It includes the ability to visualize relationships among objects and understand how
the physical world works.
3. Social intelligence is the the ability to understand and manage men and women , boys and
girls to act wisely in human relation . It is the ability to get along with others by
understanding and relating to them . Howard Gardner speaks of intrapersonal and
interpersonal intelligence, which make up social intelligence.

Types of intelligence
Verbal- Linguistic
Logical Mathematical
Visual Spatial
Body Kinesthetic
Musical Rhythmic
Interpersonal
Interpersonal
Naturalist
Existential

What it deals with

The ability to use words and language
The ability to think conceptually and abstractly and capacity to
discern logical or numerical patterns
The ability to visualize objects and spatial dimensions, and create
internal images and pictures
The ability to control ones body moments and to handle objects
skillfully
The ability to recognize tonal patterns and sound , as well as a
sensitivity to rhythms and beats
The Capacity for person-to-person communications and
relationships
The Capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings,
values, beliefs and thinking processes
The ability to recognize and categories plant , animals and other
objects in nature
The sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human
existence, such as the meaning of life why do life , why do we
die, and how did we get here

Types of intelligence

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability, while others believe
that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills and talents. As such, there are many
theories explaining the nature of intelligence.
1. Spearmans two-factor theory
Charles Spearman (1927) proposed a theory of two factors: g or General factor ands or
Specific factor. The performance of any cognitive activity depends on g and one or more
specific factors. The general factor represents what all mental tests have in common.
Individuals differ in g which can be thought of in terms of information processing power.
Psychologist who follows this approach say that intelligence can be described as a single
measure of cognitive ability or g and it underlies test requires and it differs from test to test.
Spearman and his followers place much more imporatance on general intelligence than on
the specific factor.
2. Thurstones theory of primary mental abilities
Leon Luis Thurstone disagreed with Spearmans idea that intelligence is a single, general
mental capacity. He identified eight clusters of primary mental abilities, which are
independent factors. They are:
(i)
Verbal fluency : the ability to think of words rapidly as in extemporaneous speech
(ii)
Numerical ability: the ability to do arithmetic problems
(iii)
Verbal comprehension : the ability to define and understand words
(iv)
Memory : the ability to memories and recall
(v)
Perceptual speed; the ability to grasp visual details and to see differences and
similarities among objects
(vi)
Spatial relations: the ability to visualize designs
(vii) Reasoning : the ability to find principal and rules to understand and solve problems

3. Sternbergs triarchic theory of intelligence

Rober J. Sternberg described three different kinds of intelligence in his model:
(i)
Analytical thinking deals with problem- solving abilities and focuses on planning,
monitoring, reflection and transfer.
(ii)
Creative thinking focuses on developing, applying new ideas and creating solutions.
(iii)
Practical thinking can be called common sense and focuses on the ability to adapt to
a changing environment and experiences.
This theory views intelligence from a winder perspective than Spearmans theory
views intelligence from a winder perspective than Spearmans theory and explain
why some people, who have very high IQ , often fail to succeed in life.
4. Cattells theory
Raymond Cattell (1963) believed that g is composed of fluid and crystallized intelligence.
He considered fluid intelligence to be based on the ability to see the relationship between
fluid intelligence to be based on the ability to see relationship between things and be think
logically and in the abstract. It refers to our inherited and to think logically and in the
abstract. It refers to our inherited abilities to think and reason. In contract It refers to our
inherited abilities to think and reason. In contrast, crystallised intelligence is based on think
acquired knowledge and skills. While fluid intelligence declines with age, crystallised
intelligence dose not.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE
Individual differ from one another amount and quality of intelligence- every nurse must
understand this. This is one of the resone why patient react in different ways to the same
situation. Some patient understands the instruction of the nurse and the doctor without much
difficulty, while other cannot in spite of their best efforts.
In psychology, one of the ways of classifying people is according to the amount of
intelligence they possess. Thus we speak of genius, near genius, superior, normal, near
normal, borderline and mental retardation.
These differences may result from one or more of the following factors:
1. Heredity: The limits of an individuals intellectual development are determined by the
genes which he has received from his parents. Intelligence test score of identical twice
reared together have been found to be very similar- it is almost as if the same person was
taking the test twice. Research has shown that 50 percent of intelligence score variation
can be attributed to genetic variation.
2. Neurobiologic factors: Some People with low intelligence have been found to have
abnormalities in their brain and ion the central nervous system. Thyroid deficiencies or
diseases of the pituitary gland retard intellectual development. Birth injuries can result in
cerebral anemia and thus cause mental retardation or low intelligence. Current research
suggests that highly intelligent people tend to have more brain synapses, to take in
information more quickly and to shoe faster brine wave responses to simple stimuli.
3. Environment: The environment includes the type of home and school training, physical
condition of living and socio-economic status. It has been found that children born and
raised in poor environmental conditions, where training is inadequate, where stimulation
to learn is almost absent and where nutrition is poor, do not develop their intelligence to
learn is almost absent and where nutrition is poor, do not development their intelligence
to the degree to which they could if the environmental conditions were favorable. But the
environment alone cannot work miracles. Favorable conditions can only encourage the
cultivation of the intelligence which the individual really has.

MENTAL AGE AND IQ

Alfred Binet formulated the idea of mental age, as being different from chronological age or actual
age. If a child of ten is presented with problems, which a normal child of ten is expected to solve
correctly, and he solve them correctly, his mental age too is ten. If he cannot, his mental age falls
below ten. He can also have a mental age of 11 or 12 or more, if he is able to solve the problem for
these years.
The mental age indicated for the level of mental maturity, but tells us nothing about the
relative brightness of the individual. This information is provided by IQ (Intelligence Quotient), a
concept proposed by William Stern. It is obtained by dividing Mental Age (MA) by Chronological
Age and multiplying this by 100 to eliminated the decimal fraction. The formula is:
IQ = MA/CA 100.
Example: Thus, an IQ is a score which is derived from a standardized intelligeance test. An IQ of
above 100 would indicate that the individual has scored higher than the average person in his age
group. A child with an MA of eight and a CA of 10 would have an IQ of 80.
INTERPETATION OF RESULT
The distribution of intelligence test scores in the general population follows distribution, as seen in
figure 11.1. This shows that the majority of individuals fall in the average category, and towards the
tail ends of tail ends of the curve, the proportion of individuals becomes very small.
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUALS ON THE BASIS OF INTELLIGENCE
On the basis of IQ, the Wechsler scales provided the following classification (Table 11.2):
Table 11.2 Classification of IQ based on the Wechsler scale
Classification
Very Superior
Superior
High Average
Average
Low Average
Borderline
Extremely

IQ range
130 and above
120-129
110-119
90-109
80-89
70-79
69and below

Expected % in the population

2.1
8.3
16.1
50.3
14.8
6.5
1.9

MENTAL RETARDATION
At one extreme are those whose intelligence test scores fall below 70. They are generally classified
as mentally retarded (the preferred term is currently mentally retardation is charactrised by a
significantly below average score on a test of intelligence and/or deficits in adaptive, self-care and
getting along in social situation and school activities.

Table 11.3 Degrees of mental retardation

Level

IQ score

%
of Adaptation to demands of life with retardation
persons
85
May learn academic skills up to to the 6th grade; can
achieve social and vocational skills with supports

Mild

50-70

Moderate

35-49

10

Severe

20-34

3-4

Profound

Below

1-2

May reach the 2nd grade level ; can work in sheltered

workshops
May learn to talk and perform simple tasks with
supervision, but may not profit from vocational
training
Requires constant help and care

The most common causes of mental retardation are:

1. Genetic condition: Sometimes disability is caused by abnormal genes inherited from parents,
errors when genes combine, or due to other reasons. Example of genetic conditions include
Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome and Phenylketonuria (PKU)
2. Prenatal problems: Mental disability can result when the fetus dose not develop inside the
mother properly. For example, there may be a problem with the way the fetuss cells divide
as it grows. A women who drinks alcohol or develops an infection like rubella during
pregnancy may give birth to a baby with mental disability.
3. Perinatal problems: If a baby has problems during labour and birth, such as not getting
enough oxygen, he may have developmental disability due to brain damage.
4. Environmental causes like sensory deprivation in the form of severe envirmental restriction
( such as being locked in a basement), prolonged isolation or sever atypical parent child
interaction could contribute to retardation. Lake of reading material, poor health pratices,
poor diet and poor housing or an unstimulating environment can also contribute to mental
retardation.
GIFTEDMNESS
While mental retardation occupies one end of the bell-shaped curve showing the distribution
of intelligence, at the other end are the gifted or those who score exceptionally high-130
and above on IQ scores. Giftedness has been defined in terms of specific talents and
academic abilities,by general intellectual characteristic (including curiosity ,motivation,
ability to see relationship and long attention span )and personality traits such as leadership
ability ,independence and intuitivencess. In general , gifted children are creative and
innovative thinkers who are able to arrive at unusual solutions to problems. they can often
master concept with few repetitions and may be also physically and emotionally sensitive
and are perfectionists.
In the early 1920s Lewis Terman, an America psychologist, identified gifted
children in terms of academic talent and IQ scores of 140 and above. He did a Follow-up of
about 1500 among them .Almost 25 years later, he found that many of them were holding
important position or had received recognition for their outstanding achievement .He found

that gifted children were in good health and had normal personalities. Most of them had
lower divorce rates later in life and were generally successful in their outstanding
achievement .He found that gifted children were in good health and had normal personalities.
Most of them had lower divorce rates later in life and were generally successful in their
careers. The study did not support the view that giftedness is accompanied by emotional
maladjustment .However,a few of these gifted children did not reach their potential as adults,
perhaps because of personal obstacles, insufficient education or lack of opportunity.
ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
One of the achievement of modern psychology is the development of scientific devices of
measuring general mental ability or intelligence. These have been called intelligence tests.
They are the result of a belief that intelligence exists in a certain amount that varies in
individuals, and everything that exists in a certain amount can be measured.
1. Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale: The first practical scale for measuring intelligence
was developed by two French psychologists, Alfred Binet and Theodor Simon, Their
scale consisted of question and problems, graded in difficulty, for different age groups
from three to 15 years. Their aim was to develop an objective test to identify children
likely to have difficulty in regular classes. The Binet Simon test was adapted by lewis
Terman and became known as the Stanford Biner Intelligence Scale. These scales have
been revised and adapted for use in different countries. Originally designed for children,
the fifth edition(2003)of the test can be used on anyone older than two years of age .The
test covers six areas general intelligence, knowledge , fluid reasoning , quantitative
reasoning , visual spatial processing and working memory .The number of correct
responsed is converted to a standard age score which is based on the chronological age of
the individual. An India adaptation called the Binet Kamat test of Intelligence has been
extensively used . The test extends from age three to 22.
2. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is used to test adults. The WAIS-R, the
1981 revision of the original Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, is designed for adults
aged 16-74 years. The scale has two parts a verbal scale with six subtests including
information, digit span, vocabulary, arithmetic, comprehension, similarities and a
performance scale with five subtests including picture completion, picture arrangement,
block design, object assembly and digit symbol. Based on the results, verbal IQ,
performance IQ and a composite full scale IQ can be obtained .The Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children (WISC) is an individual test that can be used from six to years and all
the subtests symbol search and mazes. The Wechsler Preschool and primary Scale of
Intelligence ( WPPSI)is designed for children from the age of two years six months to
seven year three months.
3. Indian Child Intelligence Test (I.C.I.T) is an Indian adaptation of the Revised Amsterdam
Kinder Intelligence test , developed by Jnana prabodhinis Institute of Psychology, Pune.
It has nine subtests, some of which are verbal , some are partially verbal and some are
performance oriented. It can be used for children from to years.
Samples of Test Items
Sample of the types of questions and problems asked of individuals in these tests are
given below:
From the stanford Binet Test
Items for an eight year old child:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

TO define eight word from a given list of word

TO reproduce stories
Verbal absurdities : TO identify what is foolish about statements .
To tell similarities and differences between objects.
Comprehension , e.g., What will you do if a playmate hits you without meaning to do
so?
6. Memory for sentences
From the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
Items From various subtests test the individual in term of:
1.Amount of information
2 General comprehension
3 memory span for digits, forwards and backwards
4 Ability to see similarities in situations provided
5 Ability to reason in arithmetical problems
6 Ability to size up a total situation through picture arrangements
7 Ability to perceive forms and patterns through block designs and picture completion.
TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS
Tests of intelligence can be classified as follows:
1. Individual vs Group tests
i)
Individual tests are administered on a single individual by the tester. They
allow direct observation of the rest taking behaviours, and thus serve a
diagnostic purpose. It is important to establish a good rapport before the
test so that valid results can be obtained . However , It can be time
consuming and may increase the cost of testing . The skill and experience
of the tester is also an important factor. The Stanford Biner and the
Wechsler scales are examples of individual tests.
ii)
Group testing was developed during world war I to recruit people into the
army . The Army Alpha test was designed and administered to recruits
who were literate and proficient in English, While the Army Beta test was
administered to foreign-and proficient in English , While the Army Beta
test was administered to foreign born recruits or those who could not read
with proficiency. The main advantages of group tests are that they can be
administered to very large numbers simultaneously . It also simplifies the
examiners role and scoring is more objective. Examples of other group
tests are the