BIL Exam 3 Chapter 27 Notes

Most prokary0tes are unicellular and small, and are well organized, achieving
all of an organisms life functions within a single cell.

(27.1)
Cell surface structures:
A key feature of nearly all prokaryotic cells is the cell wall, which protects the cell,
encloses it, maintains cell shape, and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic
environment.
Most bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, polymers consisting of modified
sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides.
Encloses the entire bacterium and anchors all other molecules that extend
from its surface.
Archaeal cell walls do not contain peptidoglycan although they have plenty of
proteins and polysaccharides.
With gram stain, scientists can categorize bacterial species according to their
different cell wall compositions.
It is important in medicine as doctors will be able to determine if a patients
infection is due to a gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria.
Gram-positive bacteria have peptidoglycan and have a simple cell wall structure.
(doesnt wash away purple dye)
Gram-negative bacteria do not have peptidoglycan and have a more complex cell
wall structure. (purple dye washes away and turns pink or red)
Treatment implications:
The lipid portions of the lipopolysaccharide section of many gram-negative bacteria
are toxic, causing fever or shock.
Outer membrane helps protect it from the bodys defense mechanisms.
They are more resistant than gram-positive bacteria due to their outer membrane
impeding entry of drugs/antibiotics.
The capsule is surrounded by a layer of polysaccharides or protein. It also helps
protect it from dehydration and allows the cell to stick to surfaces and other
organisms.
In another way of withstanding harsh conditions, certain bacteria develop thick,
multi-layered coated resistant cells called endospores, when it lacks an essential
nutrient.

Some prokaryotes stick to substrates or cells by means of hair-like appendages

called fimbriae.
They are usually shorter and more numerous than pili, extensions to the cell
that allow for exchange of genetic material.
Motility
Half of all prokaryotes are capable of taxis, moving toward/away from a stimulus.
Chemotaxis: forward/away from chemicals.
Phototaxis: forward/away from light.
Flagella may be scattered in a cell or concentrated at one end or both ends.
(hairlike appendages that allow cells/organisms to swim)
They are analogous to flagella of archaea and eukaryotes (arose independently)
Filament: topples movement
Hook: turns
Motor: series of proton rings.
Works:
1) Electron transport chain transports protons out of the cell.
2) The protons diffuse back into the cell.
3) As they do that, they provide force to turn the hook.
Internal Organization and dna
Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and their chromosome is located in the nucleoid, a
cytoplasm region not enclosed by a membrane.
Plasmids are small, circular regions of replicating dna.(most carrying only a few
genes)
Although dna replication, transcription, and translation are similar processes, some
details are different.
Prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes and differ in
their protein and rna content, which allows certain antibiotics to bind to
ribosomes and block protein synthesis in prokaryotes but not eukaryotes.
As a result, people use antibiotics to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria without
harming themselves.
Reproduction
Many prokaryotes can reproduce quickly in favorable conditions.

In binary fission, a single prokaryotic cell divides into 2,4,8,16, etc.

Under optimal conditions, many prokaryotes can divide every 1-3 hours or
produce a new generation in just 20 minutes.
However, in reality, this doesnt happen as they exhaust their nutrient supply, face
competition, or poison themselves from metabolic wastes.
(27.2)
Genetic diversity
1) Rapid reproduction reproduce quickly (binary fission)
2) Mutation
New mutation can increase the genetic diversity quickly in species that have
short generation time and a large population.
Can lead to rapid evolution of a population in an environment.
3) Genetic recombination combining dna from two sources.
3 types:
A)

B)

Transformation
Takes dna from its surroundings and incorporates it into its own dna.
Transduction
A virus that infects bacteria and carries prokaryotic genes from one cell to
another.

c) conjugation and plasmids

dna is transferred between two prokaryotic cells that are temporarily joined.

Required: piece of dna called f factor (fertility factor)

For the production of sex pilus
Cells with f factor = f+ (dna donors)
Cells without f factor = f- (dna acceptors)

The f factor as a plasmid

The f+ condition is transferrable in the sense that an f+ cell converts f- cells
to f+ cells if a copy of an entire plasmid is transferred.
The f factor in the chromosome
(hfr) cell that functions as a donor during conjugation with an f- cell.
When chromosomal dna from an hfr cell enters the f- cell, homologous
regions of the hfr and f- chromosomes may align, allowing segments of their
dna to be exchanged.
As a result, the recipient cell becomes a recombinant bacterium.
(27.3)

Organisms that obtain energy from the light are called phototrophs.
Those that obtain energy from chemicals are called chemotrophs.
Organisms that need co2 or related compounds as a carbon source are called
autotrophs. (carbon source=co2 or other related compound)
Organisms that require at least one organic nutrient to make other organic
compounds are called heterotrophs. (carbon source=organic compound)
The role of oxygen in metabolism
Obligate aerobes use oxygen for cellular respiration and cannot grow without it.
Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by oxygen.
Facultative anaerobes use oxygen if it is present, but can also do fermentation or
anaerobic respiration depending on the environment.
Nitrogen metabolism
Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen compounds
that can be used by plants.
Denitrification is going from nitrate nitrite ammonia n2
Nitrosomous ssp convert ammonia into nitrite.
Pseudosomous ssp do denitrification.
Metabolic cooperation
Metabolic cooperation between different prokaryotic species occurs in surfacecoating colonies known as biofilms.
They signal molecules that recruit nearby cells, causing colonies to grow.
They also produce polysaccharides and proteins that stick to the cells of the
substrate and to one another.
Forms the capsule.
(27.4)
Extremophiles live in extreme environments that few other organisms survive there.
Extreme thermophiles thrive in extremely hot environments (hot springs).
At temperatures this high, the cells of the organisms die as their dna are not
in a double helix and many of their proteins denature.
Extreme halophiles live in extremely salty conditions/environments.
Methanogens are methane-generation Archeans.

 Poisoned by o2
Use co2 to oxidize h2, a process that produces both energy and waste.
(27.5)
Ecological interactions
Symbiosis is an ecological relationship in which two species live in close contact
with each other.
The larger organism is known as the host, and the smaller one is known as
the symbiont.
Mutualism is an ecological relationship where the two organisms benefit from each
other.
Commensalism is an ecological relationship in which one species benefits while the
other is not harmed or affected in any way.
Parasitism is an ecological relationship in which a parasite eats the cell contents,
tissues, or body fluids of its host.
Parasites that cause damage are called pathogens, many of which are
prokaryotic.
(27.6)
Human well-being can depend on mutualistic prokaryotes.
Different species live in different portions of the intestines, and they vary in their
ability to process different foods.
Many of the species are mutualists, digesting food that our own intestines cannot
break down.
Exotoxins are proteins secreted by certain bacteria & other organisms.
Endotoxins are part of the plasma membrane (g- bacteria)
Released only when the bacteria die and their cell walls break down.
BIL Exam 3 Chapter 28 Notes
(28.1)
Protists, along with plants, animals, and fungi, are classified as eukaryotes.
Belong to the domain: eukarya
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles, which
make it more complex than prokaryotic cells.

 They also have a well-developed cytoskeleton that extends throughout the

cell and provides structural support that enables eukaryotic cells to have
asymmetric forms as well as change in shape or size as they feed and grow.
Prokaryotic cells lack a well-developed cytoskeleton
Protists are also very diverse in their nutrition.
Some are photoautotrophs and contain chloroplasts.
Others are heterotrophs and absorb organic molecules or digest larger food
molecules.
Others are mixotrophs, which combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic
nutrition.
Some protists can reproduce sexually while others can reproduce asexually. (via
mitosis)
autogeny is the extensive inpocketing of the external plasma membrane formed a
complex internal network of membranes.
Endosymbiosis is a relationship between two species in which one organism lives
inside the cell or cells of the other organism.
Cyanobacteria are gram-negative bacteria that have two cell membranes, an inner
one and an outer one.
Plastids in red algae and green algae are surrounded by two membranes.
Transport proteins in these membranes are homologous to proteins of
cyanobacteria.
- Supports the hypothesis that plastids originated from a cyanobacterial
endosymbiont.
Primary endosymbiosis is when a larger cell engulfs a smaller cell, which takes up
residence to benefit both cells.
Secondary endosymbiosis is when the product of primary endosymbiosis is engulfed
by a larger cell, which takes up residence to benefit both cells.
Red algae and green algae are products of primary endosymbiosis, (underwent
secondary endosymbiosis) meaning they were ingested in the food vacuoles of
heterotrophic eukaryotes and became endosymbionts themselves.
(28.2)
Excavata is a clade that was originally proposed based on the morphological study
of the cytoskeleton.
Diplomonads, parabasalids, and Euglenozoans
Diplomonads: lack plasmids and have highly reduced mitochondria (mitosomes).
Most are found in anaerobic environments. These organelles lack functional

electron transport chains and hence do not use oxygen to extract energy from carbs
and other organic molecules. Many are parasites. Structurally, they have two equal
sized nuclei and multiple flagella.
Parabasalids: also have reduced mitochondria (hydrogenosomes) and no plasmids.
They generate some energy anaerobically, releasing hydrogen gas as a by-product.
It is parasitic and a common example is the T. vaginalis that infects 5 million per
year and feeds on the vagina lining causing infection.
Euglenozoans: include predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs,
mixotrophs and parasites. Main morphological feature that distinguishes them is the
presence of a rod with either a spiral or a crystalline structure inside each of their
flagella.
- Kinetoplastids: have single, large mitochondrion that contains an
organized mass of DNA called kinetoplast. Feed on prokaryotes in
freshwater, marine and moist terrestrial ecosystems, as well as parasitize
animals, plants and other protists. An example would be the trypanosoma
which infects humans and causes sleeping sickness.
- Euglenids: has a pocket at one end of the cell from which one or two
flagella emerge, some are mixotrophs (perform photosynthesis when
sunlight is available and become heterotrophs when there is no sunlight)
others engulf prey through phagocytosis.
Trypanosomes evade immune responses by switching surface proteins.
The surface is coated with millions of copies of a single protein.
The new generation switches them with millions of copies of different
proteins.
These frequent changes prevent the host from developing immunity.
(28.3)
The sar clade is a monophyletic subgroup named for stramenophiles, alveolates,
and rhizarians.
Stramenopiles: includes some of the most important photosynthetic organisms on
the planet. Their name refers to their characteristic flagellum which is paired to
another shorter (smooth) flagellum.
- Diatoms: unicellular algae that have a unique glass-like wall made of
silicon dioxide embedded in an organic matrix. Walls provide protection
from the crushing jaws of predators. Live diatoms can withstand pressures
of up to 1.4 million kg/m^2. They are highly diverse protists and they are
the most abundant photosynthetic organisms.
Diatoms affect the carbon dioxide levels in the world. When these die,
they sink to the floor and the carbon in their bodies remains there for a
long time rather than being released immediately as carbon dioxide.

Golden Algae: results from their yellow and brown carotenoids. The cells of
golden algae are typically biflagellated. They are components of
freshwater and marine plankton. All golden algae are photosynthetic but
some of them are mixotrophs which absorb organic compounds and food
particles through phagocytosis. Most are unicellular but some are colonial.
If environmental conditions are bad, many species from protective cysts
that can make them last for decades.
Brown Algae: these are the largest and most complex algae. All are
multicellular and most are marine. These have plastids. (seaweeds) brown
algae has specialized organs and tissues that resemble plants. (rootlike
holdfast, stemlike stipe, and leaflike blades). However, morphological and
DNA evidence show that these similarities evolved independently from
one another (analogous).
Haptophytes; unicellular algae that produce plated shells (coccoliths) that
presumably protect them from predators.

Alveolates: have membrane-enclosed sacs (alveoli) just under the plasma

membrane. Are abundant in many habitats and include a wide variety of
photosynthetic and heterotrophic protists. These can include flagellates, parasites
and ciliates.
- Dinoflagellates; reinforced by cellulose plates. Two flagella located in
grooves in this armor makes them spin as they move through the waters
of marine and freshwater communities. About half of these are purely
heterotrophic even though they seemed to evolve by secondary
symbiosis. (red tide in which water turns very red is when these are most
abundant).
- ApicomplexA; formerly known as spopzoans, have a modified golgi
apparatus, apicoplast, at the apex of the cell. This structure facilitates
invasion of a host cell. All apicomplexans are intracellular parasites of
animals and are usually host specific.
- > Plasmodium spp. Causes malaria
- > eimeria and isopora spp cause coccidiosis
- > toxoplasma spp causes toxoplasmosis
- > gregarines are parasites of mollusks and annelids
- Ciliophoran; known as ciliates, and are among the most complex of all
protists. They are covered in short flagella called cilia. They have one
small diploid, micronucleus for reproduction only and its genes arent
expressed. They also have a large polyploid macronucleus for regulation
of cell functions. This is produced by the micronucleus and is not passed
on to daughter cells.
Rhizaria; aquatic amoebas that secrete ornate shells, through which highly derived,
threadlike pseudopods emerge. They facilitate movement, may be involved in prey
capture, and also provide buoyancy via greatly increased surface area.

Foraminifera; these make a test (shell) of calcium carbonate found

commonly in warm water than cold water areas.
Radiolarian; these manufacture a test of silica (glass) found commonly in
cold water than fresh water.

(28.4)
Archaeplastida is a monophyletic group that descended from the ancient protist that
engulfed a cyanobacterium. Includes red and green algae.
-

Many red algae contain a photosynthetic pigment called phycoerythrin,

which gives them a reddish color and allows them to carry out
photosynthesis in relatively deep coastal waters. Red algae also have no
flagellated stages in their life cycle and must depend on water currents to
bring gametes together for fertilization.

Unikonta includes several group of protists as well as fungi and Animalia.

-

Ameobozoa; includes slime molds which are eukaryotic organisms that

can live freely as single cells, but aggregate together to form multicellular
reproductive structures.
Choanoflagellates; free-living, single cell and colony forming eukaryotes
ubiquitious in aquatic environments. Swim freely and found globally in
marine, brackish, and freshwater environments.

BIL Exam 3 Chapter 31 Notes

General terms:
1) Mycelium the network of hyphae that is underground to absorb nutrients
and stuff (the entire body of the fungus)
2) Hyphae threadlike structures from which the mycelium is composed
3) Thallus another term for mycelium; body
4) Spore haploid propagule produced via meiosis (spore, bud, etc.)
5) Sporangium structure within which the spores are produced (asexually or
sexually)
Many fungi grow forming multicellular filaments, a body structure that plays a key
role in how they obtain food.
The life cycle of a fungus:
Haploid for most of its cell cycle
Individuals are one of two complementary mating types calls + and
Diploidy is brief, followed by meiosis that gives rise to spores

 All fungi have essentially the same life cycle though the parts look different.
All are absorptive heterotrophs
Secrete enzymes onto their surrounds to absorb nutrients.
Fungi are heterotrophs, meaning that they cant make their own food.
Absorb nutrients from the environment outside their body
^ Many fungi do this by secreting enzymes into their surroundings.
These enzymes break down complex molecules to smaller organic
compounds that fungi can absorb and use.
Other fungi use the enzymes to break down cell walls to be able to absorb
nutrients from them.
Fungi that are decomposers (saprobic fungi or saprobes) break down and absorb
nutrients from dead organic compounds.
Parasitic fungi absorb nutrients from the cell or cells of the living host (living tissue).
Some parasitic fungi are pathogenic (cause diseases)
In parasitic fungi specialized hyphae, haustoria, create a nutrient pathway
between fungus and host cell (exchange, absorb, give, etc. nutrients).
Chitin the main structural support in the cell walls.
The main storage carbohydrate is glycogen.
Mutualistic fungi absorb nutrients from the cell or cells of the host but they
reciprocate with actions that are beneficial to the host.
The most common fungal body structures are multicellular filaments and single cells
(unicellular) = yeasts (usually in liquid or moist environments)
The morphology of multicellular fungi enhances their ability to grow and absorb
nutrients from their surroundings.
Bodies of these fungi typically form a network of tiny filaments called hyphae.
Coenocytic fungi are organisms that consist of a continuous cytoplasmic mass
having hundreds or thousands of nuclei.
Chytridiomycota
-

Retain primitive characters that may produce clues about fungal origins
Most are aquatic (suggesting aquatic origin)
Some are free-living decomposers, parasites of protists, plants, or animals
Like all fungi, they have chitin in their cell wall
One abberant group has cellulose in the cell walls (unique)
They are the only fungi to retain flagellated gametes (zoospores)
The only fungi to have flagella (primitive)

Ascomycota (the sac fungi)

-

The defining feature is the production of spores (ascospores) in sac-like

asci (ascus); thus they are commonly called the sac fungi
Reproduce asexually by producing a large amount of asexual spores called
conidia (conidium)

Basidiomycota
-

Mushrooms, puffballs, or shelf fungi

Decomposers of wood and other plant material
Reproduces sexually by producing Elaborate fruiting body (basidiocarp)
that produce sexual spores (basidiospores)

Glomeromycota
-

Mycorrhiza; relationship with fungus roots

Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza (v.a.m); association between a
glomermycate and a plant.
Ectycorrhizae; association between an asco- or basidiomycete and a
conifer or flowering plant.

Symbiotic fungi
-

Parasitic
Prey
Predatory
Mutualistic

BIL Exam 3 Chapter 32 Notes

Many animals ingest their food, eating either other organisms or nonliving organic
matter.
Animals are multicellular, and their cells lack cell walls.
Most animals have tissues, groups of specialized cells with a common structure and
function.
This includes muscle and nervous systems/tissues which are unique to
animals.
Animals have a characteristic embryonic sequence:
1) The zygote undergoes a series of cell divisions known as cleavages
2) Multiple cleavages result in a primitively (hollow) ball of cells known as a
blastula
3) The blastula undergoes infoldation to produce a gastrula

4) Gastrulation produces 2 germ layers; endoderm and ectoderm

Some of the endoderm can give rise to a third layer; mesoderm
The gastrula undergoes morphogenesis to become a larva.
The larva then undergoes metamorphosis to become an adult.

For some species the process can take place either in the water (primarily the
ocean) or within an egg, or body of the female parent.

All animals have developmental genes, many of which contain dna sequences called
homeoboxes (hox genes)
They regulate gene expression in the embryonic development of most cells.
Wastes:
1) Fish and amphibians do ammonia (highly toxic and need lots of water to
flush) *1 nitrogen*
2) Terrestrial animals (with less access to water) do urea (less toxic and less
water to flush) *2 nitrogen*
3) Reptiles and birds do uric acid (non-toxic and very little water to flush) *4
nitrogen*
An animals set of morphological and developmental traits is often referred to as the
body plan
Sponges (poriferans) have asymmetry.
Organisms that have radial symmetry mean that they have a round or barre-shape
and any slice through its center divides the animal into mirror images.
Organisms that have bilateral symmetry mean that they have a top and bottom
sides, front and back sides, and left and right sides. (ex: bee)
Porifera: the sponges

Choanocytes; collar cells that set up the water current via flagellum
Pinacocytes; form the surface covering (not a true skin)
Porocytes; barrel-shape cells form the incurrent pores
Amoebocytes; roving scavenger cells that participate in feeding and in secreting
skeletal elements called spicules
Spicules can be composed of calcium carbonate, silica, or proteins

Disrupt the cells of a sponge, and it can re-aggregate to form a complete new
sponge.
Three main groups of sponges:

1) Hexactinellida

- Silicon dioxide (glass) spicules form a lattice infrastructure

- A living syncytium is suspended between the spicules
- Some species have an interesting commensal relationship with shrimp
2) Calcarea
- Calcium carbonate spicules
- All species are marine
- Typically, small and pale-covered
- Often asconoid in form
3) Demospongiae
- Spicules may be silica or calcium carbonate
- Network of spongin fibers provides structural support
- Most species are leuconoid in form
- Some species with 100% sponging skeletons are harvested as bath
sponges
Eumetazoa:
Animals with definite shape and symmetry, and mostly have tissues
organized into organs and organ systems
-

Radiata: have radial symmetry and are diploblastic (have to layers:

endoderm and ectoderm)
Bilateria: have bilateral symmetry and are tripoblastic (have a mesoderm
in addition)

The embryonic germ layers will develop into adult tissues:

1) Epithelial tissue; a sheet of cells that covers an internal or external surface.
2) Connective tissues; diverse tissues that serve various binding and structural
functions.
Loose (forms the matrix or organs and soft tissues)
Dense (tendons, ligaments, bone, cartilage)
Body cavities:
Acoelomates; have no body cavities
Psudocoelomates; have a false body cavity called a pseudocoel lined up with the
mesoderm
Coelomate; have a fluid filled body cavity entirely within the mesoderm called a
coelom.
Protostomes
-

Blastopore becomes the mouth

Second opening becomes the anus
Coelom formed via schizocoely (occurs when coelom is formed by splitting
the mesodermal embryonic tissue)
Spiral, determinate cleavage
Circulatory system is dorsal

Nervous system is ventral

Deuterostomes
-

Blastopore becomes the anus

Second opening becomes mouth
Coelom formed via entercoely (occurs when coelom is formed in a
developing embryo)
Radial, indeterminate cleavage
Circulatory system is ventral
Nervous system is dorsal

Metamerism is the phenomenon in which the body of an animal is divided into

anterior-posterior rows of similar parts or sections
Tagmatization is the development fusion of groups of body segments (metameres)
into functionally distinct body regions, or tagmata
Cephalization is the evolution of a definite head and brain area.
Bauplan is body plan or structural plan or design.
BIL Exam 3 Chapter 33 Notes
The Cambrian explosion
-

The Precambrian period was when earth, initially, was inhabited by

prokaryotic organisms
- The Cambrian explosion was when the diversification of many animals
(marine also) suddenly expanded.
From this we can see the evolution of animal phyla from simple, ancestral
forms.
Adaptive radiation is rapid diversification of life forms from a single ancestor.
Fossil evidence doesnt go too far back in time but that doesnt mean that there
werent ancestors back then during the missing time period.
A) Parazoa: sponges are animals that lack tissues, organs, and symmetry. They
are multicellular.
i)
Sponges: colonial, sessile (anchored in place to an object) animals
found mainly in marine waters
ii)
Structure:
1) Choanocytes: specialized flagellated cells which bring in water
through the pores, which bring in oxygen and food and expel
wastes.
2) Amoebocytes: take up food, digest it, and carry nutrients to other
cells. They also produce spicules
B) Raidata: radial symmetrical, diploblastic organisms such as the cnidarians
and ctenophores (comb jellyfish)

i)

Cnidarians: no body cavity, carnivores, and tend to be sessile

(anchored in place to an object) two forms: polyp and medusa
- Cinadrians use their ring of tentacles, armed with cnidocytes to capture
prey. The cnidocytes contain cnidae, which are capsules that can exert
and discharge long threads. Specialized stinging cnidae are called
nematocytes.
ii)
Ctenophores: the comb jellyfish. They are suspension feeders with long
tentacles that drape out into the water to capture microscopic
plankton. Their tissues are colorless and translucent.
Most hydrozoans alternate between an asexually reproducing polyp and sexually
reproducing medusa.
The medusa stage is prevalent in scyphozoans while polyp is reduced.
The polyp stage is dominant in anthozoans (sea anemonies, corals, etc) while
medusa is either absent or reduced.
C) Bilateria: bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic animals with a digestive tract
and a coelom.
i)
Platyhelmithes: tribloblastic acoelomates. Have a branching
gastrovascular cavity, which functions as digestion and distribution of
food. Gas exchange and diffusion of nitrogenous wastes occur across
the body surface.
ii)
Planarians (tubellaria): marine, free-living flatworms. Move using cilia
that can glide on secreted mucus. Reproduce asexually by
regeneration or sexually.
iii)
Trematodes: parasites, have complex life cycle consisting of a sexual or
asexual reproductive stage and have hosts from which larva can
develop.
- The blood flukes are trematodes that use snails as their intermediate
hosts and can cause schistosomiasis in humans.
iv)
Cestoda: tapeworms that consist of a scolex (head) with suckers and
hooks for attaching to the hosts intestinal lining. It also has a ribbon of
proglottids packed with reproductive organs. Can also include
intermediate hosts.
D) Lophophorates: bilateral symmetrical, triboblastic, have true organs and
organ systems and a coelom.
I)
Ectoprocts (bryozoans): tiny, marine free-living animals that live in
colonies and are enclosed by a hard exoskeleton.
II)
Branchipods (lamp shells): attach to the seafloor by a stalk and open
their hinged shell to allow water to flow through the lophophore.
- A lophophore is a crown of ciliated tentacles around the mouth and
functions in feeding.
E) Molluscs: soft-bodied, mostly marine animals protected by a shell.
- Body plan has three parts:
1) A muscular foot used for moving

2) A visceral mass containing internal organs

3) A mantle that encloses the visceral mass and can secrete a shell
A mantle cavity (water-filled chamber) encloses the gills, anus, and
excretory pores.
A rasping radula (mouth) is used for feeding.

Gastropoda: free-living, marine, freshwater, terrestrial animals that have a high

degree of cephalization (forming of a definite head or brain) and are single
shelled.
Bivalvia: marine, free-living animals that have a hinged shell that encloses the
body entirely and their gills are used for feeding and breathing. They are
suspension feeders.
Cephalapoda: intelligent, marine, fast swimming predators. Their camera eye is
analogous to the vertebrate eye and can see complex color images like us.
Polyplacozoa: (chitons) oval marine animals with shells that are divided into 8
dorsal plates. They cling to and creep slowly over rocks, feeding on algae.