NTU Composite Column

Design of Composite Columns
Compression, Bending, Combined compression and bending, Column

buckling curve, Interaction curve between compression and bending
Chiew Sing Ping

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Composite columns
Composite columns often offer significant economic

advantages over either structural steel or reinforced concrete
alternatives.
High load carrying capacities and high flexural rigidities with

smaller sizes at reduced costs.
Excellent inherent fire resistances.
By varying different materials, composite columns with

different axial load and moment resistances but with identical
external dimensions are readily obtained.
This allows the outer dimensions of a column to be held

constant over a number of floors in a building, simplifying
both constructional and architectural details.
Composite Columns with H sections

Bc
B
cX
cX
y
B= Bc
y
cy
x
D
T
Dc
Dc
cy
Partially encased
H section
Fully encased H section
Composite columns with hollow sections

t
y
t
x
In-filled rectangular
hollow section
x
D
In-filled circular
hollow section
x
D
In-filled circular hollow section

with encased H section
Design principles of composite columns

+
In-filled hollow section
Strength assessment
Rcp
Rc
Rs
Rr
(EI)s
(EI)r
Deformation assessment
EIcp
(EI)c
Scope
Design considerations of composite columns.
Steel columns. Basic section capacities. Plastic stress block

method. Worked example. Interaction between compression
and bending in stocky and slender columns.
Mechanics of column buckling , axial buckling resistances in
slender columns, column buckling curves.
Composite columns. Compression and moment capacities.

Interaction between compression and bending in stocky and
slender columns.
Non-linear and simplified interaction curves.
Slenderness vs reduction factor. Comparison among codified

design methods.
6
Main design considerations

Strength assessment
Rcp
Rc
Rs
Rr
How to ensure concrete core, steel section and reinforcement, i.e.

three materials of different sizes and strengths, work together as an integral
member to resist compression and bending ?
How to transfer loads among one another of the three materials ?
How to ensure high local loads are effectively distributed away ?
Deformation assessment
EIcp
(EI)c
(EI)s
(EI)r
How to ensure three materials with different sizes and Youngs modulii to
deform consistently with limited interfacial slippage under compression and
bending ?
Main design considerations
Interfacial shear bond strength from 0.2 to 0.6 N/mm2,

depending on the amount of concrete confinement provided.
Mechanical shear connectors installed wherever needed,

mainly within the load application regions.
Allow for long term effects due to concrete (drying, shrinkage,

creep)
Design of steel and composite columns
Section capacity (stocky column)
Steel
Composite
columns columns
Resistance to compression,
Pc
Pcp
Resistance to moment,
Mc
Mcp
Reduced moment resistance under

compressive force, i.e. interaction between
P & M
compression and bending,
Member resistance (slender column)
Axial buckling resistance,

Pc
Pcp
Pcp & M
Design of steel columns is presented as a reference for the more

complicated design of composite columns
9
Basic capacities
Compression
capacity
Pc = py As
Plastic Stress Block Method
Moment
capacity
Mc = p y S
10
Interaction between compression and

bending
For small axial force with dn d :
Axial force
d
dn
Reduced
moment capacity
M
dn
11
Interaction between compression and

bending
For high axial force with d dn :
Axial force
dn
dn
Reduced
moment capacity
M
12
Worked example on interaction

between compression and bending
UB457x152x57
Section dimensions
B
T
D = 449.8 mm
t = 7.6 mm
r = 10.2 mm
d =DT
B = 152.4 mm
T = 10.9 mm
d = 407.6 mm
= 438.9 mm
13
Reduced moment capacity under axial force
Assume the applied load, P, is to be resisted by the

shaded area, dn x t, i.e.
dn
P = py An
where An = dn t
The axial force ratio, n =
P
=
Pc
dn t
A
The reduced moment capacity, M

dn2 t
Sx
where Sr =
= py Sr
4
Re-writing the expression as follows:
= K1 K2n2 where K1 = Sx
K2=
A2
6664 2
=
4t
4 7 .6
Sx
dn2 t 2 = n 2 A 2
n2 A 2
4t
= 1077 cm3
= 1460.8cm3
As the max. value of dn is 428mm, max. value of n =
428 x 7.6
= 0.488
6664
14
Reduced moment capacity under axial force
P = py An
dn
Assume the applied load, P, is to be resisted by

the shaded area, A (D dn) x B, i.e.
where An = dn t
The axial force ratio, n =

After re-arranging, dn =
The reduced moment capacity, M

B
= S xr = D2 hn2
4
2BD
A2
(n 1)(n 1) +
4B
A
= K 3 (1 n) (K 4 + n)
=
K3 =
A (n 1)
+D
B
B 2 A2
2
2 2AD
(n 1)
D 2 (n - 1) - D 4
B
B
A2
2BD
1 + n
(1 - n)
4B
A
A2
6664 2
2BD
2 x 152.4 x 449.8
=
= 72.85cm 3 & K 4 =
1 =
1
4B
4 x 152.4
A
6664
= 19.57
15
Section capacities of a stocky steel column

Interaction between compression and bending
1.2
UB457 x 152 x 52
Plastic section
analysis
1.0
0.8
M r / Mc
Reduced moment ratio,
Fc
A (D dn )B
=
Pc
A
0.6
0.4
P
M
+
Pc
Mc
Empirical formula
P
M
P + M
c
c
= 1
Linear
reduction
= 1
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Axial force ratio, P / Pc

For the empirical formula, the values of & equal to 1 ~ 3 depending on
types of sections.
16

Steel
Composite
columns columns
Pc
Pcp
Mc
Mcp

P & M

Pc
Pcp
Pcp & M

17
Design of steel columns
Section capacity check

Conservative design for all sections,
P
Pc
M
Mc
More rigorous design for compact and plastic section,

M Mr
where Mr is the reduced plastic moment capacity in the

presence of axial load according to plastic analysis
method.
18
Interaction between compression and bi-axial

bending
Section capacity check

Conservative design for all sections,
My
Mx
F
+
+
Mcy
A py
Mcx
1 (Eq 1)
More rigorous design for

compact and plastic section,
Mx
Mrx
Z1
My
+
Mry
Z2
1 (Eq 2)
19
Member resistance of a slender steel column
Stability is an additional requirement to equilibrium

Axial buckling occurs in slender columns under high
axial compressive forces.
P
P
Equilibrium
Deformed elastic
curve
of the column
P
Alternative equilibrium
but unstable or unfit for use
20
Free body diagram

Consider moment equilibrium, i.e. M = 0
P.v + Mx = 0
Mx
d2v
As Mx = EI 2
dx
2
d v
EI 2 + Pv = 0
dx
Use k2 =
(v 0 after buckling)
d2v P
+ v=0
or
dx 2 EI
P
or
EI
k=
P
EI
d2v
+ k 2v = 0
2
dx
21
From mathematics, the general solution is

v = C1sin kx + C2 cos kx
Consider the boundary condition
As v = 0
at x = 0
C2 = 0
v = C1sin kx
As v = 0
kL = n
sin kL = 0
at x = L
where n = 1, 2, 3
Consider the fundamental mode, i.e. when n = 1
k=
n
or
L
k=
This gives the solution for v

v
x
C1 sin
L
1
424
3
shape
where C1 is undetermined.
Hence, the buckled mode shape is found with an undetermined

magnitude.
22
It should be noted that at the critical buckling state,
P =
L
EI
k=
2 PE
=
L2 EI
where PE is the applied load at buckling, or the Euler buckling load.

2
PE = E
I
L2
Section property
Member length
constant
material property
The Euler buckling load is an elastic value for a perfectly straight

column, and it is necessary to incorporate material yielding and
initial imperfection in practical design.
The structural mechanics is equally applicable to steel columns,
reinforced concrete columns as well as composite columns.
23
For real columns, most modern steel codes adopt the formulation
with member slenderness and buckling strength.
Euler
buckling load
PE =
PE
= pE =
A
=
Elastic buckling
strength
Iy
2E 2
L
Iy 1
2E
A2 L2
ry
2E 2
L
1
2E 2
pE E 1
=
py 2
py
=
Dividing by
yield strength
Y
2
E Iy - flexural rigidity about minor axis

L - member length
as
Iy
A
or 2 E
= ry2
ry - radius of gyration
(L/ry )2
where =
L
ry
- slenderness
[normalization]
where Y =
E
material properties
p y
constant = 85.8 for S275

= 75.5 for S355
24

Adopt the slenderness ratio, =
, the elastic buckling strength
Y
ratio is given by:
geometry
pE
1
=
py
2
1442443
where =
L
= E
r critical
E
Y =
p y
Column buckling curves

1.0
yielding
.. .
.. . . . .
. ... ..
.
o
test
data
o o
o
material
real column
behaviour
elastic buckling
..
1.0
2.0
The curves relate material yielding and elastic buckling in real columns
together with initial imperfection and residual stresses, etc.
25
Axial buckling strength, pc

P Pc
where Pc = pc A
The compressive strength, pc , pf a real column depends on the

slenderness, , of the steel section, the design strength, py , and the
relevant column buckling curves to be selected as follows:
Selection of column buckling curves
Type of section
Axis of buckling
x-x
y-y
Rolled I section
T 40 mm
T > 40 mm
a
b
b
c
Rolled H section
T 40 mm
T > 40 mm
b
c
c
d
Welded I or H section
T 40 mm
T > 40 mm
b
b
c
d
Hot rolled structural hollow section
Welded box section
b
c
b
c
T 40 mm
T > 40 mm
26
Perry-Robertson interaction formula

( pE pc )( py pc ) = pE pc
pc =
pEpy
+ pEpy
2
where =
( BS5950: Part 1 )
p y + (1 + )p E
2
py = design strength
= slenderness
pE =
2E
2
is the Perry factor =

E
py
o = 0.2
a( o )
1000
but > 0
a is the Robertson constant

= 2.0 curve a For different types of
3.5
b sections and axis of
5.5
c buckling after calibration
8.0
d against test data.
27
Column buckling curves

Normalized curves relating c and
yielding
1.0
a
b
real column
behaviour
0.0
0.2
1.0
limiting
stocky column
no buckling
elastic buckling
slender column
elastro-plastic
buckling
2.0
elastic
buckling
28
Effective length coefficient, k

Non-sway mode
Sway mode
Buckled
shape
Design
0.7
0.85
1.0
1.2
2.0
Theoretical
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.0
2.0
29
Effective length coefficient, k

Non-sway mode
Conditions of restraint at ends (in plane under consideration)
Effectively held
in position at
both ends
k
Design
Theoretical
Restrained in direction at both ends
0.7
0.5
Partially restrained in direction at both ends
0.85
Restrained in direction at one end
0.85
0.7
Not restrained in direction at either end
1.0
1.0
Sway mode
One end
Effectively held
in position and
restrained in
direction
Other end
Not held
in
position
k
Design
Theoretical
Effectively restrained in direction
1.2
1.0
Partially restrained in direction
1.5
Not restrained in direction
2.0
2.0
30

Steel
Composite
columns columns
Pc
Pcp
Mcp
& M
Pc

Pcp
Pcp & M

31
Overall buckling check

Simplified approach using linear interaction
F
As pc
Axial buckling
as a column
where
F
Mx , My
pc, py
As
mLT
Mb
Zy
(m LT ) y M y
(m LT ) x M x
+
Mb
py Zy
Lateral buckling
as a beam
Reduction due to
lateral moment
is the applied axial load in the column

are the applied moments about the major and the minor axes
respectively
are the compression and the design yield strengths respectively
is the cross-sectional area
is the equivalent uniform moment factor
is the buckling resistance moment capacity, and
is the elastic section modulus about the minor axis.
32


Steel
Composite
columns columns
M
Pc
Pcp
Mcp
& M

Pc
Pcp
Pcp & M

33
Design of composite columns

Resistance of composite section to compression
Fully encased and partially encased H sections:

Pcp = Ap y + 0.45A c fcu + A s fsd
In-filled rectangular hollow sections:
Pcp = Ap y + 0.53A c fcu + A s fsd

where:
A, Ac and As
are the areas of the steel section, the concrete and the
reinforcements respectively.
py and fsd
py
fsd
are the design strengths of the structural steel section and

the steel reinforcement respectively.
py / a
a
=
=
c
fy / s
s
=
1.0
1.5
1.15
34

Resistance of composite section to bending
Mcp = p y (Sp Spn ) + 0.5 c fcu (Spc Spcn ) + fsd (Sps Spsn )
where:
c
= 0.53 for all in-filled hollow sections

= 0.45 for fully or partially encased H sections
Sp,Sps, Spc
are the plastic section modulii for the steel section, the
reinforcement and the concrete of the composite crosssection respectively (for the calculation of Spc, the
concrete is assumed to be uncracked).
Spn, Spsn, Spcn
are the plastic section modulii of the corresponding

components within the region of 2dn from the middle
line of the composite cross-section.
dn
is the depth of the neutral axis from the middle line of

the cross-section.
35
Interaction curve for compression and bending

In-filled hollow section
36

In-filled hollow section --- Points A and B
Point A
0.53 fcu
py
fsd
-
Point B
Pcp
0.53fcu
py
fsd
dn
+
No moment
Mcp
No axial force
37

In-filled hollow section --- Points C and D
Point C
py
0.53fcu
fsd
-
dn
dn
+
py
0.53fcu
dn
fsd
-
Pc= Ppm
Point D
Mc = Mcp
MD = Mcp,max
PD= Ppm / 2
38

In-filled hollow section --- Point E
Point E
py
0.53fcu
fsd
-
dn
-
dE
dg
ME
PE
39
Design formulae for composite columns

Concrete in-filled hollow sections
Major axis bending
(B 2t )(D 2t )2
2 3
D
r r 2 ( 4 )
t r Sps
4
3
2
Ac c fcu Asn ( 2fsd c fcu )

2B c fcu + 4t ( 2 py c fcu )
Spc
dn
Spcn
(B - 2t) dn2 Spsn
Spn
B dn2 Spcn Spsn
40

41

Fully encased H-section --- Points A and B
Point A
0.45fcu
py
fsd
-
Pcp
No moment
Point B
0.45fcu
py
fsd
-
dn
2dn
dn
Mcp
No axial force
42

Fully encased H-section --- Points C and D
0.45fcu
Point C
py
fsd
0.45fcu
Point D
dn
2dn
dn
py
Ppm
+
fsd
Mcp
Mcp,max
+
+
Ppm/2
43

Fully or partially encased H sections
Sp
are given in section property tables for steel sections
Sps
(A
si
ei )
where
ei are the distances of the reinforcements of area Asi to the relevant middle line,
n
Spsn
(A
sni
eni )
where
Asni
eni
are the area of reinforcements within the region of 2 dn from the middle line,
are the distances of the reinforcements from the middle line.
44

Major axis bending
Spc
Spcn
Bc Dc
4
Sp Sps
Bc d n S pn S psn
T
Neutral axis in the web: d n
2
dn
Ac c fcu Asn ( 2fsd c fcu )

2Bc c fcu + 2t ( 2 p y c fcu )
Spn
t dn2
45


Steel
Composite
columns columns
M
Pc
Pcp
Mcp
Pc
cp
& M
Pcp
& M

46

Axial buckling resistance of slender columns
Effective flexural rigidity
(EI)cp = E I + K e E cm I c + E s I s
Elastic buckling load:
Pcp,cr =
2 (EI )e, 2
L2E
Ke
I, Ic and Is
= 0.8 / 1.35 = 0.6

are the second moment of area of the structural steel section,
the un-cracked concrete section and the reinforcement
respectively for the bending plane being considered.
47
Non-dimensional slenderness ratio
=
Pcp,k
Pcp,k
Pcp,cr
is the characteristic value of the compression capacity
= Ap y + 0.68A c f cu + A s f y
for fully encased and partially encased H sections
= Ap y + 0.8A c f cu + A s f y
for in-filled rectangular hollow sections
t fy
= a Ap y + 0.8A c f cu 1 + c
+ Asf y
d
0.8
f
cu
for in-filled circular hollow sections
48
Reduction factor,
=
1
2
+ 2
0.5
2
= 0.51 + 0.2 +
is the imperfection parameter which allows for different levels of

imperfections in the columns
= 0.21, 0.34 and 0.49 for buckling curves a, b and c respectively
P
Pcp
Pcp, k
Pcp, cr
49


Steel
Composite
columns columns
Pc
Pcp
Mcp
Pc
cp
& M
Pcp
& M

50

1.
P
Pcp
The interaction curve represents the maximum values of

the pair of P and M.
2.
Axial
buckling
resistance
An applied force P will always induce a moment M due

to the presence of initial imperfection, hence, part of the
reserve is used up.
3.
If the applied force, P, is equal to the

axial buckling resistance, there is no
reserve to resist any moment at all.
4.
( d - k ) Mcp.
Applied load
0
5.
If the applied force, P, is

less than the axial buckling
resistance, the moment
reserve is at least equal to
( d - k ) Mcp.
d 1.0
Depending on the shape of the initial imperfection of the

column, it is possible to reduce the induced moment.
M
M cp
51
r : end
moment ratio
Single curvature
Double curvature
52

P
Pcp
5.
Axial
buckling 1.0
resistance
Depending on the shape of the initial imperfection of

the column, it is possible to reduce the induced
moment.
6.
Based on the value of the end

moment ratio, r, the reserve
moment is increased to Mcp .
d
n
Mcp.
Applied load
d 1.0
M
M cp
53

The value n accounts for the influence of the imperfections and that of
the bending moment do not always act together unfavourably.
For columns with only end moments, n may be obtained as follows:
n =
d =
(1 r )
4
P
P cp
P
Pcp
Cross-section
interaction curve
1.0
n
0
d 1.0
M
M cp
54

b)
a)
P
Pcp
P
Pcp
Cross-section
interaction curve
1.0
1.0
Simplified
interaction curve
n
0
d
pm
n
d 1.0
M
M cp
B
1.0
M
M cp
For easy manual calculation, a simplified interaction curve

may be adopted in design.
55

P
(Simplified)
P
cp
1.0
=
( d )(1 n )
(1 pm )( n )
(1 )( d n )
= 1
(1 pm )( n )
when d pm
when d < pm
pm
d
d
pm
n
0
where
Simplified
interaction curve
= axial resistance ratio due to the concrete,

P
= design axial resistance ratio,
P cp
k
Ppm
B
1.0
M
M cp
P cp
= reduction factor due to column buckling

56

The overall stability of a composite column under combined compression
and bending based on first order analysis should be checked as follows:
M
M cp
where
M
Mcp
0 .9
is the design bending moment, which may be factored to follow

for second order effect, if necessary
is the moment resistance ratio after allowing for axial buckling
according to the interaction curve
is the plastic moment resistance of the composite crosssection.
The factor 0.9 is used to allow for errors in adopting the bi-linear
interaction curve when compared with the non-linear
interaction curve.
57

(Simplified)
For encased sections and in-filled rectangular hollow sections
(1 r )
for
for
< 1 .0
1 .0 < 2 .0
For in-filled circular or square hollow sections
(1 r )
for
4
where r is equal to the end moment ratio
2 .0
For simplicity, the expressions may be modified by taking, n = 0

d
d pm
=
when
(1 pm )
= 1
(1 ) d
(1 pm )
when
< pm
58
Design of composite columns to HKSC2005

Step
Activities
Clause
1.1
List composite column specification.
1.2
List the design value of actions.
1.3
List the material properties.
10.5.1(6)
1.4
List the limits of the applicability of the

simplified method.
10.5.3.1
1.5
List the cross-section geometry and the

section properties of the selected
section.
59

Step
Activities
Clause
2.1
Evaluate the plastic resistance of the composite 10.5.3.2

cross-section to compression, Pcp.
2.2
Evaluate the effective elastic flexural stiffness of 10.5.3.3(5)

the composite cross-section for short term
loading, EI, EcIc , EsIs & (EI)e.
2.3
Evaluate the non-dimensional slenderness of

the composite column, Pcp,cr , Pcp , .
10.5.3.3
2.4
Check for long term loading effect.
10.5.3.3(5)
2.5
Evaluate the resistance of the composite

column under axial compression, P < Pcp.
10.5.3.3(2)
2.6
Check for second order effects as necessary.
10.5.3.3
60

Step
Activities
Clause
3.1
Evaluate the moment resistance of the

composite section, Mcp.
10.5.3.4&
10.5.3.5
3.2
Construct the interaction curve between

compression and moment.
3.3
Evaluate various design parameters: pm , d ,

n , and .
3.4
Check adequacy of the composite column

under combined compression and bending:
M 0.9 Mcp
10.5.3.4&
10.5.3.5
61
EC4:1-1 vs BS5400:5
HKSC: 2005
BS5400-5: 2005
Axial compression parameters of composite column

Pcp = A py + 0.53 Ac fcu
+ As fy / m
Nu = 0.91A py + 0.45
Ac fcu
+ 0.87 Ar fry
Material factor of steel
1.0
1.1
Material factor of concrete (infilled rectangular hollow sections)
1.3
1.5
Material factor of
reinforcement
1.15
1.15
Compression capacity
62
EC4:1-1 vs BS5400:5
HKSC: 2005
BS5400-5: 2005
Buckling parameters of composite column

Slenderness - major axis
x= (Pcp,k / Pcp,cr )0.5
x= Le / LE
Slenderness - minor axis
y= (Pcp,k / Pcp,cr
y = Le / LE
Young's modulus of concrete
)0.5
Ec
Ec = 450 fcu
Pcp,k = Apy + 0.8 Ac fcu

+ As fy / m
LE = ((EcIy,c + EsIy+ ErIr)

/ Nu)0.5
Reduction factor for column buckling

- major axis
K1x
Reduction factor for column buckling

- major axis
K1y
Buckling capacities - major axis
x Pcp
Nax = K1x Nu
Bucking capacities -minor axis
y Pcp
Nay = K1y Nu
Values for calculating slenderness
63
HKSC vs BS5400:5
14000
BS5400-5: 1979 ,steel = 1.10
12000
HKSC 2005
,steel = 1.10
HKSC 2005
,steel = 1.0
10000
8000
P (kN)
20 mm
500 mm
300 mm
6000
Infilled rectangular
hollow section
4000
py = 355N/mm2
fcu = 45N/mm2
2000
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
M (kNm)
64
Conclusions (1)
Design of composite columns is rational and comprehensive for

both concrete encased H sections and concrete in-filled hollow
sections.
Both the strength and the deformation assessments should be
performed carefully. The flexural rigidities are essential in
determining the column buckling behaviour of composite
columns.
The plastic stress block method is applicable to both steel and
composite columns. With the same design principles, the
calculation procedure for composite columns is much involved
and complicated.
65
Conclusions (2)
The design methodology for both steel and composite columns

are similar in the following:
Compression capacities
Moment capacities
Interaction between compression and bending in stocky columns
Euler buckling formulation, column buckling curves, and normalized
slenderness and reduction factors.
However, a more rational method in designing composite

columns against combined compression and bending is
adopted.
66

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Design of Composite Columns

Compression, Bending, Combined compression and bending, Column

Chiew Sing Ping

Composite columns often offer significant economic

High load carrying capacities and high flexural rigidities with

Excellent inherent fire resistances.

By varying different materials, composite columns with

This allows the outer dimensions of a column to be held

Composite Columns with H sections

Fully encased H section

Composite columns with hollow sections

In-filled circular hollow section

Design principles of composite columns

Fully encased H section

In-filled hollow section

Design considerations of composite columns.

Steel columns. Basic section capacities. Plastic stress block

Composite columns. Compression and moment capacities.

Slenderness vs reduction factor. Comparison among codified

Main design considerations

How to ensure concrete core, steel section and reinforcement, i.e.

Main design considerations

Interfacial shear bond strength from 0.2 to 0.6 N/mm2,

Mechanical shear connectors installed wherever needed,

Allow for long term effects due to concrete (drying, shrinkage,

Design of steel and composite columns

Section capacity (stocky column)

Reduced moment resistance under

compression and bending,

Member resistance (slender column)

Axial buckling resistance,

Reduced moment resistance under

Design of steel columns is presented as a reference for the more

Plastic Stress Block Method

Interaction between compression and

Plastic Stress Block Method

Interaction between compression and

Plastic Stress Block Method

Worked example on interaction

Reduced moment capacity under axial force

Assume the applied load, P, is to be resisted by the

The axial force ratio, n =

The reduced moment capacity, M

As the max. value of dn is 428mm, max. value of n =

Reduced moment capacity under axial force

Assume the applied load, P, is to be resisted by

The axial force ratio, n =

The reduced moment capacity, M

Section capacities of a stocky steel column

Reduced moment ratio,

Axial force ratio, P / Pc

Design of steel and composite columns

Reduced moment resistance under

compression and bending,

Member resistance (slender column)

Axial buckling resistance,

Reduced moment resistance under

Design of steel columns is presented as a reference for the more

Design of steel columns

Interaction between compression and bending

Section capacity check

More rigorous design for compact and plastic section,

where Mr is the reduced plastic moment capacity in the

Design of steel columns