INTRODUCTION

For many people, the first experience of marine environments is amazement at

the bewildering variety of life in the oceans. Sea anemones and corals, sea stars
and sea urchins, octopuses and squids are just a few marine creatures that we
never encounter on land or in freshwater. Many other creatures are even less
familiar, and it is often difficult for those interested in marine life to learn more
about them.

OBJECTIVES
The aim of this report is to introduce the diversity of life in the seas and to help
newcomers to marine biology recognize the main kinds of marine organisms. The
examples selected, focus on Victoria and southern Australia. The emphasis is on
animals and plants that are commonly seen by divers, snorkelers, beachcombers,
rock prolongers, and by anyone with an interest in marine life.

DISCUSSION
The marine environment is the largest, most important, and yet most mysterious
habitat on our planet. It contains more than 99% of the world's living space;
produces half of its oxygen; plays a critical role in regulating its climate; and
supports a remarkably diverse and exquisitely adapted array of life forms, from
microscopic viruses, bacteria, and plankton to the largest existing animals.

Marine is an adjective for things relating to

the sea or ocean, such as marine biology, marine
ecology and marine geology
In scientific contexts, the term almost always refers
exclusively to saltwater environments

Marine Biology is the scientific study of organisms

in the ocean or other marine or brackfish bodies of
water. Given that in biology
Many phyla, families and genera have some
species that live in the sea and others that live on
land, marine biology classifies species based on
the environment rather than on taxonomy.
Marine biology differs from marine ecology as
marine ecology is focused on how organisms
interact with each other and the environment,
while biology is the study of the organisms
themselves.

Only 29 percent of the Earth's surface is

land. The rest is ocean, home to marine
life. The oceans average nearly four
kilometers in depth and are fringed with
coastlines that run for 360,000
kilometers

Marine geology or geological oceanography is the study of the history and

structure
of
the
ocean
floor.
It
involves
geophysical,
geochemical, sedimentological and paleontological investigations of the ocean
floor and coastal zone. Marine geology has strong ties to physical oceanography.
Marine geological studies were of extreme importance in providing the critical
evidence for sea floor spreading and plate tectonics in the years following World
War II.

Oceanic crust is formed at an oceanic

ridge, while the lithosphere is
subducted back into the
asthenosphere at trenches.

Marine ecosystems are among the largest of

Earth's
aquatic
ecosystems.
They
include
oceans,
salt
marshes,
intertidal
zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangroves, coral reefs,
the deep sea, and the sea floor. They can be
contrasted with freshwater ecosystems, which
have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover
two-thirds of the surface of the Earth. Such places
are considered ecosystems because the plant life
supports the animal life and vice-versa.
Marine ecosystems are very important for the
overall health of both marine and terrestrial
environments. According to the World Resource
Center, coastal habitats alone account for
approximately 1/3 of all marine biological
productivity, and estuarine ecosystems (i.e., salt
marshes, seagrasses, mangrove forests) are among
the most productive regions on the planet. In
addition, other marine ecosystems such as coral
reefs, provide food and shelter to the highest levels
of marine diversity in the world.

Coral reefs form complex marine ecosystems

with tremendous biodiversity.

Here, we can see different types of

starfish, coral reefs and fishes in the
Great Barrier Reef.

Animals
Birds
Birds adapted to living in the marine environment are often called seabirds.
Examples include albatross, penguins, gannets, and auks. Although they spend
most of their lives in the ocean, species such as gulls can often be found
thousands of miles inland.
Fish
Fish anatomy includes a two-chambered heart, operculum, swim
bladder, scales, fins, lips, eyes and secretory cells that produce mucous. Fish
breathe by extracting oxygen from water through their gills. Fins propel and
stabilize the fish in the water. Many fish fall under two major categories
- Elasmobranchii and Teleostei.
A reported 32,700 species of fish have been described more than the combined
total of all other vertebrates. About 60% of fish species are saltwater fish.
Invertebrates
As on land, invertebrates make up a huge portion of all life in the sea. Invertebrate
sea life includes Cnidaria such as jellyfish and sea anemones; Ctenophora; sea
worms
including
the phyla Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, Annelida, Sipuncula, Echiura, Chaetognat
ha,
andPhoronida; Mollusca including shellfish, squid, octopus; Arthropoda including
Chelicerata and Crustacea; Porifera; Bryozoa;Echinodermata including starfish;
and Urochordata including sea squirts or tunicates.

Mammals
There are five main types of marine mammals.

Cetaceans include toothed whales (Suborder Odontoceti), such as the Sperm

Whale, dolphins, and porpoises such as the Dall's porpoise. Cetaceans also
include baleen whales (Suborder Mysticeti), such as the Gray
Whale, Humpback Whale, and Blue Whale.
Sirenians include manatees, the Dugong, and the extinct Steller's Sea Cow.
Seals (Family Phocidae), sea lions (Family Otariidae - which also include the fur
seals), and the Walrus (Family Odobenidae) are all considered pinnipeds.
The Sea Otter is a member of the Family Mustelidae, which
includes weasels and badgers.
The Polar Bear (Family Ursidae) is sometimes considered a marine mammal
because of its dependence on the sea.

Reptiles
Reptiles which inhabit or frequent the sea include sea turtles, sea snakes, terrapins,
the marine iguana, and the saltwater crocodile. Mostextant marine reptiles,
except for some sea snakes, are oviparous and need to return to land to lay their
eggs. Thus most species, excepting sea turtles, spend most of their lives on or near
land rather than in the ocean. Despite their marine adaptations, most sea snakes
prefer shallow waters nearby land, around islands, especially waters that are
somewhat sheltered, as well as near estuaries. Some extinct marine reptiles, such
as ichthyosaurs, evolved to be viviparous and had no requirement to return to
land.

Fungi
Over 1500 species of fungi are known from marine environments. These
parasitize marine algae or animals, or are saprobes on algae, corals, protozoan
cysts, sea grasses, wood and other substrata, and can also be found in sea foam.
Spores of many species have special appendages which facilitate attachment
to the substratum. A very diverse range of unusual secondary metabolites is
produced by marine fungi.

Plants and Algae

Microscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes
acting as hiding and foraging places for larval forms of larger fish and
invertebrates.
Algal life is widespread and very diverse under the ocean. Microscopic
photosynthetic algae contribute a larger proportion of the world's photosynthetic
output than all the terrestrial forests combined. Most of the niche occupied by
sub plants on land is actually occupied by macroscopic algae in the ocean, such
as Sargassum and kelp, which are commonly known as seaweeds that
creates kelp forests.
Plants that survive in the sea are often found in shallow waters, such as
the seagrasses (examples of which are eelgrass, Zostera, and turtle
grass, Thalassia). These plants have adapted to the high salinity of the ocean
environment. The intertidal zone is also a good place to find plant life in the sea,
where mangroves or cordgrass or beach grassmight grow. Microscopic algae
and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding and
foraging places for larval forms of larger fish and invertebrates.

Microscopic life
Microscopic life undersea is incredibly diverse and still poorly understood. For
example, the role of viruses in marine ecosystems is barely being explored even
in the beginning of the 21st century.
The role of phytoplankton is better understood due to their critical position as the
most numerous primary producers on Earth. Phytoplankton are categorized
into cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae/bacteria), various types
of
algae
(red,
green,
brown,
and
yellowgreen), diatoms, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, coccolithophorids, cryptomonads,
chrysophytes, chlorophytes, prasinophytes, andsilicoflagellates.
Zooplankton tend to be somewhat larger, and not all are microscopic.
Many
Protozoa
are
zooplankton,
including
dinoflagellates,zooflagellates, foraminiferans, and radiolarians. Some of these

(such as dinoflagellates) are also phytoplankton; the distinction between plants

and animals often breaks down in very small organisms. Other zooplankton
include cnidarians, ctenophores, chaetognaths,molluscs, arthropods, urochorda
tes, and annelids such as polychaetes. Many larger animals begin their life as
zooplankton before they become large enough to take their familiar forms. Two
examples are fish larvae and sea stars (also called starfish).

Marine habitats
Marine habitats can be divided into coastal and open ocean habitats. Coastal
habitats are found in the area that extends from the shoreline to the edge of
the continental shelf. Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though
the shelf area occupies only seven percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean
habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf
Alternatively, marine habitats can be divided into pelagic and demersal habitats.
Pelagic habitats are found near the surface or in the open water column, away
from the bottom of the ocean. Demersal habitats are near or on the bottom of
the ocean. An organism living in a pelagic habitat is said to be a pelagic
organism, as in pelagic fish. Similarly, an organism living in a demersal habitat is
said to be a demersal organism, as in demersal fish. Pelagic habitats are
intrinsically shifting and ephemeral, depending on what ocean currents are
doing.
Marine habitats can be modified by their inhabitants. Some marine organisms,
like corals, kelp and seagrasses, are ecosystem engineers which reshape the
marine environment to the point where they create further habitat for other
organisms.

Intertidal and shore

Intertidal zones, those areas close to shore, are constantly being exposed and
covered by the ocean's tides. A huge array of life lives within this zone.
Shore habitats span from the upper intertidal zones to the area where land
vegetation takes prominence. It can be underwater anywhere from daily to very
infrequently. Many species here are scavengers, living off of sea life that is washed
up on the shore. Many land animals also make much use of the shore and
intertidal habitats. A subgroup of organisms in this habitat bores and grinds
exposed rock through the process of bioerosion.

Reefs
Reefs comprise some of the densest and most diverse habitats in the world. The
best-known types of reefs are tropical coral reefswhich exist in most tropical
waters; however, reefs can also exist in cold water. Reefs are built up
by corals and other calcium-depositing animals, usually on top of a rocky outcrop
on the ocean floor. Reefs can also grow on other surfaces, which has made it
possible to create artificial reefs. Coral reefs also support a huge community of
life, including the corals themselves, their symbioticzooxanthellae, tropical fish
and many other organisms.
Much attention in marine biology is focused on coral reefs and the El
Nio weather phenomenon. In 1998, coral reefs experienced the most severe
mass bleaching events on record, when vast expanses of reefs across the world
died because sea surface temperatures rose well above normal. Some reefs are
recovering, but scientists say that between 50% and 70% of the world's coral reefs
are now endangered and predict that global warming could exacerbate this
trend.

Open Ocean
The open ocean is relatively unproductive because of a lack of nutrients, yet
because it is so vast, in total it produces the most primary productivity. Much of
the aphotic zone's energy is supplied by the open ocean in the form of detritus.
Deep sea and trenches
The deepest recorded oceanic trench measured to date is the Mariana Trench,
near the Philippines, in the Pacific Ocean at 10,924 m (35,840 ft). At such
depths, water pressure is extreme and there is no sunlight, but some life still exists.
A white flatfish, a shrimp and a jellyfish were seen by the American crew of
the bathyscaphe Trieste when it dove to the bottom in 1960.[29]

Other notable oceanic trenches include Monterey Canyon, in the eastern Pacific,
the Tonga Trench in the southwest at 10,882 m (35,702 ft), the Philippine Trench,
the Puerto Rico Trench at 8,605 m (28,232 ft), the Romanche Trench at 7,760 m
(25,460 ft), Fram Basin in the Arctic Ocean at 4,665 m (15,305 ft), the Java
Trench at 7,450 m (24,440 ft), and the South Sandwich Trench at 7,235 m (23,737 ft).
In general, the deep sea is considered to start at the aphotic zone, the point
where sunlight loses its power of transference through the water. Many life forms
that live at these depths have the ability to create their own light known as bioluminescence.
Marine life also flourishes around seamounts that rise from the depths, where fish
and other sea life congregate to spawn and feed. Hydrothermal vents along
the mid-ocean ridge spreading centers act as oases, as do their opposites, cold
seeps. Such places support unique biomes and many new microbes and other
lifeforms have been discovered at these locations.

Distribution factors
An active research topic in marine biology is to discover and map the life
cycles of various species and where they spend their time. Technologies that aid
in this discovery include pop-up satellite archival tags, acoustic tags, and a
variety of other data loggers. Marine biologists study how the ocean
currents, tides and many other oceanic factors affect ocean life forms, including
their growth, distribution and well-being. This has only recently become
technically feasible with advances in GPS and newer underwater visual devices.
Most ocean life breeds in specific places, nests or not in others, spends time as
juveniles in still others, and in maturity in yet others. Scientists know little about
where many species spend different parts of their life cycles especially in the
infant and juvenile years. For example, it is still largely unknown where juvenile sea
turtles and some year-1sharks travel. Recent advances in underwater tracking
devices are illuminating what we know about marine organisms that live at great
Ocean depths.[30] The information thatpop-up satellite archival tags give aids in
certain time of the year fishing closures and development of a marine protected
area. This data is important to both scientists and fishermen because they are
discovering that by restricting commercial fishing in one small area they can have
a large impact in maintaining a healthy fish population in a much larger area.

Marine pollution
While marine pollution can be obvious, as
with the marine debris shown above, it is often
the pollutants that cannot be seen that cause
most harm.
Marine pollution occurs when harmful, or
potentially harmful, effects result from the entry
into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial,
agricultural and residential waste, noise, or the
spread of invasive organisms. Most sources of
marine pollution are land based. The pollution
often comes from nonpoint sources such as
agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris and
dust. Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution,
refers to contamination by excessive inputs of
nutrients.
Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere
to tiny particles which are then taken up
by plankton and benthos animals, most of which
are either deposit or filter feeders. In this way, the
toxins are concentrated upward within
ocean food chains. Many particles combine
chemically in a manner highly depletive
of oxygen, causing estuaries to become anoxic.
When pesticides are incorporated into
the marine ecosystem, they quickly become
absorbed into marine food webs. Once in the
food webs, these pesticides can cause
mutations, as well as diseases, which can be
harmful to humans as well as the entire food
web.

History
Although marine pollution has a long history, significant international laws
to counter it were only enacted in the twentieth century. Marine pollution was a
concern during several United Nations Conferences on the Law of the Sea
beginning in the 1950s. Most scientists believed that the oceans were so vast that
they had unlimited ability to dilute, and thus render pollution harmless.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, there were several controversies about
dumping radioactive waste off the coasts of the United States by companies
licensed by the Atomic Energy Commission, into the Irish Sea from the British
reprocessing facility at Windscale, and into the Mediterranean Sea by the
French Commissariat l'Energie Atomique. After the Mediterranean Sea
controversy, for example, Jacques Cousteau became a worldwide figure in the
campaign to stop marine pollution. Marine pollution made further international
headlines after the 1967 crash of the oil tanker Torrey Canyon, and after the
1969 Santa Barbara oil spill off the coast of California.
Marine pollution was a major area of discussion during the 1972 United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm. That year also
saw the signing of the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by
Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, sometimes called the London Convention.
The London Convention did not ban marine pollution, but it established black and
gray lists for substances to be banned (black) or regulated by national authorities
(gray). Cyanide and high-level radioactive waste, for example, were put on the
black list. The London Convention applied only to waste dumped from ships, and
thus did nothing to regulate waste discharged as liquids from pipelines.[1]

Pathways of pollution
There are many different ways to categorize, and
examine the inputs of pollution into our marine
ecosystems. Patin (n.d.) notes that generally there are
three main types of inputs of pollution into the ocean:
direct discharge of waste into the oceans, runoff into the
waters due to rain, and pollutants that are released from
the atmosphere.
Pollution
is
often
classed
as
point
source or nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution
occurs when there is a single, identifiable, and localized
source of the pollution. An example is directly discharging
sewage and industrial waste into the ocean.

Direct discharge
Pollutants enter rivers and the sea directly from
urban sewerage and industrial waste discharges,
sometimes in the form of hazardous and toxic wastes.
Inland mining for copper, gold. etc., is another source of
marine pollution. Most of the pollution is simply soil, which
ends up in rivers flowing to the sea. However, some
minerals discharged in the course of the mining can
cause problems, such as copper, a common industrial
pollutant, which can interfere with the life history and
development of coral polyps.[3] Mining has a poor
environmental track record. For example, according to
the United States Environmental Protection Agency,
mining has contaminated portions of the headwaters of
over 40% of watersheds in the western continental
US. Much of this pollution finishes up in the sea.
Land runoff
Surface runoff from farming, as well as urban runoff and runoff from the
construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels, and harbours, can carry soil
and particles laden with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals. This nutrientrich water can cause fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas;
known as algal blooms, which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions by
using all available oxygen.
Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water
pollution in coastal areas. About 75% of the toxic chemicals that flow into Puget
Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads and driveways,
rooftops, yards and other developed land.

Ship pollution
A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side.
Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many
ways. Oil spills can have devastating effects. While being
toxic
to
marine
life,
polycyclic
aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), found in crude oil, are very difficult
to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine
environment.[6]
Oil spills are probably the most emotive of marine pollution
events. However, while a tanker wreck may result in
extensive newspaper headlines, much of the oil in the
worlds seas comes from other smaller sources, such as
tankers discharging ballast water from oil tanks used on
return ships, leaking pipelines or engine oil disposed of
down sewers.
Atmospheric pollution
Graph linking atmospheric dust to various coral deaths
across theCaribbean Sea and Florida
Climate change is raising ocean temperatures[17] and
raising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These
rising levels of carbon dioxide are acidifying the
oceans. This, in turn, is altering aquatic ecosystems and
modifying fish distributions, with impacts on the
sustainability of fisheries and the livelihoods of the
communities that depend on them. Healthy ocean
ecosystems are also important for the mitigation of
climate change.
Deep sea mining
Deep sea mining is a relatively new mineral retrieval process that takes place on
the ocean floor. Ocean mining sites are usually around large areas of polymetallic
nodules or active and extinct hydrothermal vents at about 1,400 3,700 meters
below the oceans surface. The vents create sulfide deposits, which
contain precious metals such as silver, gold, copper, manganese, cobalt,
and zinc. The deposits are mined using either hydraulic pumps or bucket systems
that take ore to the surface to be processed. As with all mining operations, deep
sea mining raises questions about environmental damages to the surrounding
areas

Types of pollution
Acidification
Island with fringing reef in the Maldives. Coral
reefs are dying around the world.
The oceans are normally a natural carbon sink,
absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Because the levels of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
are
increasing,
the
oceans
are
becoming more acidic. The potential consequences
of ocean acidification are not fully understood, but
there are concerns that structures made of calcium
carbonate may become vulnerable to dissolution,
affecting corals and the ability of shellfish to form
shells.
Eutrophication
Effect of eutrophication on marinebenthic life
Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients,
typically
compounds
containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. It
can result in an increase in the ecosystem's primary
productivity (excessive plant growth and decay), and
further effects including lack of oxygen and severe
reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal
populations.
The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean,
and with it the many chemicals used as fertilizers in
agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans.
An excess of oxygen depleting chemicals in the water
can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.[2]

Plastic debris
Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish
which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Eighty
percent of marine debris is plastic a component that
has been rapidly accumulating since the end of
World War II. The mass of plastic in the oceans may be
as high as one hundred million metric tons.
Discarded plastic bags, six pack rings and other forms
of plastic waste which finish up in the ocean present
dangers to wildlife and fisheries. Aquatic life can be
threatened through entanglement, suffocation, and
ingestion. Fishing nets, usually made of plastic, can be
left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Known as ghost
nets,
these
entangle
fish,
dolphins,
sea
turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs,
and other creatures, restricting movement, causing
starvation, laceration and infection, and, in those that
need to return to the surface to breathe, suffocation.
Toxins
Apart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxins that do not
disintegrate rapidly in the marine environment. Examples of persistent
toxins are PCBs, DDT, TBT,pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols and radioactive
waste. Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively high
density and are toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Examples
are mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic and cadmium. Such toxins can accumulate in
the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process calledbioaccumulation.
They are also known to accumulate in benthic environments, such
as estuaries and bay muds: a geological record of human activities of the last
century.

Specific examples

Chinese and Russian industrial pollution such as phenols and heavy metals in
the Amur River have devastated fish stocks and damaged its estuary soil.[68]

Wabamun Lake in Alberta, Canada, once the best whitefish lake in the area,
now has unacceptable levels of heavy metals in its sediment and fish.

Acute and chronic pollution events have been shown to impact southern
California kelp forests, though the intensity of the impact seems to depend on
both the nature of the contaminants and duration of exposure.[69][70][71][72][73]

Due
to
their
high
position
in
the
food
chain
and
the
subsequent accumulation of heavy metals from their diet, mercury levels can
be high in larger species such as bluefin andalbacore. As a result, in March
2004 the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant
women, nursing mothers and children limit their intake of tuna and other types
of predatory fish.[74]

Some shellfish and crabs can survive polluted environments, accumulating

heavy metals or toxins in their tissues. For example, mitten crabs have a
remarkable ability to survive in highly modified aquatic habitats, including
polluted waters.[75] The farming and harvesting of such species needs careful
management if they are to be used as a food.[76][77]

Surface runoff of pesticides can alter the gender of fish species genetically,
transforming male into female fish.[78]

Heavy metals enter the environment through oil spills such as the Prestige oil
spill on the Galician coast or from other natural or anthropogenic sources.[79]

In 2005, the 'Ndrangheta, an Italian mafia syndicate, was accused of sinking

at least 30 ships loaded with toxic waste, much of it radioactive. This has led
to widespread investigations into radioactive-waste disposal rackets.[80]

Since the end of World War II, various nations, including the Soviet Union, the
United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany, have disposed of chemical
weapons in theBaltic Sea, raising concerns of environmental contamination.

Underwater noise
Marine life can be susceptible to noise or the sound pollution from sources such
as passing ships, oil exploration seismic surveys, and naval low-frequency
active sonar. Sound travels more rapidly and over larger distances in the sea than
in the atmosphere. Marine animals, such as cetaceans, often have weak
eyesight, and live in a world largely defined by acoustic information. This applies
also to many deeper sea fish, who live in a world of darkness.[83] Between 1950
and 1975, ambient noise in the ocean increased by about ten decibels (that is a
tenfold increase).
Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called the Lombard
vocal response. Whale songs are longer when submarine-detectors are on.[86] If
creatures don't "speak" loud enough, their voice can be masked
by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of
prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking louder,
it will mask other species voices, causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak
louder.
According to the oceanographer Sylvia Earle, "Undersea noise pollution is like the
death of a thousand cuts. Each sound in itself may not be a matter of critical
concern, but taken all together, the noise from shipping, seismic surveys, and
military activity is creating a totally different environment than existed even 50
years ago. That high level of noise is bound to have a hard, sweeping impact on
life in the sea."

Adaptation and mitigation

Much anthropogenic pollution ends up in the ocean. The
2011 edition of the Program Year Book identifies as the
main emerging environmental issues the loss to the oceans
of massive amounts of phosphorus, "a valuable fertilizer
needed to feed a growing global population", and the
impact billions of pieces of plastic waste are having
globally on the health of marine environments.[89] Bjorn
Jennssen (2003) notes in his article, Anthropogenic
pollution may reduce biodiversity and productivity of
marine ecosystems, resulting in reduction and depletion of
human marine food resources.[90] There are two ways the
overall level of this pollution can be mitigated: either the
human population is reduced, or a way is found to reduce
the ecological footprint left behind by the average
human.

CONCLUSION
The global ocean is teeming with undiscovered species and resources in vast
under-explored areas. Yet even as our dependence on healthy, functioning
marine ecosystems grows, our knowledge about the ocean and its role in
keeping Earths systems in balance remains constrained. Given the importance
of the global ocean in guaranteeing food security, providing resources,
enabling worldwide commerce, and reminding us of our history, it is shocking
that we still know so little about the ocean and the life it supports.
While steady progress in understanding of the ocean has been made
possible by traditional hypothesis-driven research, a new program of exploration
will permit us to make quantum leaps in new discoveries. A well-organized,
adequately funded program in ocean exploration will allow us to plumb the
depths of Earths last frontier and provide the foundation for better
understanding, and better stewardship, of Earths ocean.
Well, now that we know how important each animal is, we all need to be
careful to protect them. It is not easy being something else, so put yourself in
their shoes. You all did a great job of presenting who you were, and gathering
all the information to survive. If you would like more information about yourself
or someone else in the class, let me know and we can work on it together.