Sociology Chapter Summary 7-10

Chapter 7:
What is social stratification? Social stratification refers to a hierarchy of privilege based on
property, power, and prestige. Every society stratifies its members, and in every society, men-as-agroup are placed above women-as-a-group.
What are four major systems of social stratification? Four major stratification systems are
slavery, caste, estate, and class. The essential characteristic of slavery is that some people own other
people. Initially, slavery was based not on race but on debt, punishment for crime, or defeat in battle.
Slavery could be temporary or permanent and was not necessarily passed on to the children. North
American slavery was gradually buttressed by a racist ideology. In a caste system, peoples status,
which is lifelong, is determined by their castes relation to other castes. The estate system of feudal
Europe consisted of three estates: the nobility, clergy, and peasants (serfs). A class system is much
more open than these other systems, since it is based primarily on money or material possessions.
Industrialization encourages the formation of class systems. Gender cuts across all forms of social
stratification.
What determines social class? Karl Marx argues that a single factor determines social class: If you
own the means of production, you belong to the bourgeoisie; if you do not, you are one of the
proletariat. Max Weber argued that three elements determine social class: property, power, and
prestige.
Why is social stratification universal? To explain why stratification is universal, functionalists
Kingsley Davis and Wilber Moore argued that to attract the most capable people to fill its important
positions, society must offer them greater rewards. Melvin Tumin said that if this view were correct,
society would be a meritocracy, with positions awarded on the basis of merit. Gaetano Mosca argued
that stratification is inevitable because every society must have leadership, which by definition means
inequality. Conflict theorists argue that stratification is the outcome of an elite emerging as groups
struggle for limited resources. Gerhard Lenski suggested a synthesis between the functionalist and
conflict perspectives.

How do elites maintain stratification? To maintain social stratification within a nation, the ruling
class adopts an ideology that justifies its current arrangements. It also controls information and uses
technology. When all else fails, it turns to brute force.
What are key characteristics of stratification systems in other nations? The most striking
features of the British class system are speech and education. IN Britain, accent reveals social class,
and almost all of the elite attend private schools. In the former Soviet Union, communism was
supposed to abolish class distinctions. Instead, it ushered in a different set of classes.
How are the worlds nations stratified? The model presented here divides the worlds nations into
three groups: the most industrialized, the Industrializing, and the Least Industrialized. This layering
represents relative property, power, and prestige. The oil-rich nations are an exception.
How did the worlds nations become stratified? The main theories that seek to account for global
stratification are colonialism, world system, theory, and the culture of poverty.
How do elites maintain global stratification? There are two basic explanations for why the worlds
countries remain stratified. Neocolonialism is the ongoing dominance of the Least Industrialized
Nations by the Most Industrialized Nations. The second explanation points to the influence of
multinational corporations. The new technology gives further advantage to the Most Industrialized
Nations.
What strains are showing up in global stratification? All stratification systems have
contradictions that threaten to erupt, forcing the system to change. Currently, capitalism is in crisis,
and we seem to be experiencing a global shift in economic (and, ultimately, political) power from the
West to the East.

Chapter 8:
What is meant by the term social class? Most sociologists have adopted Webers definition of
social class: a large group of people who rank closely to one another in terms of property (wealth),
power, and prestige. Wealth- consisting of the value of property and income- is concentrated in the
upper classes. From the 1930s to the 1970s, the trend in the distribution of wealth in the United
States was toward greater equality. Since that time, it has been toward greater inequality. Power is the
ability to get your way even though others resists. C. Wright Mills coined the term power elite to refer

to the small group that holds the reins of power in business, government, and the military. Prestige is
linked to occupational status.
How does occupational prestige differ around the world? From country to country, people rank
occupational prestige similarly. Globally, the occupations that bring greater prestige are those that pay
more, require more education and abstract thought, and offer greater independence.
What is meant by the term status inconsistency? Status is social position. Most people are status
consistent; that is, they rank high or low on all three dimensions of social class. People who rank
highger on some dimensions than on others are status inconsistent. The frustrations of status
inconsistency tned to produce political radicalism.
What models are used to portray the social classes? Erik wright developed a four-class model
based on Marx: (1) capitalists (owners of large businesses), (2) petty bourgeoisie (small business
owners), (3) managers, and (4) workers. Kahl and Gilbert developed a six-class model based on Weber.
At the top is the capitalist class. In descending order are the upper middle class, the lower middle
class, the working class, the working poor, and the underclass.
How does social class affect peoples lives? Social class leaves no aspect of life untouched. It
affects our chances of dying early, becoming ill, receiving good health care, and getting divorced.
Social class membership also affects child rearing, educational attainment, and religious affiliation,
political participation, the crimes people commit, and their contact with the criminal justice system.
What are three types of social mobility? The term intergenerational mobility refers to changes in
social class from one generation to the next. Structural mobility refers to changes in society that lead
large numbers of people to change their social class. Exchange mobility is the movement of large
numbers of people from one social class to another, with the net result that the relative proportions of
the population in the classes remain about the same.
Who are the poor? Poverty is unequally distributed in the United States. Racial-ethnic minorities
(expect Asian Americans), children, household headed by women, and rural Americans are more likely
than others to be poor. The poverty line, although it has serious consequences, is arbitrary. The
poverty rate of the elderly is less than that of the general population.

Why are people poor? Some social analysts believe that characteristics of individuals cause poverty.
Sociologists, in contrast, stress the structural features of society, such as employment opportunities, to
find the causes of poverty. There also are poverty triggers. Sociologists generally conclude that life
orientations are a consequence, not the cause, of peoples position in the social class structure.
How is the Horatio Alger myth functional for society? The Horatio Alger myth- the belief that
anyone can get ahead if only he or she tries hard enough- encourages people to strive to get ahead. It
also deflects blame for failure from society to the individual.

Chapter 9:
How is race both a reality and a myth? In the sense that different groups inherit distinctive
physical traits, race is a reality. There is no agreement regarding what constitutes a particular race,
however, or even how many races there are in the sense of one race being superior to another and of
there being pure races, race is a myth. The idea of race is powerful, shaping basic relationships among
people.
How do race and ethnicity differ? Race refers to inherited biological characteristics, ethnicity to
cultural ones. Members of ethnic groups identify with one another on the basis of common ancestry
and cultural heritage.
What are minority and dominant groups? Minority groups are people who are singled out for
unequal treatment by members of the dominant group, the group with more power and privilege.
Minorities originate with migration or the expansion of political boundaries.
What heightens ethnic identity, and what is ethnic work? A groups ethnic identity is
heightened or reduced by its relative size, power, and physical characteristics, as well as the amount
of discrimination it faces. Ethnic work is the process of constructing and maintaining an ethnic identity.
For people without a firm ethnic identity, ethnic work is an attempt to recover their ethnic heritage. For
those with strong ties to their culture of origin, ethnic work involves enhancing group distinctions.
Why are people prejudiced? Prejudice is an attitude, and discrimination is an action. Like other
attitudes, prejudice is learned in association with others. Prejudice is so extensive that people can
show prejudice against groups that dont even exist. Minorities also internalize the dominant norms,
and some show prejudice against their own group.

How do individual and institutional discrimination differ? Individual discrimination is the

negative treatment of one person by another, while institutional discrimination is negative treatment
that is built into social institutions. Institutional discrimination can occur without the awareness of
either those who do the discriminating or those who are discriminated against. Discrimination in health
care is one example.
How do psychologists explain prejudice? Psychological theories of prejudice stress the
authoritarian personality frustration displaced toward scapegoats.
How do sociologists explain prejudice? Sociological theories focus on how different social
environments increase or decrease prejudice. Functionalists stress the benefits and costs that come
from discrimination. Conflict theorists look at how the groups in power exploit racial-ethnic divisions in
order to control workers and maintain power. Symbolic interactionists stress how labels create
selective perception and self-fulfilling prophecies.
What are the major patterns of minority and dominant group relations? Beginning with the
least humane, they are genocide, population transfer, internal colonialism segregation, assimilation,
and multiculturalism (pluralism).
What are the major racial-ethnic groups in the United States? From largest to smallest, the
major groups are European Americans, Latinos, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Native
Americans.
What are some issues in racial ethnic relations and characteristics of minority groups?
Latinos are divided by social class and country of origin. African Americans are increasingly divided
into middle and lower classes, with two sharply contrasting worlds of experience. On many measures,
Asian Americans are better off than white Americans, but their well-being varies with country of origin.
For Native Americans, the primary issues are poverty, nationhood, and settling treaty obligations. The
overarching issue for minorities is overcoming discrimination.
What main issues dominate U.S. racial-ethnic relations? The main issues are immigration,
affirmative action, and how to develop a true multicultural society. The answers are significant for our
future.

Chapter 10:

What is gender stratification? The tern gender stratification refers to unequal access to property,
power, and prestige on the basis of sex. Each society establishes a structure that, on the basis of sex
and gender, opens and closes doors to its privileges.
How do sex and gender differ? Sex refers to biological distinctions between males and females. It
consists of both primary and secondary sex characteristics. Gender, in contrast, is what a society
considers proper behaviors and attitudes for its male and female members. Sex physically
distinguishes males from females; gender refers to what people call masculine and feminine.
Why do the behaviors of males and females differ? The nature versus nurture debate refers to
whether differences in the behaviors of males and females are caused by inherited (biological) or
learned (cultural) characteristics. Almost all sociologists take the side of nurture. In recent years,
however, sociologists have begun to cautiously open the door to biology.
How do females become a minority group? Patriarchy, or male dominance, appears to be
universal. The origin of discrimination against females is lost in history, but the primary theory of how
females became a minority group in their own societies focuses on the physical limitations imposed by
childbirth.
What are some forms of global violence against females? The major forms discussed are honor
killing and female circumcision.
Is the feminist movement new? In what is called the first wave, feminists made political demands
for change in the early 1900s- and were met with hostility, and even violence. The second wave
began in the 1960s and continues today. A third wave has emerged.
What forms do gender inequality in health care and education take? Physicians dont take
womens health complaints as seriously as those of men, and they exploit womens fears, performing
unnecessary hysterectomies. More women than men attend college. Some majors are categorized as
feminine or masculine.
How does gender inequality show up in the workplace? All occupations show a gender gap in
pay. For college graduates, the lifetime pay gap runs over a million dollars in for of men. Women often
confront a glass ceiling. Sexual harassment also continues to be a reality of the workplace.

What is the relationship between gender and violence? Overwhelmingly, the victims of rape,
murder, and spouse abuse are females. Conflict theorists point out that men use violence to maintain
their power and privilege.
What is the trend in gender inequality in politics? Women continue to be underrepresented in
politics, but the trend toward greater political equality is firmly in place.
How are the elderly treated around the world, and why are there more elderly? There is no
single set of attitudes, beliefs, or policies regarding the aged. Rather, they vary around the world,
ranging from exclusion and killing to integration and honor. Industrialization, bringing more resources,
has created a global trend for more people to live longer.
What does the social construction of aging mean? Nothing in the nature of aging produces any
particular set of attitudes. Rather, attitudes toward the elderly are rooted in society and differ from one
social group to another.
How is retirement functional for society? Functionalists focus on how the withdrawal of the elderly
from positions of responsibility benefits society. Disengagement theory examines retirement as a
device for ensuring that a societys positions of responsibility will be passed smoothly from one
generation to the next. Activity theory examines how people adjust when they retire. Continuity theory
focuses on how people adjust to growing old by maintaining their roles and coping techniques.
Is there conflict among different age groups? Social Security legislation is an example of one
generation making demands on another generation for limited resources. As the number of retired
people grows, there are relatively fewer workers to support them. Health care cost of the aged are
soaring. The child poverty rate is more than double that of the elderly.
What trends indicate the future for gender and aging? The trends are positive. Increasing
equality and political participating for women and, for the elderly, longer lives, less poverty, and the
development of creative aging.