Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
241-262, 1994
Copyright 1994 Elsevier Science Lad & Earth Sciences & Resou~es Institute
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0895-9811194 $7.00 + 0.{30
Pergamon
0895-9811(94)00020-4
INTRODUCTION
l i t h o s p h e r e is s u b d u c t e d b e n e a t h a n o t h e r o c e a n i c p l a t e ,
and belts of inter-continental
OROGENIC
collision. Although
our
that f o r m a l o n g c o n t i n e n t a l m a r -
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c o l l i s i o n a l s y s t e m s is f a i r l y s t r a i g h t f o r -
g i n s , w h e r e o c e a n i c l i t h o s p h e r e is s u b d u c t e d b e n e a t h c o n -
w a r d ( M o l n a r a n d L e o n - C a e n , 1988), t h e r e h a s b e e n c o n -
t i n e n t a l l i t h o s p h e r e , w e r e r e c o g n i z e d in t h e p l a t e t e c t o n i c
s i d e r a b l e d e b a t e a b o u t t h e o t h e r t w o ( C o n e y , 1973, 1987;
s y n t h e s i s as o n e e n d m e m b e r o f a triad o f c o n v e r g e n t p l a t e
U y e d a a n d K a n a m o r i , 1979; C h a s e , 1978; s e e a l s o D a l z i e l ,
tectonic
SYSTEMS
are, of
1981), b e c a u s e w h e r e a s b o t h t h e s e e n d m e m b e r s
involve
s u b d u c t i o n o f o c e a n i c l i t h o s p h e r e , t h e t e c t o n i c r e s p o n s e in
Address all correspondence to: Prof. Peter J. Coney: Tel [ 1] (602) 621-6017; Fax [1] (602) 621-2672.
242
4s.
Ii
o
i
600
|
km
243
244
Large-scale accretionary complexes such as the Franciscan, Pacific Rim, and Chugach terranes, which are
mostly found along or near the present Pacific margin,
and the more inboard Cache Creek and Bridge RiverHozameen terranes.
Magmatic-sedimentary terranes of oceanic affinity,
including such large bodies as the Stikine, Quesnellia,
and Guerrero terranes, which appear to be intra-oceanic
arc systems formed at various times during late Paleozoic and Mesozoic time; the Wrangellia terrane, probably an early Mesozoic oceanic plateau constructed on a
late Paleozoic intra-oceanic arc assemblage; and the
Slide Mountain-Angayuchum terranes, which appear to
be late Paleozoic ocean floor.
South American Cordillera
The South American, or Andean, Cordillera (Fig. 2)
stretches for nearly 8000 km from the Caribbean region
south to Tierra del Fuego (Mfgard, 1989; Ramos, 1988b;
Dalziel, 1986). Unlike the North American Cordillera, the
Andes are comparatively narrow, reaching their greatest
width, of about 800 km, in southern Peru-Bolivia-northern
Argentina and Chile. Elsewhere, in the north and south,
the width ranges from only 200 to 300 kin.
The lithotectonic crustal constitution of the Andean
Cordillera is still incompletely known, but it is seemingly
quite different from the North American Cordillera (Richards and Coney, 1991; Ramos et al., 1986; Restrepo and
Toussaint, 1988). The only part of the Andes founded on
exposed "autochthonous" ancient Precambrian basement
is the eastern Cordilleras of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
Although it may also exist in Bolivia, this basement is not
exposed there. This older Precambrian basement has
yielded scattered isotopic ages which suggest a Grenville
(1.0 Ga) overprint on older protoliths, and the assumption
is that these rocks represent the distal western edge of the
Guianan-Brazilian shield. Southward through Argentina,
the basement for the eastern ranges is in part at least latest
Precambrian "Pan-African" in age. There are almost no
uppermost Precambrian to Lower and Middle Cambrian
rocks exposed in the northern and central Andean eastern
ranges; instead Upper Cambrian to Ordovician-Silurian
rocks, usually muds and sands now metamorphosed to
low-grade schists, are assumed to directly overlie the Precambrian substrate. There is no suggestion of a classic
long-lived carbonate-dominated miogeoclinal terrace
along the length of the Andes, like that which bordered
North America.
The rest of the Andes is made up of "suspect" terranes,
but quite different in character from western North America (Richards and Coney, 1991; Ramos et al., 1986). Most
of the so-called terranes presently identified seem to be
largely of continental margin affinity, or at least of continental aspect, whose protoliths and possible accretionary
ages are pre-Mesozoic. Many of these terranes are probably of South American origin, such as the Arequipa terrane (Forsythe et al., 1993), but several may be truly
"exotic," such as the Precordillera terrane, which may be a
~.
"~ '~
%,
~.
'~
%:
A~
PC
CH
CE
lllO0 KM
MG
DW
Fig. 2. The South American Cordillera. Dash pattern is the Precambrian shield of South America. Light stipple is that part of
the Andes presumed to lie on authochthonous Precambrian basement of South America. Dark stipple shows the Mesozoic-Cenozoic oceanic terranes of the northern Andes (MCOT) and late
Paleozoic-early Mesozoic accretionary terranes (CE, Chiloe;
MG, Magallanes) and the Mesozoic-Cenozoic accretionary terrane (DW, Darwinia) of the southern Andes. CT0 Canta terrane;
the remainder of the terranes are pre-Mesozoic: AQ, Arequipa
terrane; CH, Chilenia terrane; P, Puna terrane; PC, Precordillera
terrane. Terranes after Richards and Coney (1991), Ramos et al.
(1986), and Dalla Salda et al. (1992).
245
246
/
128
247
/;
...,~:.
,-z'J
NA
i
I
I
l
I
f
t
S
Bower
B~m
200 KM
BR
128
PR
Fig. 3. Generalized terrane map and map of morphotectonic belts (inset) of the Canadian Cordillera, after Gabrielse and Yorath (1991).
Key: AX, Alexander terrane; BR, Bridge River terrane; CA, Cassiar terrane; CC, Cache Creek terrane; CG, Chugatch terrane;
K, Kootenay terrane; KSFZ, King Salmon fault zone; N, Nisling terrane; NA, authochthonous cratonic North American craton;
Q, Quesnellia terrane; S, Stikinia terrane; SM, Slide Mountain terrane; W, Wrangellia terrane; YT, Yukon Tanana terrane.
248
c,~..,~.~
Cache Creek
Canadian Cordillera
0
. ~
Neogcne
Paleogene
I00
Cretaceous
om
.N
0
O
Jurassic
.)o0
Triaseic
Permian
--,J
30C
"~
N
Carboniferous
Devonian
40(
Ma
n u m m n
m m m m m
m m m m |
Limestone
Accrefionary prism
Foreland basins
Submarine basalt
Plutons
iil
Metamorphic rocks
, ~,..~:,,. Meaamorphism
Orogenesis
Fig. 4. Generalized post-Devonian tectono-stratigraphic columns for the Canadian Cordillera (from Fig. 1; Correlation Charts; Gabrielse and Yorath, 1992;, and compilations in the Laboratory of Geotectonics, University of Arizona). The heavy black horizontal line is
the approximate age of oldest sea floor in the Central Atlantic Ocean. Key:a, Kootenay; b, Blairmore; c, Brazeau; d, Bowser Lake Gr.;
e, Sustut basin; f, Gravina assemblage; g, Hazelton assemblage; SM, Slide Mountain terrane.
249
part of the Coast belt and, as presently mapped, is continuous with the Yukon Tanana terrane. The Kootenay terrane
actually extends eastward into the Omineca belt; in fact,
locally it is thrust across the Omineca belt and occurs as
klippen on its east flank. The terrane consists generally of
a lower part made up of quartz-feldspathic meta-grits,
schists, and gneisses, and a more heterogeneous upper part
with much meta-volcanic content and orthogneisses.
These latter have yielded Late Devonian-Early Carboniferous ages, but other ages extend up into the Permian. No
assumed marine protoliths younger than Permian are
known from the terrane. The quartz-rich lower part is
assumed to be at least as old as early Paleozoic, but no
unequivocal Precambrian ages have been detected as yet,
except in detrital zircons. The widespread subhorizontal
tectonite fabrics typical of much of the terrane are intruded
by generally less deformed Upper Triassic to lower Middle Jurassic plutons. This suggests to Mortensen (1992)
that the fabric is Permo-Triassic in age. Locally, Upper
Triassic marine rocks sit as klippen on the terrane, often
associated with greenstones and ultramafic rocks that are
possibly part of the Slide Mountain terrane. Much of the
terrane has been locally severely affected by post-Middle
Triassic to possibly syn-Middle Jurassic thrust faulting,
Cretaceous intrusions, and major strike-slip faulting. The
Kootenay terrane is often assumed to be a distal, offshelf,
western facies equivalent to the Cordilleran miogeocline.
The fact, however, that the terrane records deformational
and magmatic events not recognized in the authochthonous miogeoclinal sequence to the east leaves it in "suspect" status. It is usually assumed that its tectonic
e m p l a c e m e n t onto North A m e r i c a took place in the
Middle Jurassic.
The Slide Mountain terrane in the central Canadian
Cordillera, where it is best known, consists of a tectonically interleaved sequence of radiolarian chert, basalt,
argillite, carbonate, diorite, gabbro, and ultramafic rocks
that range in age from at least Devonian to Late Triassic
(Harms et al., 1988). Possible correlative rocks of the
Angayuchum terrane in northern Alaska contain radiolarian cherts as young as earliest Jurassic (Coney and Jones,
1985). In northern British Columbia, the terrane is a klippe
(the Sylvester allochthon) sitting upon the duplexed carbonate platform sequence of the Cassiar terrane, a northward-displaced fragment of the Cordilleran miogeocline
that here is part of the Omineca belt. The Slide Mountain
terrane has a clear "oceanic" aspect and is usually interpreted as oceanic crust, or at least layer 2. Faunal and
paleomagnetic data suggest that the terrane was as far
south as the latitude of Mexico in Permian time (Richards
et al., 1991, and in press). The terrane includes marine
rocks as young as Late Triassic (possibly regionally as
young as Early Jurassic). In northern British Columbia,
Upper Triassic rocks may tie the terrane to a position close
to "Ancestral North America" (Gabrielse, 1991). The
Slide Mountain terrane was emplaced upon North America's margin prior to intrusion of Lower Cretaceous plutons
(Gabrielse, 1991). Possible correlatives were perhaps also
emplaced upon the Kootenay-Yukon Tanana terrane in
syn- to post-Late Triassic time, i.e., Middle Jurassic (?). In
250
The boundary between the Coast belt and the Intermontane belt lies along the western side of Stikinia for most of
its length. It is defined by strike-slip faults in the south and
by the eastern limit of widespread granitic rocks further
north (Gabrielse et al., 1992). East-vergent thrust faults in
high-grade rocks at the east side of the southern Coast belt
may be deeper expressions of the Skeena fold-thrust belt.
In this case, the fold belt roots westward into and beneath
the Coast belt, which then is an uplifted "hinterland" to the
Skeena fold belt (Evenchick, 1991, 1992). The age of
these structures is mainly mid-Cretaceous to early Tertiary. The western margin of the Coast belt is a west-vergent deep-seated thrust system also of Late Cretaceous to
early Cenozoic age, which places the Coast belt over the
various terranes of "Greater Wrangellia" or the Insular belt
(Crawford et al., 1987). A distinctive suite of high-pressure Late Cretaceous plutons and some of the highest
grade Phanerozoic metamorphic rocks known anywhere in
western North America are found in the upper plate of this
thrust system. Deep marine turbidite and submarine volcanic successions of the Upper Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous
Gravina assemblage are generally involved in these structures in the north (Coney and Jones, 1985). Southward,
this zone seems to broaden and may cross the Coast belt
into the mrlange and broken formations of the upper Paleozoic to Middle Jurassic Bridge River terrane and the
Upper Triassic to mid-Cretaceous Methow-Tyaughton ter-
251
252
view, thrusting on the foreland did not begin until midCretaceous time. Evidence for Late Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous metamorphism and deformation in the "hinterland"
is reported (Hodges et al., 1992), however, as well as the
development of the Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous
plutonism, which migrated eastward after the collapse of
the "marginal" basins and offshore arcs. Crustal thickening in the "hinterland" probably began here in Late Jurassic time, as it did to the north in Canada, but some of the
uplift could also be due to the thermal input from the magmatism and incipient subcrustal "erosion" of upper mantle
lithosphere. In any event, consolidation of the Cordillera
gradually spread eastward during Cretaceous time as
thrust fronts moved into the interior Cretaceous "seaway,"
or foreland basin, as the Sevier fold-thrust belt in western
Utah.
A significant aspect of this general eastward advance of
deformation and m a g m a t i s m is the classic Laramide
deformation of the cratonic shelf east of the Paleozoic
miogeocline in the Wyoming-Colorado Rocky Mountains
and the Colorado Plateau. This event is rather neatly
bracketed between the Late Cretaceous and the late
Eocene and produced the rather unique basement-cored,
thrust-bound, crustal-scale uplifts so typical of this region.
Magmatic patterns have suggested a flattening of Benioff
zone dip as the cause, probably related to very high convergent rates at this time (Coney, 1976; Coney and Reynolds, 1977; Engebretson et al., 1985). One aspect of the
Rocky Mountain region, including much of the western
Great Plains to the east, is the abnormally high elevations.
Remembering that this region was at or below sea level
until Late Cretaceous time, the problem is: why is it consolidated to such high elevations today? Laramide crustal
thickening can explain some of this but probably not all,
and certainly not 50-km-thick crust under the Great Plains
(Gregory and Chase, 1992). It is perhaps possible that the
lithosphere under this region was already thick before the
Laramide deformation, and very cold, since no orogenic
activity had occurred here since about 1.7 Ga. This cold
lithospheric root must have thinned, or delaminated during
Laramide orogeny, thus allowing the somewhat already
overthickened inherited crust to rise to its Laramide elevations, which have persisted until today except for collapse
of the Basin and Range in and around it.
As in western Canada, contractional deformation in the
western United States largely ceased by the late Eocene.
In the southwestern United States and Mexico, the
early to mid-Mesozoic history is quite different from that
discussed above; it is actually more similar to what we
describe below for northwestern South America, with
which this region was connected until Early Cretaceous
time. A well developed continental margin magmatic arc
of latest Triassic to Jurassic age came out of marginal
Sierran trends to the north and was spread across southern
Arizona into and through eastern Mexico and into northwestern South America. This arc was probably in part
responsible for the continental red-bed detrital disturbance
of the Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic strata so typical of
northern Arizona and much of the Colorado Plateau. This
arc, however, seems to have been quite "neutral," tectoni-
cally speaking, and no major orogenic edifice was produced. A second "fringing" system of magmatic arcs, now
preserved on Baja California, for example (Sedlock,
1993), may have accreted in Late Jurassic time. Opening
of the Gulf of Mexico in Early to Middle Jurassic time was
east of the continental margin arc, and the motion may
have transformed northwestward across Mexico as the
M o j a v e - S o n o r a m e g a s h e a r (Anderson and Schmidt,
1983). All of this is widely covered by thin platformal carbonate banks, mostly of Early to mid-Cretaceous age. The
first major reversal of sedimentary polarity to westerly
derived orogenic fluvial-deltaic floods across most of
Mexico began in Late Cretaceous time, when an off-edge
Upper Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous largely submarine arc
system, the Guerrero terrane, either accreted or more
likely rose above sea level in Late C r e t a c e o u s time
(Campa and Coney, 1983). Deformation then spread eastward across Mexico clear to the Gulf of Mexico as the
Laramide-age foreland fold-thrust belt of the Sierra Madre
Oriental. As in most of western North America, contractional deformation largely ceased by the late Eocene.
Probable equivalents of the G u e r r e r o terrane swept
through the opening between separating North and South
America as the Greater Antilles oceanic arc system.
Except locally, most of the consolidation of the North
American Cordillera was complete by Eocene time. This
was then followed by continued strike-slip disruption and
extensional collapse of much of the original orogen, development of the Caribbean plate, etc., as plate interactions
changed due to partial overriding of East Pacific spreading
centers (an aspect of North American Cordilleran history
that we cannot pursue here).
M E S O Z O I C - C E N O Z O I C T E C T O N I C S OF THE
ANDEAN C O R D I L L E R A
In contrast to the North American Cordillera where, as
we have seen, the transition to mountain building took
place in the Late Jurassic, in the Andean Cordillera the
same type of transition took place, but in the mid- to Late
Cretaceous instead, some 50 My later (Dalziel, 1986). The
nature of the transition in the Andes, however, is similar to
that described above for western North America in that it
is characterized by a reversal in sedimentary polarity from,
for the most part, craton or easterly derived, in generally
platformal sediments prior to the transition, to mainly
westerly derived orogenic foreland deposits after. Particularly in the northern Andes, but probably only there, the
transition also seems to be characterized first by the
obduction of oceanic terranes onto the South American
margin. Once started, the consolidation of the Andean edifice progressed to the present mainly by eastward advance
of magmatic arcs and fold-thrust belt fronts into the
Andean foreland, development of foredeeps, and progressive crustal thickening and uplift (Isacks, 1988).
253
A
C-M
% % % % % % % % % ~
Col.
S%
J #%J S%#%~%
S #%#%f % % ~
S % ~ S $ S .f S". J S S $
J~IIV% J
~J#J
. .~. .J
0
Ce
Am
GS
.~ . l .J . J . ~ .
%%%%
~JJJsS~J
!fU
Brazil
10S
Bol.
Ca
500 KM
AQ
Fig. 5. Generalized terrane map of the Andes of Peru, northern Bolivia, Ecuador, and southern Colombia (after Richards and Coney,
1991; M6gard, 1989). Key: A, Amaime terrane; Am, Amotape terrane; B, Baudo terrane; AQ, Arequipa terrane; C-M, Cauca-Macuchi
terrane; Ca, Canta terrane; P, Pinon terrane; Z, Zamora terrane. Stippled area is that part of the Andean Cordillera presumed to be underlain by authochthonous cratonic South America: GS, Guiana shield; Ce, Celeca magmatic arc.
254
l~et~t~n
Canta T.
0
- ,.,~'~,
m
100
. . . .
"
i
-
200
Paleogene
_2"-_
=
---~-~
"Capas
Rojas"
~
Cretaceous
P u n t a Piedra
:
,
Jurassic
. . . . . . .
~_.~hocolate
Pucara
[ ]
"
Fig. 6. Generalized tectonostratigraphic columns for the Central Andes of Peru and northern Andes of Colombia (after Mrgard, 1978,
1989; and compilations in the Laboratory of Geotectonics, University of Arizona). Heavy black horizontal line on each set of columns
is approximate age of oldest sea floor in the South Atlantic ocean. See Fig. 4 for legend.
which separated the feature into two sub-basins. Thickest
in the west, the Late Jurassic through Late Cretaceous
western basin is composed of uppermost Jurassic basal
shales followed by pure-quartz Neocomian sandstones,
then mixed carbonate platform layers interbedded with
sandstones and shales, all capped by extensive carbonates
of Santonian age (Wilson, 1963). Eastward, the sections
are thinner and sandier in composition, and they start in
the Albian. The sedimentary polarity was mostly craton
derived. To the west of this almost miogeoclinal-like basin
was a "eugeosynclinal" submarine volcanic arc, the Canta
terrane (Richards and Coney, 1991), which has yielded
Early Cretaceous fossils (Mrgard, 1987). This magmatic
arc seems to pass offshore in northern Peru, but the Celica
arc, mainly of Late Cretaceous age, emerges from beneath
a Tertiary basin in southwestern Ecuador and seems to
have continued northward as a continental margin arc
founded on the already accreted Amotape terrane and
South American basement of the east flank of the Central
Cordillera. The transition from the eastern platformal
basin to the western submarine volcanic arc in Peru is
interpreted as a facies change, but much of it is obscured
by faulting and massive e m p l a c e m e n t of the Andean
Southern Andes
In the central southern Andes of Chile and Argentina a
continental margin arc existed amid a system of complex
shifting intra-arc marine basins during Jurassic time and
extending into the mid-Cretaceous (Ramos, 1988b; Herv6
et al., 1987). The marine intra-arc basins were strongly
affected by Pacific, and eventually South Atlantic, transgressions and regressions of global, eustatic nature. Presumably the volcanic centers themselves were above sea
255
256
Western N. America
ting as against a Chilean-type setting (Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979). The assumption is that the former is a "low
compressive stress" setting while the latter is a "high compressive stress" setting, an assumption actually supported
by seismology. In geological terms, this is also based in
part on the fact that the "back-arc" regions in the lowstress settings can be extensional, or at least neutral,
whereas the back-arc regions of the high-stress settings are
usually compressional, with foreland thrust belts common,
even though the relative convergent plate motions across
the boundaries in question may be very similar.
Explanations offered for the difference in tectonic style
in the two settings have ranged over the following in the
past 20 years:
age of subducting lithosphere (Molnar and
Atwater, 1978);
rate of convergence (Pardo-Casas and Molnar,
1987);
buoyant "asperities" on the down-going plate;
collisions and/or accretions of "exotic" terranes
(Nur and Ben-Avraham, 1982); and
"absolute" motion of the upper plate (Coney,
1971, 1973, 1978; Chase, 1978).
The debate has often revolved around the possible importance of variations in Benioff zone dip, which of course
can be thought of as influenced by all the above. It is not
our purpose here to exhaustively review this long-standing
debate in regional tectonics. We wish, however, to make a
few o b s e r v a t i o n s based on what we believe can be
Western
Subduction and
arc activity
T
100~
Subduction and
arc activity
"fore-<leap"
S. America
"fore-deep"
C
Reversal of sad.
'back-arc Sea"
200
Breakaway from Gondwanaland
Fig. 7. Generalized tectono-sedimentary response on the forelands of the North and South American Cordilleras equilibrated in time to
the age of oldest sea floor (breakaway from Gondwanaland) in the Atlantic Ocean east of each of the continents.
I I A
80 W
80 W
Mid-Cretaceous
....... 11............
Convergent m a r g i n s
S p r e a d i n g systems
Continental c r u s t
F o r e l a n d basin deposits
Continental m a r g i n orogenesis
"Neutral" a n d / o r
"off-edge" m a g m a t i c arcs
80W
Late Cretaceous
Fig. 8. Advance of the American plates over the Pacific Ocean basin between the Middle Jurassic and the present in the "hot spot" frame. All reconstructions are centered on a fixed 80W. Spreading
centers in the Pacific generalized after Cole (1990) and Engebretson et al. (1985); relative motion vectors after Cole (1990); positions of the American continents manipulated after Scotese and Denham
(1988), with modifications after May and Butler (1986) and Cole (1990).
Ear
/////
Jurassic
e-~
t-~
258
A
6 cm/yr
"Neutnl" Off-Edge
MagmaticArc
/
_ I~
Sed. Polarity
Arc-Rmu"Basin
Plutons
ContinentalCrust/
6 cm/yr
B 10-2oMy
, ~
Reversalof SedimenhtryPolarity
9 cm/yr
%%%%%%%%%%%1~
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%~
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%~
C 3o-4oMy
8.5 cm/yr
.~
Fore.deep
/
ForelandFold-ThrustBelt
6 cm/yr
Fig. 9. Idealized sketches of the transition from "neutral" to compressive states of stress in the development of continental
margin orogens.
259
260
O c e a n b a s i n . A c c r e t i o n s , v a g a r i e s in r e l a t i v e m o t i o n vectors a l o n g t h e m a r g i n s , c h a n g e s in B e n i o f f z o n e dip, a n d
accidents of inherited crustal constitution and previous
h i s t o r y all p r o b a b l y e x p l a i n t h e v a r i a t i o n s in t i m i n g a n d
c h a r a c t e r o f t h e t e c t o n i c r e s p o n s e s e e n in t h e c o m p l e x
evolution of the two Cordilleras since consolidation
began.
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Armstrong, R. L., 1988. Mesozoic and early Cenozoic magmatic evolution of the Canadian Cordillera. In: Processes in Continental Lithospheric Deformation (edited by S. P. Clark, Jr., B. C. Burchfiel, and J.
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