Harry Sedgwick Teacher: Chris

Morrel
Subject: Physics

The Atom -
Rutherford's model -

Plum pudding model ^ -

Geiger and Marsden scattering Experiment -

Most of the alpha particles pass straight through the gold sheet with
deflections of only 1 or 2 degrees this would be predicted with every model.
However some of the deflections were much longer with around 1 in 8000
deflections being greater than 90 degrees. This can only be explained by
Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom. Rutherford’s theory proved because firing
positive atoms at positive atoms means that it would repel back.

Structure of the nucleus -

Symbol- proton = P or H
- Neutron = N
- Electron = e
- Beta particle = B or e
- Alpha particle = A or He

Isotopes – atoms having the same proton number but different nucleon number
(number of neutrons).

Particle physics-
Q = charge B = baryon number L = lepton number (every particle has an
antiparticle - you can tell because there is always a line above the original sign
e.g. B) P
Particle physics diagram -
(An anti-quark is the same letter but it has a line above it)
Leptons -
(Tau neutrino = Ve)

Hadrons reactions - during any reaction the following properties must be

conserved -
Baryon number lepton number charge strangeness mass/energy
(don’t worry)
B- Decay - (nucleon number remains constant but neutron number decreases by 1
and proton number increases by 1)

During B- decay a neutron is changed into a proton - thus meaning an up quark

changes into a down. In this process a b- particle and a anti-electron neutrino are
emitted.

There is also beta + - decay where it is the opposite - a proton changes into a
neutron!

Exchange particles - responsible for the forces between particles - also known as
force mediators and Gauge bosons.
The fundamental forces of nature -
Weak interaction--------- W+ W- and Zo bosons
Strong interaction--------gluons
Gravity---------------------graviton
Electromagnetic--------------photons (gamma)

Feynman diagrams - illustrate the exchange of vector bosons when particles react
Rutherford’s model of the atom -
- Problems - the electron will eventually spiral into the nucleus -

Electrons orbit the nucleus

Electrons are accelerating
Electrons will lose energy by emitting photons of electromagnetic radiation as
they orbit the nucleus.

Rutherford’s - Bohr’s postulates -

1. Electrons can only exist in certain discrete orbits within the atom e.g.
 2. While in a discrete orbit in the atom the electron does not emit radiation
(lose energy)
3. If an electron moves from a higher orbit to a lower orbit it emits a single
photon.

Equations -
EV = J = energy volts = joules
1.6x10 to -19 1.6x10 to -19

E= Hxc E = Hf = energy = planks constant x speed

λ Wavelength

H= e = planks constant = energy

F frequency

F= c = frequency = speed
λ Wavelength

W= E = power = energy
T time

En = 1 = energy (number) = 1
N² number ²
e=hf ^ (above) = the larger the energy transition the greater the frequency
and the smaller the wavelength
Work function = planks Constant x frequency – energy
Threshold frequency = work function / planks constant
Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10-34
Ek max = HF – ø = planks constant x frequency – work function
Speed = speed of light (3 x 10 to 8)

Emission line spectrum-

 – Each element has a characteristic line spectrum which the element can be
identified
– Each line in the spectrum is produced by an energy transition from a higher
to a lower energy level.
– Electrons can only exist in discrete energy levels (Bohr) when an electron
moves from a higher to a lower energy level it emits a single photon
– The wavelength/frequency of the photon depends on the energy change,
only a limited number of wavelength/frequencies can be emitted because
there are a limited amount of energy transitions. Therefore there will only be
a limited number of lines in the line spectrum, each line in the spectrum
represents a particular energy transition.

The energy of the photon = energy jump of the electron

Questions -
Pair production -
- The energy of the photon is converted into the mass/ energy of the particles
- The minimum energy required for pair production is equal to the equivalent
rest energies of the particles produced
- The extra energy in the photon will become kinetic energy of the particles

Refraction - change in speed of light when it moves from one medium to another.

Refractive index of medium with respect to medium 1

N1 = C1/C2 N1 = 3x10 to 8 / 2 x 10 to 8 N1=1.5

N1, sin01 = N2, sin02 C1 = sin01= N2= 1N2 (refractive index of medium 2)
C2 sin02 N1

Critical angle -
Sin C = N2/N1

Question out of the book –

1. a. calculate the wavelength of a gamma-ray photon which has an energy of
1.6x10 to -15 - λ = c x h/e λ = 3 x 10 to 8 x 6.63 x 10 to -34/ 1.6 x 10 to
 -15
λ = 1.24 x 10 to -10
B. an X-ray photon is generated which the same energy as the gamma-ray
has described in part a. Compare these two photons in respect of their –
1. Speed of transmission in a vacuum – their speed would be fast because
of the small wavelength.
2. Their ability to penetrate a material would be very good because they
have a small wavelength meaning a lot of energy to pass through.
MODULE 2

Scalar quantity – has magnitude (size) only e.g. mass, time, distance, speed,
energy
Vector quantity – has magnitude AND direction e.g. velocity, force (including
weight) displacement, momentum and acceleration.
Speed and velocity -

Distance and displacement –

- A man walks 3Km west and 4Km north what is the total distance travelled? =
7Km
This is distance ^
- A man walks 3Km west and 4Km north what is his displacement? = 5Km north-
west at 53
This is displacement ^ (Pythagoras theorem) 32 + 42= 25 √25 = 5Km

Force – two forces acting on a point calculate the resultant force -

1. 5N + 10N = 15N
 2. 10N – 5N = 5N

3. 102 + 52= 125 √125 = 11.1N and 63 degrees

Resolution of a force into 2 components at right angles -

Tan angle = opp/adj SOH CAH TOA

Equations of motion – uniform acceleration –

V (final velocity) = U + aT same - > a (acceleration) = (v-u)/T

S (displacement) = uT + 1/2aT 2
V (final velocity) = u2+ 2as
2

Questions –
1. Starting from rest, a bus accelerates to a speed of 8ms-1 after 10s. What is its
average acceleration? –
- a = (v – u)/ T -a= (8 – 0)/ 10 - a = 0.8ms-2
2. A sprinter has an acceleration of 5ms-2 during the first 2 secs of a race. What
velocity does she reach? –
- V = u + aT - V = 0+ 5 x 2 - V = 10ms-1
3. A train slows down from 60ms-1 to 20ms-1 in 50 secs. What is its acceleration?
- a = (v – U)/T - a = (20 – 60) / 50 - a = 0.8ms-2

Time graphs -
Projectile motion –

Time is common to vertical and horizontal motion.

They hit the ground at the same time.
Question – a ball is kicked horizontally with a speed of 15m/s form the top of a
cliff, the cliff is 120m high.
A. How long does it take for it to reach the beach?
- S = UT + ½AT2 => 120 = 0T + ½10T2 => 120 = 5T2 => T =4.9secs
B. How far does it travel horizontally?
- 4.9 secs x 15m/s = 73.5M
C. what is the vertical velocity when the ball hits the beach
- V = U +AT => V = 0 + 10 x 4.9 => V = 49m/s
Question–
1.What is its maximum height? 2. How long is the time of flight? 3. How far does
it travel horizontally (its horizontal range?)

1. V2 = U2+ 2AS V2 = (-30sin45)2+ 20s  0 = 450 + 20s  22.5 = s

2. V = U + at  0 = -30sin45 -10t 2.1 x 2 = 4.2 seconds = t
3. S = UT + 1/2 at  S = 30sin45 x 4.2
2
89m
Kinetic energy and potential energy –
Kinetic energy – The energy of an object possesses due to its motion.

Ek = ½ x M (kg) x V2 (ms-1)

Gravitational potential energy–energy possessed by an object due to its position

above earth.

Ep = M (kg) x g (ms-1) x h (m)

Potential energy on ground is 0 on the ground

Momentum – a property an object has due to its motion

 P (M/kg) = M (kg) x V(m)

e.g. -
Law of conservation of momentum – The momentum of a system remains
constant provided there are no resultant external forces acting on the system.
E.g. if a ball is kicked, considering friction is not there, it will travel at constant
speed.

Another example –

What would happen with kinetic energy? -

= 792 J  Ek = 1/2MV2 Ek = ½ x 6 x -2.72 Ek = 21.9 J
An inelastic collision – loss of kinetic energy
An elastic collision – kinetic energy conserved

Momentum has to remain 0 if there are no external forces acting upon it and it is
still moving
E.g. a space shuttle.

Examples of Newton’s third law -

Work -
Work done = force x displacement W = F x S angle – W = F x S cos x angle
– Find the work done of a 1000kg car that is travelling at 31ms-1 and can be
brought to a stop in 75m -
V=0 U=31ms-1 S=75m V2 = u2 + 2as  a = v2 – u2 / 2s a = 0 – (31m-1)2 /
150
= -6.4ms-2
Find force -
M=1000kg A=6.4kg-2 F = M x A  F = 1000kg x 6.4ms-2 F = 6400N
Therefore find work done –
F=6400kg S=75m  W = F x S W = 6400 x 75 W = 480000J = 480KJ

– Find force from pushing a 5kg weight up 12m...

M = 5kg H= 12m increase in potential energy = Mgh = 5 x 10 x 12 600J
 Work = F x s = 600J  F = 600J / 12 F = 50N

– Find force from pushing a 5kg weight up a

30 degree slope with height of 12m...
M = 5kg H = 12m angle = 30degrees increase in Ep  = 5 x 10 x 12 
600J = work done = F x S sin30 = H / S S = 12/sin30  s = 24m
 F = w / s = 600/24  F = 25N
 –
Find work done when pushing a block with 50N of force 20M.
F = 50N S = 20m angle = 60 degrees  W = F x S x cos x 60
W = 50 x 20 x cos x 60 W = 500J

Energy – the principle of conservation energy says that the total amount of
energy in any isolated system is constant - Ek = ½ x m x v2

Power – is energy transferred per second

- Power (J/S or W) = work done (J) / time taken (S) P = W / T

Efficiency – energy out / maximum energy x 100%

Terminal velocity and energy given off -

Ep1 (potential energy) = mgh1 and Ep2 (potential energy) = mgh2

Therefore ∆Ep = Ep1 – Ep2 = mgh1 – mgh2 ∆Ep = mg (h1-h2)
To find kinetic energy – it equals same as potential  ∆Ep = ∆Ek = 1/2mv2
Work done by gravitational force = f x s = m x g x s
Same instance but counting air resistance and terminal velocity –

As velocity of an object increases

Air resistance increases (fa)
And resultant force R decreases because R = mg - Fa
Acceleration also decreases until it reaches 0 and terminal velocity.
Terminal velocity is the loss in energy due to air resistance = ∆Ep - ∆Ek.
Work is done by air resistance = Fa x s = ∆Ep - ∆Ek.

Specific heat capacity – the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1Kg of a substance by 1 degree (1Kalvin)

Energy lost/gained by a substance = Mass x specific heat capacity x

change in temperature
J = Kg x JKg-1C-1/K-1 x C/K
 Heat gained by water = Heat lost by
copper
Find the final heat of the water -
M of water x C of copper x ∆ in water temp = M of copper x C of copper x ∆ in
copper temp
3 x 4200 x (t-10) = 0.2 x 400 x (250 -T) 12600T – 126000 = -80T + 120000
12600 – 146000 = -80T
 12680T = 146000  T = 11.51 degrees

Change in state –
Melting /fusion evaporating/boiling
Solid liquid  vapour (gas)
Freezing condensation
Solid liquid  vapour (gas)
Heat required to change the state not cause a change in temperature – LATANT
HEAT

Specific Latent heat of fusion/ vaporisation = the heat required to change the
state of 1Kg of a substance from solid to liquid/ liquid to vapour without a change
in temperature.
The ideal gas laws –

1. The volume of molecules is negligible compared to the volume occupied by the

gas
2. The forces between molecules are negligible.
3. Collisions between molecules are perfectly elastic – no loss in kinetic energy
1. Bolyes Law - ‘the volume ‘V’ of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to
its absolute pressure at constant temperature’ Pressure inversely
proportional to Volume.

2. Charles Law – for a given mass of gas at constant pressure the volume V in
directly proportional to its thermodynamic temperature. Volume is proportional
to temperature

Absolute zero is where the motion of molecules stop – no K.E (-273 degrees)

3. The pressure Law – The pressure of a fixed gas is directly proportional to its
thermodynamic temperature. Provided it’s at a constant volume.

Pressure is proportional to Temperature (K)

 For a fixed mass!
Or Pressure x Volume = constant x Temperature
The actual example – e.g. a gas occupies a volume of 0.10m3 at 1.8MPa.
Determine –
a) The pressure if the volume is increased to 0.06m3
b) The volume if the pressure is changed to 2.4Mpa
(Assume isothermic changes)
a) P1, V1=P2, V2  p2 = p1v1/v2 = 1.8x106 x 0.1 / 0.06 = 3 x 106 = 3MPa
b) P1, V1=P2, V2 V2 = p1v1/p2  1.8 x 106 x 0.1/2.4 x 106 = 0.075m3

Change in volume and pressure 

Kinetic theory –

What do I understand about these?

Temperature – can be measured in degrees or in Fahrenheit Celsius, it measures
how hot or cold something is. How fast the atoms vibrate, fast = hot, slow = cold.
Pressure – the force pushing down on an area divided by the area over which it
acts. Force/area
Gas – a substance which cannot usually be seen. It is a lot less dense than any
solid or liquid. The particles are spread out, not connected
Kinetic energy – is the energy of an object because it is moving. KE=1/2MV2
Universal gas equation –
PV = nRT

Molar mass –
1 mol of 12C has a mass of 12g
1 mol of 16O has a mass of 16g Mass of gas = no. of moles x molar mass

Temperature of a gas-
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a molecule of an ideal
gas.

Temperature is proportional to average kinetic energy (Ek) (1/2 x m x )–

average translational kinetic energy ( = mean square speed)

½xmx = 3 x R x T = 1.38 x 10-23 (Boltzmann’s constant (k))

2 Na
So ½xmx = 3/2kT