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INTRODUCTION
Bernoullis theorem which is known as Bernoullis principle, states that an increase
in the speed of moving air or a flowing fluid is accompanied by a decrease in the air
or fluids pressure. Swiss scientist, Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), demonstrated
that, in most cases the pressure in a liquid or gas decreases as the liquid or gas
move faster. This is an important principle involving the movement of a fluid
through the pressure difference. Suppose a fluid is moving in a horizontal direction
and encounters a pressure difference. This pressure difference will result in a net
force, which is by Newtons Second Law will cause an acceleration of the fluid.
Bernoullis theorem states that the total energy (pressure energy, potential energy
and kinetic energy) of an incompressible and non-viscous fluid in steady flow
through a pipe remains constant throughout the flow, provided there is no source
or sink of the fluid along the length of the pipe. This statement is due to the
assumption that there is no loss energy due to friction. This theorem deals with
the facts that when there is slow flow in a fluid, there will be increase in pressure
and when there is increased flow in a fluid, there will be decrease in pressure. If
the elevation remains constant, velocity and pressure, energy to or from the
system can be calculated by this equationStatic pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure =
constant Static pressure + 1/2 x density x velocity
2
= total pressure = constant
Fig 1: Bernoulli Equation

So the main objective of this experiment is to justify the validity of Bernoullis

theorem for water flow through a circular conduct. The convergingdiverging nozzle apparatus is used to show the validity of Bernoullis
Equation. It is also used to show the validity of the continuity equation where the
fluid flows is relatively incompressible. The data taken will show the presence of
fluid energy losses, often attributed to friction and the turbulence and eddy
currents associated with a separation of flow from the conduit walls.

Theory
Clearly stated that the assumptions made in deriving the Bernoullis equation is:

The liquid is incompressible.

The liquid is non-viscous.

The flow is steady and the velocity of the liquid is less than the critical velocity
for the liquid.

There is no loss of energy due to friction.

Derivation of Bernoulli equation from Newtons

second law:
The Bernoulli equation for incompressible fluids can be derived by integrating the
Euler equations,or applying the law of conservation of energy in two sections along
a streamline, ignoring viscosity, compressibility, and thermal effects.The simplest
derivation is to first ignore gravity and consider constrictions and expansions
inpipes that are otherwise straight, as seen in Venturi effect.Let the x axis be
directed down the axis of the pipe. Define a parcel of fluid moving through a pipe

with cross-sectional area "A", the length of the parcel is "dx", and the volume of
the parcel A dx. If mass density is , the mass of the parcel is density multiplied
by its volume m = A dx. The change in pressure over distance dx is "dp" and flow
velocity v = dx / dt.Apply Newton's Second Law of Motion Force F =mass .
acceleration and recognizing that the effective force on the parcel of fluid is -A
dp. If the pressure decreases along the length of the pipe, dp is negative but the
force resulting in flow is positive along the x axis.

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In steady flow the velocity is constant with respect to time,
v =v ( x ) =v ( x (t )), so v itself is not directly a function of time t . It is only when
the parcel moves through x that the cross sectional area changes: v depends on t
only through the cross-sectional position x (t ).
With density constant, the equation of motion can be written as by integrating
with respect to x where C is a constant, sometimes referred to as the Bernoulli
constant. It is not a universal constant,but rather a constant of a particular fluid
system. The deduction is: where the speed is large, pressure is low and vice versa.
In the above derivation, no external work-energy principle is invoked. Rather,
Bernoulli's principle was inherently derived by a simple manipulation of the
momentum equation.
Fig 2: Flow of water through Bernoulli Apparatus
5

A stream tube of fluid moving to the right. Indicated are pressure, elevation, flow
speed, distance (s), and cross-sectional area. Note that in this figure elevation is
denoted as h, contrary to the text where it is given by z. Another way to derive
Bernoulli's principle for an incompressible flow is by applying conservation of
energy. In the form of the work-energy theorem, stating that the change in the
kinetic energy Ek in of the system equals the network W done on the system;
Therefore, the work done by the forces in the fluid = increase in kinetic energy.
The system consists of the volume of fluid, initially between the cross-sections A1
and A2.
In the time interval t fluid elements initially at the inflow cross-section A1 move
over a distance s1 = v1t, while at the outflow cross-section the fluid moves away
from cross-section A2 over a distance s2 = v2t. The displaced fluid volumes at
the inflow and outflow are respectively A1 s1 and A2 s2.
The associated displaced fluid masses are when is the fluid's mass density
equal to density times volume, so A1s1 and A2 s2. By mass conservation, these
two masses displaced in the time interval t have to be equal, and this displaced
mass is denoted by m:
The work done by the forces consists of two parts: The work done by the
pressure acting on the areas A1 and A2The work done by gravity: the gravitational
potential energy in the volume A1 s1 is lost, and at the outflow in the volume A2 s2
is gained. So, the change in gravitational potential energy Epot, gravity in the
time interval t is
6
Now, the work by the force of gravity is opposite to the change in potential
energy, W gravity=Epot, gravity: while the force of gravity is in the negative zdirection, the work

gravity force times change in elevation

will be negative for a positive elevation change

z
= z2z1, while the corresponding potential energy change is positive. So:And the
total work done in this time interval isThe increase in kinetic energy isPutting
these together, the work-kinetic energy theorem W =ekin gives: or
After dividing by the mass m = A1 v1 t = A2 v2t the result is:

or, as stated in the first paragraph:(Eqn. 1), which is also Equation (A)Further
division by g produces the following equation. Note that each term can be
described in the length dimension (such as meters). This is the head equation
derived from Bernoulli's principle:
7
(Eqn. 2a)The middle term, z, represents the potential energy of the fluid due to its
elevation with respect to a reference plane. Now, z is called the elevation head and
given the designation elevation. A free falling mass from an elevation z > 0 (in a
vacuum)will reach a speed when arriving at elevation z = 0.Or when we rearrange it
as a head: The term v2/ (2 g) is called the velocity head, expressed as a length
measurement. It represents the internal energy of the fluid due to its motion. The
hydrostatic pressure p is defined as, with p0 some reference pressure, or when we
rearrange it as a head: The term p / (g) is also called the pressure head,
expressed as a length measurement. It represents the internal energy of the fluid
due to the pressure exerted on the container. When we combine the head due to
the flow speed and the head due to static pressure with the elevation above a
reference plane, we obtain a simple relationship useful for incompressible fluids
using the velocity head, elevation head, and pressure head.(Eqn. 2b)If we were to
multiply Eqn. 1 by the density of the fluid, we would get an equation with three
pressure terms:
8
(Eqn. 3)We note that the pressure of the system is constant in this form of the
Bernoulli Equation. If the static pressure of the system (the far right term)
increases, and if the pressure due to elevation (the middle term) is constant, then
we know that the dynamic pressure (the left term) must have decreased. In other
words, if the speed of a fluid decreases and it is not due to an elevation
difference, we know it must be due to an increase in the static pressure that is
resisting the flow. All three equations are merely simplified versions of an energy
balance on a system.
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Experimental Setup:
Fig 3
: Bernoullis apparatus

DISCUSSION
The objectives of this experiment is to investigate the validity of the Bernoulli
equation when applied to the steady flow of water in a tapered duct and to
measure the flow rates and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid
convergent and divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates.
This experiment is based on the Bernoullis principle which relates between

velocities with the pressure for an inviscid flow. To achieve the objectives of this
experiment, Bernoullis theorem demonstration apparatus was used. This
instrument was combined with a venturi meter and the pad of manometer tubes
which indicate the pressure of h1 until h8 but for this experiment only the
pressure in manometerh1 until h6 being measured. A venturi is basically a
converging-diverging section (like an hourglass), typically placed between tube or
duct sections with fixed cross-sectional area. The flow rates through the venturi
meter can be related to pressure measurements by using Bernoullis equation. From
the result obtained through this experiment, it is been observed that when the
pressure difference increase, the flow rates of the water increase and thus the
velocities also increase for both convergent and divergent flow. Though the
experiment was done very carefully and properly, but there is some discrepancy in
the result. The total head was not same in different points. The possible reasons
are-

There was leak in pitot tube

In Bernoullis theorem the fluid is considered as inviscid and incompressible. But

practically the water, used in this experiment as the working fluid does not satisfy
this assumption.

Since the venturi tube cannot be thermally isolated from the surrounding
completely, there are some possible heat transfer between tube and surrounding
which is not account in the theorem. It introduces a permanent frictional
resistance in the pipeline.

The use of mean velocity without kinetic energy correction factor () introduces
some error in the results. Here we assume that = 1. But it varies with Reynolds
number. The variation of with Reynolds number is given in appendix 2.

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The piezometer readings were fluctuating continuously during the experiment due
to unsteady supply. Since capillarity makes water rise in piezometer tube, it
introduce some error in calculation of the static head.

Contraction loss: There is a marked drop in pressure due to the increase in velocity
and to the loss of energy in turbulence.
Fig 5: Flow at sudden contraction of cross section

Directional velocity fluctuation due to turbulence increase pitot tube readings and
hence we got large value of total head.

A large head loss occurs at the entrance of the pitot tube due to sudden
contraction.

Expansion loss: In sudden expansion there is a state of excessive turbulence. The

loss due to sudden expansion is greater than the loss due to a corresponding
contraction. This is so because of the inherent instability of flow in expansion
where the diverging path of the flow tend to encourage the formation of eddies
within the flow. In converging flow there is a dampening effect on eddy formation
and hence loss is less than diverging flow. It is reflected by the drastic decrease
of total head in figure 6.
Fig 6: Flow at sudden enlargement of cross section

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Conclusion
From the result obtained, we can conclude that the Bernoulli
s equation is valid for convergent and divergent flow as both of it does obey the
equation. The results were quite satisfactory and very near the authentic data at
the two of the three observations performed. But we also know the reasons and
handicaps for which the discrepancies appeared and discussed it thoroughly in the
discussion section. Therefore considering all the evens and odds we can come to a
conclusion that the experiment was a very successful one which not only introduced
us with the properties of Bernoullis Theorem and fluid flow system but also

enabled us to understand the deviations and inconsistencies we have toface in the

real life situations comparing to the theoretical.
.

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RECOMMENDATION
1. Repeat the experiment for several times to get the average values in order to
get more accurate results.
2. Make sure the trap bubbles must be removing first before start running the
experiment.
3. The eye position of the observer must be parallel to the water meniscus when
taking the reading at the manometers to avoid parallax error.
4. The valve must be control carefully to maintain the constant values of the
pressure difference as it is quite difficult to control.
5. The time keeper must be alert with the rising of water volume to avoid error and
must be only a person who taking the time.
6. The leakage of water in the instrument must be avoided.

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Literature Cited
Franzini, Joseph B. ; Finnemore, E. John,
Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Application
,9
th
edition. McGraw -Hill ,New York,1997, Page (142,121)

Mott, Robert L,
Applied Fluid Mechanics
, 5th ed., Prentice Hall Upper Saddle
River, 2000, Page (272,276)