MEASUREMENT

OF MASS FLOW
RATE

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE DEVICES

Bernoullis equation

V12 P2 V22
V22 V12 P1 P2

2
2
2
2
P1

p1
V1

p2
V2

Continuity gives A1V1 = A2V2 Fluid is incompressible

A 2 2 P P
2( P1 P2 )
1
2
V22 1 2
V2

A 2
A1
1 2
A1

V2 A2 A2
m

th A2
m

2 ( P1 P2 )
2 ( P1 P2 )

A
2
1 4
A 2
1 2
A1

2 ( P1 P2 )
1 4

Differential Pressure Devices

Orifice Plate
Nozzle
Venturimeter

Actual Mass Flow Rate

Cd
Theoretica l Mass Flow Rate

Coefficient of discharge is less than one because of separation losses and frictional losses

ORIFICE PLATE WITH D-D/2 TAPPINGS BS 1042

BS 1042

Corner tappings
D and D/2 tappings
Flange tappings

STOLZ EQUATION

C d 0.5959 0.0312

2.1

0.184 0.0029

0.0900 L1 1
4

4 1

10

Re D
6

2.5

0.75

0.0337 L2 3

0.039
If L1
0.4333 use 0.039 for the coefficient of 4 1 4
0.09

Values of L1 and L2
Corner tappings
D and D / 2 tappings
Flange tappings

L1 L2 0
L1 1 L2 0.47
25.4
L1 L2
D ( in mm )

Conditions of validity

VENTURIMETER - BS 1042

NOZZLE - BS 1042

It needs less installation space

than a venturi meter and has
about 80% of the initial cost.

DALL TUBE - BS 1042

IRRECOVERABLE PRESSURE
DROP FOR ORIFICE PLATE

P loss
P

1 C C

1 4 1 C d2 C d 2
1 4

2
d

P loss 1 1.9
P

IRRECOVERABLE PRESSURE DROP FOR VENTURIMETER

For 7

P loss
,
0.436 0.86 0.59 2
P

For 15o ,

P loss 0.218 0.42 0.38 2

P

IRRECOVERABLE PRESSURE DROP

FOR NOZZLE

P loss 1 0.014 2.06 2 1.18 3

P

IRRECOVERABLE PRESSURE DROP FOR DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE DEVICES

Installation Requirements for Differential Pressure Devices

Fully Developed Flow is essential
Minimum Pipe lengths are essential to achieve fully developed flow condition
TURN DOWN RATIO RANGE DP transmitters are usually available over a range of
1:100. Turn Down Ratio of DP devices is around 10.

Consider water flowing at a flow rate of 10 kg/s through an orifice/venturi/nozzle

whose = 0.5 in a pipe of 100 mm. Calculate the pumping power required for each
case and comment on the results

0.5; D 100 mm ; d 50 mm
10 kg / s
m
act C d
m

2 P
1 4

d2

Orifice plate
m act C d
10 0.6

2 P
1 4

d2

50 10 3

4
P 33.774 kPa

P loss
P

C
1 C C

1 1 C

2
d

1 4

2
d

2 1000 P
1 0.54

P loss
P

1 0.5 1 0.6 0.6 0.5

1 0.54 1 0.6 2 0.6 0.5 2

4

P loss
P

P loss
P

1 C C

1 4 1 C d2 C d 2
1 4

2
d

1 0.5 1 0.6 0.6 0.5

1 0.54 1 0.62 0.6 0.52

4

P loss 1 1.9

0.7345

P loss 1 0.51.9 0.732

P

P loss 0.7345
33.774

P loss 24.81 kPa

Ppump

Q P loss

pump

10 33.774 1000
354.43W
1000 0.7

Ppump 354.43W

Venturimeter
m act C d

10 0.99

2 P
1 4

d2

50 10 3

4
P 12.158 kPa

For 7 o ,

2 1000 P
1 0.54

P loss 0.436 0.86 0.59 2

P

P loss 0.436 0.86 0.5 0.59 0.52 0.1535

12.158

P loss 1.8663 kPa

Ppump

Q P loss

pump

10 1.8663 1000
26.6W
1000 0.7

Ppump 26.6W

Nozzle
m act C d

10 0.96

2 P
1 4

d2

50 10 3

4
P 13.19 kPa

2 1000 P
1 0.54

P loss 1 0.014 2.06 2 1.18 3

P

P loss 1 0.014 0.5 2.06 0.52 1.18 0.53 0.6255

13.19

P loss 8.44 kPa

Ppump

Q P loss

pump

10 8.44 1000
120.53W
1000 0.7

Ppump 120.53W

P loss

Ppump

kg/s

P
kPa

kPa

Orifice

10

33.774

24.81

354.43

Venturi

10

12.158

1.8663

26.66

Nozzle

10

13.19

8.4368

120.53

Item

act
m

PRESSURE LOSS THROUGH THE ORIFICE

IDEAL FLOW IN A NOZZLE

Bernoullis principle between 1 and 2

2
2
p1 u 2 p2 u2 p1 p2 u2 u 2
2
2
2
2
Momentum theorem between 2 and 3 p2 A3 p3 A3 m u2 m u

p2 u u2 p3 u2 p3 p2 u u2 u2

A3 u
m

PRESSURE LOSS

P loss p1 p3
P loss
P

2 2
2
u2 u u u2 u
p1 p3 p1 p2 p3 p2 2
2

2 2
p1 p2
p1 p2
u2 u
2
2

P loss
P

p1 p3 2

p1 p2

u2
2

P loss
P

u u u2

u2
2

u
2

u 2 2u u2

u
2

u2

u
1
2
2
2

u2 u 2u u2
u2 u
u2 u
u2

2
2
u2 uu2 u u2 u 1 u
u2 u
u2

Contraction Coefficient ( )

Ac

A2

Ac Area at the vena contracta

u Ac Ac A2

2
u2
A A2 A

Ac
Ac A2 2 A
A2
Ac 2 A

u
1
u2 1 2

u 1 2
1
u2

P loss
P

Ac
2
A

P loss 1 2

1 2

To find a relation for Contraction Coefficient ( ) in terms of Cd and

Q act
Q act

Cd 2
1

1
A
1 c
A

Ac

2 P

Q theoretical

2 P

1
A
1 c
A

Ac

2 P

Q act

1
A
1 2
A

2
1 2 4

A2

2 P

2 P

Q act

Cd 2

1 4

Cd 2
1 4
2P

2 P

Q act

2
1 2 4

2
1 2 4

2 P

2P

2
2
C

2
2 2 4
2
2 4
d

4
2 4
d
d
4
2 4
1
1
1
1

Cd

C d2 2 1 4 C d2 4

Cd

1 4 1 C d2

2
C
d
2
1 4 C d2 4

Brandt proposes a relation for contraction coefficient

P loss 1 2

1 2

P loss 1 2
P

Cd

1
1

P loss
P

1 1 C
4

2
d

1 4 1 C d2

1 4 1 C d2
Cd

Cd

1 4

1 C C
2
d

1 C C

1 4 1 C d2 C d 2

1 4 1 C d2 C d 2
1 4

2
d

COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Ideal Gas PV K

VdV
1

dP

gdz 0 ;

VdV

dP

P1

P
1 2
P1

P
P1
V22 V12
K 2
1
2

V22 V12

2
1

dP

12

P
V22 2
P1

A2
A1

dP

1
1

P2

K P1
1

P1

1
1
1 2
1
1
P2 P1
P

K
K

1 1

P1 P1

1V1 A1 2V2 A2

V1

P A2
2 A2
V2 2
V2
1 A1
P1 A1

2
V2
1

P1

P
1 2
P1

1
P

1 2

P1

P
V22 2
P1

2 P1
1 1
V2

P
1 2
P1

P
1 2
P1

A2
A1

A2
A1

2
V2
1

P1

P
1 2
P1

P
m th A2 2V2 A2 1 2
P1

m th A2

1
2

2
P
P
P1 1 2 2
P1 P1
1

P2
1
P1
4

2 P1 P2
1

1 1
P1

P
1 2
P1

A2

A1

m th A2

1
2

2
P
P
P1 1 2 2
P1 P1
1

P1

P1
P1 P2 P1 P2
P1 P2

P2
1
P1
4

m th A2

1
2

2
1
P
P
P1 P2 P 1 2 2
1
P
P
1 2 1 1
P1
2

P2
1
P1
4

m th A2

2 1 P1 P2
1 4

1
1
4

1
2

1 P2 P2

P2 P1 P1
1

P1
2

P2
1
P1
4

1
P
1 2
P1

For Compressible flows

m th A2

2 1 P1 P2
1 4

1
1
4

1
2

1 P2 P2

P2 P1 P1
1

P1
2

P2
1
P1
4

th A2
m

2 1 P1 P2
1 4

1
1
4

1
2

1 P2 P2

P2 P1 P1
1

P1
2

P2
1
P1
4

f 2 , ,
P1

The above equation for is never used in practice. In BS 1042 and ISO 5167, is for
square edged orifice is given as a regression equation

1 0.41 0.35

1
P2
1

P1

Air flows at 20 deg C through a 6-cm pipe. A square-edged orifice plate with = 0.4 is
chosen to meter the flow rate. A pressure drop of 250 cm H2O is measured at the
flange taps with an upstream pressure of 93.7 kPa abs. Find the flow rate.
D 60 mm
P1 93.7 kPa abs

0.4
P1 P2 1000 9.81 250 10 2 24.525 kPa P2 93.7 24.525 69.175 kPa

1
1

1
2

1 P2 P2

P2 P1 P1
1

P1

P2
0.73.83 1.4 0.4
P1

P2
1
P1
4

2
1.4 1
1.4
1

4
1.4 0.7383 1.4

1 0.4
0
.
7383

1.4 1
1 0.7383

1 0.4 0.7383
4

2
1.4

0.8442

 th C d A2
m
th 0.8442 0.6
m

2 1 P1 P2
1 4

24 10
4

3 2

2 1.1143 24.525 103

1 0.44

d 60 0.4 24 mm
P1 93.7 kPa abs

0.4
P1 P2 1000 9.81 250 10 2 24.525 kPa P2 93.7 24.525 69.175 kPa

P
93.7 103

1.1143 kg / m 3
RT 287 273 20

th 0.05427 kg / s 54.27 gms / s

m

1
1
4

1
2

1 P2 P2

P2 P1 P1
1

P1

P
1 4 2
P1

1.2

1.4

0.8

Beta = 0.2

0.6

Beta = 0.4
Beta = 0.6

Beta = 0.8

0.4

0.2

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

P2
P1

0.8

Expansion factors for common

obstruction meters
Experimentally
determined
expansion factors are lower
than that of that computed
from isentropic conditions.
Orifice
(p1-p2)/p1 = 0.4, = 0.4
exp = 0.87
theory = 0.7517
Venturi or nozzle
(p1-p2)/p1 = 0.4, = 0.5
exp = 0.74
theory = 0.744

1.2

0.5

Experimental Results
Theoretical Results

Experimental
results
are for nozzle and
venturi

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

P
1 2
P1

0.8

0.9

1
1

1
2

1 P2 P2

P2 P1 P1
1

P1

P
1 4 2
P1

Recommended placements for flow meters in a pipeline

TURN DOWN RATIO RANGE DP transmitters are usually available over a range of
1:100. Turn Down Ratio of DP devices is around 10.

Recommended placements for flow meters in a pipeline

Installation Requirements for Differential Pressure Devices
Fully Developed Flow is essential
Minimum Pipe lengths are essential to achieve fully developed flow condition

LAMINAR FLOWMETERS

64
f
;
Re

fLV 2 64 LV 2
64 LV 2 32 LV
D2
p

V
p
2

VD
2D
Re 2 D
2D
D
32 L

D2
D2 D4
Q VA
p

p
32 L
4
128 L

D4
Q
p
128 L

Re 2000

Advantages
1. A high sensitivity even at low flow rates
2. An ability to measure flow from either meter direction
3. A wide usable flow range
4. The ability to indicate an average flow rate in pulsating flows
5. The instrument systematic uncertainty in flow rate determination
is as low as 0.25% (95%) of the flow rate.
Disadvantages
1. These meters are limited to clean fluids due to clogging potential.
2. All of the measured pressure drop remains a system pressure loss.

CONICAL FLOWMETER
ISO 5167 recommends

Pipe fitting upstream of

orifice plate

upstream straight length

in pipe diameters D

Single 90 bend

36

Two or more 90 bends in

the same plane

42

Two or more 90 bends in

different planes

70

S. V. Prabhu, R. Mascomani, K. Balakrishnan and M. S. Konnur, Effects of upstream pipe fittings on the
Performance of orifice and conical flowmeters, Flow Measurement and Instrumentation, Vol. 7, No. I, pp.

Less upstream distance (5D) and downstream distance (2D)

CONICAL FLOWMETER

Kishor Borkar, A. Venugopal, S.V. Prabhu, Pressure measurement technique and installation effects on the
performance of wafer cone design, Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 30 (2013) 5259

CONICAL FLOWMETER - BIDIRECTIONAL FLOWMETER

Kishor Borkar, A. Venugopal, S.V. Prabhu, Study on the design and performance of a bi-directional cone
flowmeter, Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 34 (2013) 151159

ROTAMETER - Turndown is 10:1; Accuracy of 2% (95%) of flow rate

CD- Coefficient of Drag
- Density of fluid
B Density of float material
Ab Area of the bob or float
Vb - Volume of the bob or float
A Annular area

Drag Force + Buoyancy Force = Weight

1
FD FB W FD W FB C D Ab V 2 b Vb g Vb g
2

2 gVb b
V
1

C D Ab

2 gVb b

C D Ab

2 gVb b

C D Ab

Q AV

D ay d

D ay d

a - constant

2 gVb b
1

C D Ab

CD coefficient of drag is a function of Re, viscosity and density of fluid

For a given dimension of the bob and a given fluid, coefficient of drag is assumed
constant

2 gVb b

1
K cons tan t

C D Ab

Q AV AK

If area varies linearly with y, ie., A = Atube - Abob

Q Atube Abob K
If

Atube Abob varies linearly with x

Q mx CK mKx CK K 1 x K 2

Q x

ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOWMETER
B
U

e
Emf of electrical potential e, is induced in a
conductor of length L which moves with a
velocity, U, through a magnetic field of magnetic
flux, B

e U B .L

e U BL sin f U

is the angle between the mean velocity vector and the magnetic flux vector, usually at 90o
L distance between two electrodes of the order of diameter of the pipe
Q U

D2
4

E D2

K1 E
BL 4

K1 - Meter Constant

CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOWMETER

No pressure loss
Attractive for metering corrosive and dirty fluids
Operating principle of independent of fluid density and viscosity,
responding only to average velocity
Limited only to fluids having high thermal conductivity
Minimum thermal conductivity required is 0.1 cm/M

Vortex flowmeter - Principle of Operation

Shedding of vortices behind bluff body immersed in metered
flow
Vortices
Bluff Body

47 and
Yamasaki H and Rubin M 1974 The vortex flowmeter Flow its Measurement and Control in Science
Industry (USA) (ISA) pp 97583

Vortices

f d
St
V

Bluff Body

f Vortex shedding frequency (Hz)

d Cylinder diameter (m)
V - Mean flow velocity (m/s)

Strouhal No. is constant

In this region

Strouhal Number Variation with Reynolds Number

Venugopal, A., Agrawal, A., and Prabhu, S.V., "Review on vortex flowmeter - Designer
49
perspective," Sensors & Actuators A, to appear, 2011

Typical vortex flowmeter

Primary Element

Vortex Shedder

Sensor

Vortex Flowmeter

Secondary Element

Signal Processing

Piezoelectric
Sensor

Signal Converter

Transient Pressure
Sensor
50

Experimental Facility
6

3
1

1. Pump 2. Gate valve 3. Vortex flowmeter 4. Differential Pressure Transmitter/Piezo

Sensor 5. Ultrasonic flowmeter 6. Measuring tank 7. Load cell 8. Data acquisition system

Schematic of the Test Facility for Vortex flowmeter

Experimental Facility
Dye KMnO4 & Ujjala blue (Liquid fabric
whitener)
Camera Canon 550D (DSLR) @ 60 f/s

6
3
5

Dye Turbulent flow

Shear thickening dye

Flow measurement
ReD = 3000- 30000
Ultrasonic flow meter Uncertainty 2%
ReD < 3000
Coriolis mass flow meter Uncertainty 0.67%

Flow Visualization Setup

1. Pump 2. Sump 3. Gate Valve 4. Ultrasonic flow meter
5. Over Flow Line 6. Constant Head Tank 7. Camera

St- ReD relation

Linearity & Turndown ratio
Log10(ReD)
2.25

2.75

3.25

3.75

4.25

Log10(ReD)

4.75

5.25

5.75

2.5

3.5

4.5

0.4

0.45
d/D = 0.14
d/D = 0.19
d/D = 0.28

0.4

d/D = 0.28
d/D = 0.19
d/D = 0.14

0.35
0.3

St

St

0.35

0.3

0.25
0.2
0.15

0.25

0.1

0.2
180

1000

10000
ReD

100000

I - Steady Regime II - Unsteady Laminar Regime

III - Transition Regime
IV - Unsteady Turbulent Regime

300

1000

10000

100000

ReD

I - Steady Regime II Chaotic Regime

III - Transition Regime
IV - Unsteady Turbulent Regime

5.5

ReD = 10000

Unique Features of vortex flowmeter

No Moving parts
Large Turndown ratio (1:20)
Low Maintenance
High operating pressure & Temperature (30 bar, 450 C)
Low Cost
Specially Suitable for Steam
Good Accuracy ( 0.75 1.5% )
Versatility Same meter can be used in any compatible
medium

CORIOLIS MASS FLOWMETER

A slider of mass m is moving with velocity v along a rod; the rod itself is moving with
angular velocity about the axis XY.
The mass experiences a Coriolis force of magnitude

Fcor 2m V 2mV

m - mass of the fluid

- Excitation frequency
V Fluid velocity

and the direction perpendicular to both linear and angular velocity vectors.

Fluid flows through the U-tbe ABCD which is rotating with an angular velocity about the axis
XY.

m - mass of the fluid

- Excitation frequency

V Fluid velocity

Consider an element of fluid of length x travelling with velocity V along the limb AB which
will have mass

m A x

is the density of the fluid and A is the internal cross sectional area of the tube.
The element experiences a Coriolis force

F 2mV 2 AV x
The total force on the limb AB of length l is

F 2 AVL

F 2 A V x 2 A VL
0

m - mass of the fluid

- Excitation frequency
V Fluid velocity

The total force on the limb AB of length l is F 2 AVL

The total force on the limb CD of length l is F 2 AVL in the opposite
direction
Total coriolis force in BC is zero (velocity and angular velocity are parallel to each
other)
The U-tube experiences a resultant deflecting torque

Lr
T F 2r 2 AVL 2r 4m
Lr
T 4m

 Lr
T 4 m
rL L 4 r L2
T C
TL 4 m

m
J
L
CJ
CJ
CJ

Const m
J - polar moment of inertia
C- Shear modulus
- Angle of twist

4 r L2

m
CJ

At time t sensor P detects the tube in position CB and emits the voltage pulse.
At a later time t + t, sensor P detects the tube in position CBand again emits a
pulse.
The time interval t is small compared with the period of oscillation 1/f of
The distance BB = CC travelled by the tube in t is u t, where u is the velocity of
the tube at BC.
This depends on the angular velocity ; u = L
BB = CC = ut = 2r

L
2r

4 r L2
L
CJ

2 t
m
t m
CJ
2r
8r L

CJ
2 t
m
8r L

D - No flow
S1 Leading Motion of the tube

S2 Lagging Motion of the tube

Vt t Lt
Lt
Tan

2r
2r
2r
2r is the separation distance between two arms
2 r
2 r 4 r L2
8 r2 L

m
m
L
L
CJ
CJ

8r L

t
m
CJ

tL

Vt L

Inlet

Outlet
Direction of Coriolis
acceleration

Direction of Coriolis
acceleration

Exciter

v
P
Sensor 1

Sensor 2

[dB /1.00 V]

A uto spectrum(Signal 1) - Input

Wo rking : Input : Input : FFT A nalyzer

-30
-40
-50
-60
-70

Natural
frequencies
15, 24, 50, 123 Hz

-80
-90
-100
-110
0

[dB /1.00 V]

20

40

A uto spectrum(Signal 2) - Input

Wo rking : Input : Input : FFT A nalyzer

-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
-110
0

20

40

60

80

100
[H z]

120

140

160

180

200

60

80

100
[H z]

120

140

160

180

200

PVC with L

40

PVC with 3L/4

PVC with L/2

Phase Shift (deg)

20

0
Case E
Case F
Case G

-20

-40

-60
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Phase Shift versus Mass Flow Rate Curves for Various

Lengths of PVC Tubes

0.6

SONIC NOZZLE
Cylindrical Throat Venturi Nozzle

Convenient method to meter and to regulate a gas flow

Secondary calibration standard for gas flows

SONIC NOZZLE
Cylindrical Throat Venturi Nozzle

2 1
P o 1 2 1
P
1 1 1 1
1
M
; M 1 ; o 1

P
o

2
P
2
P
2

To
T
1 2
1 To 1
2
1
M ; M 1; o 1

T To
T
2
T
2
T
2
1

State -o Upstream (stagnant conditions);State -2 Throat (sonic conditions)

th 2 A2V2
m

th
m

2 1 1 1
P2
2
A2 R T2 Po

RT
2
o

RT2
R To
2
1
1
2
1

Po
2
A2 2 RTo
R To
1 1

2
1

Po
2
act Cd
m
A2 2 RTo
R To
1 1

Mass flow rate is related only to the upstream parameters

Toroidal throat venturi Nozzle

INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS

HOT WIRE ANEMOMETERS

I 2 Rw hA Tw T f

Current I

h is mainly a function of flow velocity for

Sensor dimensions:
length ~1 mm
diameter ~5 micrometer

a given fluid density

h C0 C1 V

Kings Law

Wire supports
(St.St. needles)

Velocity U
Sensor (thin wire)

CONSTANT CURRENT ANEMOMETER

If I constant V changes h changes Rw changes
measure Rw Relation between Rw & Tw is used to get h. Now get V
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE ANEMOMETER
If Rw constant then Tw is constant measure current calculate h now get V
using Kings law.
For steady velocities there is no problem

I 2 Rw hA Tw T f

I 2 Rw C0 C1 V0 A K tr Rw T f

Vo Constant velocity

Rwo constant resistance

Voltage = IRwo

If there is a fluctuation in velocity by v; V = Vo + v

v FLUCTUATING COMPONENT OF VELOCITY

Rw = Rwo + rw

rw is the varying component

Neglecting conduction and radiation, during a time interval dt, for the wire
Electrical energy generated Energy lost by convection = Energy stored in wire

A Tw T f C o C1 V

While the wire temperature is given by

Tw K tr Rwo rw
Energy lost by convection

Ktr - Reciprocal of Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

This term may be approximately linearised for small changes
C o C1 V
in V with good accuracy as follows

f V C o C 1 V C o C 1 Vo

f
V Vo
V V V
o

f V Co C1 V Co C1 Vo kv v

I 2 R

dTw
wo rw A Tw T f Co C1 Vo kv v MC P
dt

M mass of the wire CP specific heat of the wire

I 2 R

drw
wo rw A K tr Rwo rw T f C o C 1 Vo k v v MC P K tr
dt
I 2 Rwo A K tr Rwo T f Co C1 Vo 0
Under equilibrium conditions

dr
I 2 Rwo I 2 rw A K tr Rwo K tr rw T f C o C 1 Vo k v v MC P K tr w
dt

I 2 Rwo A K tr Rwo T f

Co C1

Vo 0

I 2 Rwo I 2 rw A K tr Rwo T f C o C 1 Vo A K tr Rwo T f

I 2 rw A K tr Rwo T f

kv v AK tr rw kv v AK tr rw Co C1

drw
A K tr Rwo T f kv v
dt

dt

dr
Irw I 2 AK tr Co C1 Vo MC P K tr I w A K tr Rwo T f kv vI
dt

drw de
Irw e I

dt
dt

drw
dt

neglected
dr
kv v AK tr rw kv v AK tr rw Co C1 Vo MC P K tr w

rw I 2 AK tr Co C1 Vo MC P K tr

Multiply by I

Vo MC P K tr

de
e I 2 AK tr Co C1 Vo MC P K tr A K tr Rwo T f kv vI
dt
de
MC P K tr e AK tr Co C1 Vo I 2 A K tr Rwo T f kv vI
dt

de
MC P K tr e AK tr Co C1 Vo I 2 A K tr Rwo T f kv vI
dt

Divide by

AK C
tr

o C1 Vo I

MC P K tr

AK C C V I 2
tr o
1
o

MC P K tr

AK C C V I 2
tr o
1
o

de
e Kv
dt

de
A K tr Rwo T f k v I
e
v
dt
AK C C V I 2
tr o
1
o

A K tr Rwo T f k v I
sec onds K
Volts / m / s

AK C C V I 2
tr o
1
o

e
D K
v
D1

Typically is of the order of 0.001 s , so f = 100 Hz

Turbulence studies require frequencies of 50000 Hz

Hence, Dynamic Compensation is essential

K1

1 1 D

D 1

eo

Implementation is not easy

First problem is to find the time constant before you can even compensate

Electronically generate the fluctuations in the form of a square wave

No square wave current: Adjust R1 to give desired current Io ; adjust Rb to
balance bridge

Compensation
Adjustment Scheme

I o i 2 Rwo rw AK tr Rwo rw T f C o C 1

Vo MC P K tr

drw
dt

I o i 2 Rwo rw I o2 2 I o i i 2 Rwo rw

Io i 2 Rwo rw Io2 Rwo Io2 rw 2 IoiRwo 2 Ioirw i 2 Rwo i 2 rw

Io i 2 Rwo rw Io2 Rwo Io2 rw 2 IoiRwo

dr
I o2 Rwo I o2 rw 2 I o iRwo AK tr Rwo rw T f C o C 1 Vo MC P K tr w
dt

I o2 Rwo I o2 rw 2 I o iRwo A K tr Rwo T f Co C1 Vo AK tr rw Co C1 Vo MC P K tr

2
Under equilibrium conditions I Rwo A K tr Rwo T f

I o2 rw 2 I o iRwo AK tr rw Co C1 Vo MC P K tr

drw
dt

drw
MC P K tr
rw AK tr C o C 1 Vo I o2 2 I o iRwo
dt

Co C1

drw
dt

Vo 0

MC P K tr

drw
rw AK tr C o C 1 Vo I o2 2 I o iRwo
dt

AK tr Co C1 Vo Io2

Divide by

drw
2 I o Rwo
rw
i
2 dt
2
AK tr C o C 1 Vo I o
AK tr C o C 1 Vo I o

MC P K tr

(AK [
tr

MC P K tr
C o + C 1 Vo

2
o

sec onds ; K =

(AK [
tr

2 I o Rwo
C o + C 1 Vo

2
o

ohms / amps

Ro
Rr
For a Balanced Bridge

Rwo Rb

i1 i i 2
i1 i i
i2 i

R Rr Rw Rb
Rw Rb

i a
Ra Rr
R

R
a
r

Ra Rr

i i1
Ra Rr Rw Rb

Rw Rb
Rw Rb

i1
Ra Rr
Ra Rr Rw Rb

Varying component of voltage across B3 and B4

e Ra i 2 Rwo rw i I o rw Ra i 2 Rwo i I o rw neglecting irw

R Rb
Ra Rw Ra Rb Rwo Ra Rwo Rr
e Ra w
i Rwo i I o rw
i I o rw
Ra Rr
Ra Rr

Rwo Ra Ra Rw ; Rwo Rr Ra Rb ; Bridge Balance

e I o rw

Ke
e
D
i
D1

Ke Io K

Response of the voltage e to impressed current signals (artificially

generated) has the identical time constant as the response to flowvelocity signal
Compensated networks may be adjusted to optimize the response to the
current inputs and ensure optimum response for flow velocity inputs

Under
compensated

Over
compensated

Rightly
compensated
(Almost)

MEAN MOTION AND FLUCTUATIONS

_______

1
T

t o T

u2 dt

to