STP 176

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SYMPOSIUM ON
IMPACT TESTING
Presented at the
FIFTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS
Atlantic City, N. J., June 27 1955
ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 176
Published by the
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS
1916 Race St., Philadelphia 3, Pa.
This page intentionally left blank
FOREWORD
This publication is based on a Symposium on Impact Testing that was
held at the Fifty-eighth Annual Meeting of the American Society for Testing
Materials in Atlantic City, N. J., June 27, 1955 comprising the First and
Second sessions. The symposium was sponsored by Committee E-l on
Methods of Testing with Mr. F. G. Tatnall, Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton Corp.,
Philadelphia, Pa., serving as Symposium chairman.
Mr. Tatnall also presided at the Second session with H. L. Fry, Bethlehem
Steel Co., Inc., Bethlehem, Pa., as secretary and Mr. W. W. Werring, Bell
Telephone Laboratories, Inc., New York, N. Y., presided at the.First
session with W. H. Mayo, U. S. Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa., as secretary.
In addition to the papers presented as a part of the Symposium, five other
papers, being appropriate to the general theme of the Symposium, have been
included on "Effects of Manganese and Aluminum Contents on Transition
Temperature of Normalized Nickel Steel," by T. N. Armstrong, and O. 0.
Miller, International Nickel Co.; "Low-Temperature Transition of Normalized CarbonManganese Steel," by T. N. Armstrong International Nickel
Co. and W. L. Warner, Watertown Arsenal; "Effect of Specimen Width
on the Notched Bar Impact Properties of Quenched-and-Tempered and
Normalized Steels," by R. S. Zeno, General Electric Co.; "Stress-Strain Relationships in Yarns Subjected to Rapid Impact Loading," by Herbert F.
Schiefer, Jack C. Smith, Frank McCrackin, and W. K. Stone, National
Bureau of Standards; and "Shock Testing with the Rocket-Powered Pendulum," by R. W. Hager, Sandia Corp.
NOTE.The Society is not responsible, as a body, for the statements

and opinions advanced in this publication.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction
Notched-Bar TestingTheory and PracticeS. L. Hoyt
Discussion
Transition Behavior in V-Notch Charpy Slow-Bend TestsCarl E. Hartbower

Discussion
10
23
Effects of Manganese and Aluminum Contents on Transition Temperature of Normal25

ized Nickel SteelT. N. Armstrong and O. O. Miller
Low-Temperature Transition of Normalized Carbon-Manganese SteelsT. N.
40
Armstrong and W. L. Warner
Effect of Specimen Width on the Notched Bar Impact Properties of Quenched59
And-Tempered and Normalized SteelsR. S. Zeno.
Reproducibility of Charpy Impact TestDavid E. Driscoll
70
Discussion
Automatic Impact Testing
S. DeSisto
75
From Room Temperature
to 236 CThomas
76
The Influence of Pendulum Flexibilities on Impact Energy MeasurementsJoseph

I. Bluhm
84
Discussion
93
The Impact Tube: A New Experimental Technique for Applying Impulse Loads
94
George Gerard
Discussion
110
Longitudinal Impact Tests of Long Bars With A Slingshot MachineW. Ramberg

and L. K. Irwin
111
Discussion
125
Stress-Strain Relationships in Yarns Subjected to Rapid Impact LoadingHerbert

126
F. Schiefer, Jack C. Smith, Frank L. McCrackin and W. K. Stone
Shock Tester for Shipping ContainersW. H. Cross and Max McWhirter
141
Shock Testing with the Rocket-Powered PendulumR. W. Hager.
149
Properties of Concrete at High Rates of LoadingD. Watstein.
156
Discussion.
170
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
SYMPOSIUM ON IMPACT TESTING

INTRODUCTION
Over the years there have been many
discussions of the technique and significance of the impact test, including several
formal symposia.
The last Impact Symposium was held
in 1938. Much technical development
since that time has been attributed to
information contained in those symposium papers.
Now seventeen years later another Im
pact Symposium steps into a field that
is already brimming with interest and
activity. Some phases of this field carry
the designation "Environmental Testing."
Along this line, it was suggested some

time ago by members of the Impact
Committee, of Committee E-l, that papers on shock tests be included in this
symposium which would encompass impact in parts, components, and complete
structures, and not confine_the symposium to notched bar testing. This broadened scope has been undertaken with
what appears to be very beneficial enhancement of the parctical application
of the impact test
straining rates. The end result is an excellent balance between theory and experimental results.
Copyright 1956 by ASTM International
www.astm.org
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
NOTCHED-BAR TESTINGTHEORY AND PRACTICE

BY S. L. HoYT1
to fully recognize the rigidity or the
stiffening effect, at the notch section,
This paper covers a few of the points which is caused by the third dimensional
thought to be especially significant in stress. This is the stress, amplified by the
handling the practical phases of brittle stress concentration, which must exceed
fracture.
the cohesive or brittle strength for brittle
When metallurgists and engineers were fracture to result. Attention became
first confronted with the brittle fracture centered on stress raisers, and the theory
of steel, it was thought that impact seems to have been that, since steel is
must be the cause. But leading experi- ductile, a slight deformation at the root
menters soon found this concept to be would relieve the stress, and that nothing
inadequate and, at the turn of the more was important. An example which
century, the notch was recognized in its brings out the effect of rigidity is the
true light and was introduced into formal failed forging, which while ductile with
tests of steel quality. At the same time, the single or standard-width test bar was
the energy absorbed in breaking the test brittle, with the same notch, when tested
bar was universally adopted as the meas- with the double-width bar. Another is
ure of quality; this led to the simple the Navy Tear Test,3 which gives a much
device of breaking the test bar by means higher transition temperature than the
of a swinging pendulum. Doubtless due Charpy keyhole test bar does with the
to the earlier notions, the test thus be- same notch acuity. Another misconcepcame commonly known as the "im- tion has been that steels having the same
pact test" and so perpetuated the idea tensile properties would all perform
that brittle fracture was the result of similarly in the presence of a notch. This
impact. This was in spite of demonstra- was negated at an early date by a formal
tions to the contrary, such as the work of and authoritative series of tests conConsidere,2 who found that increasing ducted by the German Society for Testthe strain rate simply raised the tem- ing Materials, the results of which were
perature at which brittle fracture oc- published in 1907.4 In more recent times,
curred.
Two other misconceptions impeded
3
R. H. Frazier, J. R. Spretnak, and F. W.
understanding of notch brittleness and Boulger, "Reproducibility of Keyhole Charpy
delayed the general acceptance of and Tear-Test Data on Laboratory Heats on
Steel," Symposium on Metallic Manotched-bar testing. First was the failure Semikilled
terials at Low Temperatures, Am. Soc. Testing
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
1
Metallurgical
2
Consultant, Columbus, Ohio.

Considere, "Contribution a PltJtude de la
Fragility dans les Fers et les Aciers," (1904).
Mats., p. 286 (1953). (Issued as separate publication

ASTM STP No. 158.)
4
See for example, S. L. Hoyt, "Principles of
Metallography, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
New York, N. Y., p. 226 (1920).
3
www.astm.org
the fallacy of this assumption has been

demonstrated many times.
Thus, while stress concentrations were
recognized, the important effect of notch
rigidity was largely ignored and the easy
assumption was made that ductility
would provide steel with what was
needed to handle notch conditions. Impacts were held to be the prime service
hazard, which, of course, led to a further
discounting of the effects of notches.
This line of thought, except in a few
cases, set up a block to the correct understanding of "brittle fracture."
A major object in noting these details
of the history of brittle fracture is to
emphasize that the service problem has
been the brittle behavior and low energyabsorbing capacity of ductile steel.
Hence, the proper handling of this problem requires an understanding of the
conditions that produce the brittle failure. The problem of ductile failure under
notch conditions is much more complex,
less well understood, and furthermore,
seldom encountered in practice.
If steel retained its ductile behavior
under all conditions, as many non-ferrous metals do, the problem would be
one of mechanics of materials and not of
metallurgy. This is true of steel when it
is tested above its transition temperature, since such tests determine the behavior during, and as a result of, plastic
deformation of some severity. In reality,
the significant properties of the steel
must be those of the initial and undeformed condition, from which it follows
that to be fruitful, laboratory studies of
brittle fracture should develop the same
brittle behavior as is developed in service.
It is advanced here that these concepts
are vital to the selection of steel when
the service hazard is brittle fracture and
also to the interpretation of laboratory
test results.
STEEL SELECTION
A somewhat unusual example of
notched-bar testing to select a steel for a
specific application may be illustrated
by means of a hypothetical case. It is discussed to illustrate how these principles
can be employed.
In this example, a weldment made of
common steel was exhibiting brittle
failures at 30 F. When tested with the
V-notch Charpy bar, the 10 ft-lb transition temperatures of a group of these
steels ran from 30 to 90 F, all temperatures being idealized for purposes of discussion. At the service temperature of
30 F, all of the steels tested including
some of presumably "better" quality,
were completely brittle. While one could
say that one steel was better than
another, there was no way of interpreting
the results to decide which steels, if any,
were "good enough" for the application.
Obviously, these transition temperatures
do not give a sound basis for selecting the
proper steel to use. At this stage of the
example, there was no opportunity to
secure samples from a known satisfactory
weldment for test purposes.
According to one theory, one could
assume that the steel should have a
transition temperature, with the standard bar, which came at a safe margin
below 30 F. While that might be a safe
steel to apply, there would still be no
assurance that it would be "good
enough" or, what is more important in
industrial practice, that it would be
"just good enough." Furthermore, a
glance at steel costs would show that a
steel with that low a transition temperature would price the weldment off the
market. So it became necessary to seek
the solution by other means.
A search through past records suggested that some steels were performing
better than others under much the same
conditions. This revealed that the weld-
HOYT ON NOTCHED-BAR TESTING

ment was differentiating between steels
at 30 F, whereas the Charpy test was
not. This indicated a possibility of developing a test bar, with a less drastic
notch effect than that of the V-notch
bar, which would differentiate between
the steels at 30 F as the weldment did.
That test bar could be used as a model
or a guide and, in additional testing,
make it possible to select the cheapest
steel that was "just good enough." In
this case, steel costs dictated that brittle
failure must be prevented by not letting
a fracture start and run, though that
placed the burden on design, fabrication,
and inspection.
With reference to transition-temperature testing for selecting the steel, it
maybe noted, first, that there was noway
of knowing whether to use steel with a
transition temperature of 0 F, 30 F, or
60 F, etc., and, second, that the costs
of these steels vary so much that a wrong
choice could be fatal.
The element of cost is so important in
steel selection that a special study is
frequently called for. In one case, it was
found that a better steel, although it
cost more per ton, was also stronger than
the steel it was to replace and, therefore,
would give a weldment of the same
strength that would be lighter, less expensive, and less vulnerable to brittle
fracture than the cheaper and inferior
steel.
The case of steel for merchant ships
may be taken as another example of the
use of a notched-bar test of steel for
acceptability in a specific application.
It has been established that the plates in
which fracture started has a Charpy
V-notch value of about 10 f t-lb at the air
temperature at which failure occurred.
The corresponding value for. the plates in
which fracture stopped was about 20
ft-lb. Consequently, one can say that
acceptable steel should have values of
either 10 ft-lb or 20 ft-lb at the low expected service temperature, depending
on which approach is used. Steel for acceptance would then have to be tested
at only the one temperature. The justification of this procedure is the finding
that the V-notch bar is a reasonably
satisfactory replica of the ship structure,
which means that both break in essentially the same fashion at the same temperature. The V-notch for ship steel
corresponds to the special notch for
testing steel for the weldment at 30 F.
These are examples of the use of constant- or single-temperature testing for
engineering applications. The method is
that of determining and then using the
notched bar that approximates the component or structure to be tested, whether
the test bar is a so-called standard bar
or one developed specifically for the application. However, it is to be recognized
that in the latter case, the design may be
based on the principle of insuring against
starting a fracture and that, therefore, the
steel thus selected may not have the
ability to stop a fracture from running.
If one does not rely on avoiding starting
a fracture, then a steel should be used in
which a crack does not run under serious
conditions. The latter will usually be
more expensive.
RATING STEELS FOR
NOTCH TOUGHNESS
In the great majority of cases, different
notched bars rate a series of steels in
about the same order of merit. Consequently, studies of the effects of composition, heat treatment, and steelmaking practice generally employ some
one test bar for rating purposes. It is
well that this is so, and it points up the
first requirement of work on brittle
fracture, namely, that an effective notch
of some kind be used for testing. However, in some exceptions two different
test bars may give different ratings for
the same steel, and this raises the question of which to believe or use.
An example of the latter situation is
given by data of Christensen and Augland, which were recently cited by

Houdremont.5 These are reproduced in
Table I.
The V-notch rates steels Nos. 3 and 6
as equivalents, since they have the same
transition temperature of 66 F, whereas
the same steels behave quite differently
when tested with the keyhole notch.
This cannot be too surprising, even
though exceptional, since the test bars*
sample the behavior with two different
stress systems and it is fundamental
that the notch properties of the undeformed metal (cohesive strength and
shear strength or critical shear stress) are
different at the different transition temperatures. This amounts to testing two
different materials of sufficiently different properties to give this difference in
behavior.
temperature, the selection could not be

on a sound basis. Furthermore, this
approach can lead to the selection of too
costly a steel. In case there is no direct
correlation with service (design, strain
rate, and temperature), the procedure
outlined above is available.
The case of selecting a steel which will
stop a running crack is different. While
TABLE I.TRANSITION TEMPERATURES, DEG FAHR.
Steel
No. 3
V-notch
Keyhole
Difference between
notches
66
14
52
DifferSteel ence BeNo. 6 tween

Steels
66
59
7
0
45
one is still concerned with the presence

of notches and accidental or unavoidable
SUMMARY
initiators of fracture, the problem is
In those cases where design and free- simpler because the notch (the running
dom from dangerous notches are relied fracture) has a specific and constant
upon to avoid starting a brittle fracture geometry, as long as the thickness reand the steel is selected accordingly, mains constant. For this case, laboratory
the brittle transition temperature will, work has developed the V-notch as a
in nearly all cases, select a suitably guide. The indications are that a better
tough steel provided it has been ade- quality steel is needed here because the
quately calibrated against service per- running fracture is a worse hazard than
formance. However, should there be a design and fabrication notches, when
significant difference between the transi- flaws and cracks are eliminated. Ecotion temperature and the low service nomics may step in and play an important
role in steel selection because steel and
5
E. Houdremont, Consultant, Essen, Ger- other costs may be significantly different
for each case.
many, Metal Progress, January, 1955, p. 116.
DISCUSSION
to ask Mr. Hoyt a questionwould he be

brave enough to venture to give some
definition of transition temperature that
may be satisfactory to engineers and
metallurgists? Every time there is a discussion of the impact properties of steel,
the phrase "transition temperature" is
bandied around rather freely, yet we have
such a conglomeration of meanings for
this phrase that very few of us know
what the other means when he uses the
term.
There is an erroneous impression that
may be gained from Mr. Hoyt's phraseology. If I understood him correctly, I
gathered that if a steel were to be used
at a certain low temperature, its use
would be suitable provided its transition
temperature were lower than the service
temperature. Conversely, if its transition
temperature were higher than the service
temperature, its use would not be suitable. This would imply that, whatever
the criterion used to determine transition
temperature, this value should be as
low or lower than the service temperature. I do not believe Mr. Hoyt intended to convey this impression.
Mr. Hoyt's proposal, namely, that
steels should be tested at the minimum
temperature of service by some means so
that differentiation can be made between
the relative toughness of the steels at
that temperature, has real merit. This
MR. S. J. ROSENBERG.1I should like
would involve changes in the geometry

of the test specimen, with concomitant
changes in severity in the stress system,
until a brittle fracture is obtained at the
temperature in question. If the several
steels considered for use are so evaluated
at the specific temperature involved, it
appears logical to assume that the steel
needing the greatest severity in the stress
system to induce brittleness at that
temperature is the most suitable for use.
MR. A. B. WILDER2 (presented in
written form).Mr. Hoyt, for many
years, has given much thought and consideration to the toughness of steel; and
in so doing, he has been devoting his
time to a fundamental property, a
property which is just as important
today as it was when he started on this
course of dealing with the toughness of
steel.
The steel producers in general can
provide a steel that is tough. It will be
tough enough to suit most requirements,
but such a steel may be expensive and
require special treatment. The problem
is not necessarily to provide a tough steel
but to provide a steel so that its use will
be justifiable on an economic basis. In
other words, the problem is to develop
tougher steels at a lower cost. There are
tough steels available, but economics
very often do not justify their commercial use. Furthermore, some of these
steels would not be available in the large
1
Metallurgist, U. S. Dept. of Commerce,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D. C.
2
Chief Metallurgist, National Tube Division, U. S. Steel, William Perm Place, Pittsburgh, Pa.
7
tonnages that certain applications would

require. For example, a steel utilizing
nickel to provide toughness may be
available in only limited quantities because of Governmental restrictions on
the use of nickel.
With regard to the general subject of
the toughness of steels, I believe that
most steel producers recognize the importance of this problem in their steelmaking processes. There is much work
being conducted in various steelmaking
plants throughout the nation on the
subject. This work has been in progress
for many years. In other words, steel
mill metallurgists are concerned with the
toughness of steel and are doing many
things to try to improve that property;
and if we are going to consider a new
steelmaking process we must evaluate
the property Mr. Hoyt discussed, that is,
the toughness of steel.
Another important consideration in
the development of new steelmaking
processes is the factor of utilizing existing processes and special treatments
available in the various plants. For
example, there are two new steelmaking
plants recently constructed, using the
oxygen-lance methoda plant in Canada
and in the United States. In Europe there
are several plants using this method,
which is often called the L-D process. In
these new processes the toughness characteristics of steel have been given consideration, and in this respect, I would
say the steel industry was traveling in
the right direction with respect to the
factors which are related to the toughness
of steel.
In the matter of crack initiation and
crack propagation, there are two fundamental characteristics involved, and
when you deal with crack initiation the
requirement is less with regard to toughness than with crack propagation. In
other words, tougher steels are required
to stop the propagation of a crack after
it has started than to prevent one from
starting. There has been, and will continue to be, considerable emphasis on
this matter of the crack initiation. Efforts
will continue in an attempt to develop a
steel in which the crack will not initiate.
That is less difficult for the steel maker
than to develop a steel which will stop
the crack, although both of these objectives can be achieved at a cost. In addition to the toughness characteristics of
steel, it is frequently more important to
improve design and require careful
handling during installation in order to
achieve the best results. Very often great
emphasis is placed on the toughness of
steel when other factors are more important.
MR. T. B. REYNOLDS.3I should like
to ask Mr. Hoyt which type of Charpy
specimen is most used, the V-notch or
the keyhole, and is there a trend toward
one or the other?
I should also like to ask if there are
applications in which one is superior to
the other.
MR. S. L. HOYT (author}.Mr. Rosenberg asked for a definition of transition
temperature. To me the correct transition temperature for any particular
notched test bar is what I have chosen
to call the match point, because that ties
up definitely with the notch properties
of cohesive strength and critical shear
stress. It is the upper temperature of the
brittle temperature range and is the
only point on the whole transition temperature curve that has precise significance. The match point of a structure in
service is presumably the temperature
at which brittle failure occurs, though
this can also happen at lower temperatures.
Mr. Rosenberg asked a question about
the statement that I made of using a
steel whose transition temperature came
below the service temperature. That is
safe provided the proper test bar is used
3
Inspector, Ingersoll-Rand Co., Phillipsburg,
N. J.
DISCUSSION ON NOTCHED-BAR TESTS

for determining the transition temperature. I believe the paper shows what is
meant by the "proper" test bar and also
that the transition temperature must be
the temperature of brittle fracture, that
is, the match point.
He also mentioned that testing at the
service temperature means changing the
test specimen. I think that is unavoidable.
As I read various articles that are published from time to time, it seems to me
that that concept is being recognized, at
least for guarding against design notches.
To guard against cracks and running
fractures, a more nearly standard, though
more sharply notched, test bar should
be adequate.
Mr. Reynolds asked which notch is
most used. I am not sure what the
correct answer is, but it is my impression
that it is the V-notch at present. The
keyhole was the most popular one some
years ago but when we began getting
these results on ship plate with a fairly
good correlation between the V-notch
and the behavior of ships, I think that
the V-notch acquired a background, or a
pedigree, that has never been produced
for the keyhole notch.
However, that has to do with fracture
propagation. If one were dealing with
initiation of a fracture and if that had
been the point in the study, it might
have been the keyhole notch.
He also asked which one is superior.
I believe it is the one which best matches
the application, and it might be the Vnotch, it might be the standard keyhole,
or it might be some other.
In the case that I cite in the paper,
neither one was satisfactory, or neither
one was superior. If one were studying
deoxidation practice, for example, it is
not so critical which notch you use. The
main thing there is to use a notch bar.
Mr. Wilder opens his discussion on a
cardinal pointhow to produce, or
procure, steel which has adequate tough-
ness for a given application and at a cost

that will justify its use on an economic
basis. The problem of steel plate for
merchant ships is now a classic example
and it was to meet the situation that
Mr. Wilder mentions that** I proposed,
in the Committe on Ship Steel, the study
of the effects of manufacturing variables
on the toughness of commercial plate
steel. The results of that project have
issued from time to time as publications
of Battelle Memorial Institute.
Steel melting is one of the controlling
variables and, in this connection, it is
necessary to determine the toughness of
the steel which is produced by a new
process, if the product is to be adequately evaluated. The oxygen lance or
L/D process is an example. It appears, as
Mr. Wilder states, that the steel industry
is traveling in the right direction, yet
there is evidence which indicates that a
still greater improvement may be attained and with no prejudicial cost
burden.
It was especially gratifying to have
Mr. Wilder's comments on crack initiation and crack propagation. There has
been a large amount of investigational
work done on these points, but little has
been published on the practical aspects.
That is why, along with their importance, the latter were dwelt on specifically in the paper. If one limits himself,
in the selection of steel, to one whose
toughness is sufficient to stop a crack
from running, he may well find that
economic considerations preclude the
use of that steel. As Mr. Wilder comments, "it is frequently more important
to improve design and require careful
handling during installation in order to
achieve the best results." An example of
a case of this kind was discussed in the
paper. The problem of applying tonnage
steels, where toughness is a factor, is
more acute and difficult than the problem
of applying specially processed steels.
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
TRANSITION BEHAVIOR IN V-NOTCH CHARPY SLOW-BEND TESTS

BY CARL E. HARTBOWER1
SYNOPSIS
V-notch Charpy slow-bend tests (see also Armstrong (I)2) have been
conducted over a range of temperatures, using three commercial structural
steels representing the full range of commercial deoxidation practice, and a
number of carbon-manganese steels containing 0.04 to 0.45 per cent carbon
and 0.43 to 1.05 per cent manganese. The criteria used in evaluating slowbend performance were (1) lateral expansion, (2) fracture appearance, and (3)
temperature. In particular, attention was focused on the deformation, fibrosity, and temperature attending catastrophic crack propagation (sudden
and complete fracture of the test specimen at maximum load).
It was found that considerable plastic deformation occurs in the V-notch
Charpy slow-bend bar even at temperatures resulting in 90 per cent crystallinity and catastrophic crack-propagation. By defining transition temperature
as the highest temperature at which an initiating crack can propagate under
action of the elastic-stress energy alone, that is, sudden and complete fracture
of the test specimen at maximum load, and by noting the deformation occurring in specimens which fractured at maximum load, it was possible to differentiate between the deformation attending the crack initiation and crack
propagation stages of fracture in slow bend.
under investigation in the United States

and Europe. All of the tests are more or
less consistent in rating a given series
of steels in the same order. However,
the choice of performance criteria and
the attendant definitions of transition
temperature have been an ever-present
source of confusion. Attempts to correlate data from different test specimens,
SELECTION or PERFORMANCE CRITERIA or from a single type of specimen but
For the past ten years or more, the based upon different criteria, or upon
relative merits of various laboratory different definitions of transition temtests for notch-toughness have been perature with a single criterion, have led
to anomalies and probably erroneous
1
Chief, Metals Fabrication Branch, Water- conclusions. Stout and McGeady (2)
town
Arsenal Laboratories, Watertown, Mass.
were among the first to bring the transi2
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
to the list of references appended to this paper, tion-temperature dilemma into focus.
They contended that the choice of test
see p. 22.
10
The objective of this investigation was
to evaluate certain performance criteria
and a particular definition of transition
temperature for use in connection with
V-notch Charpy slow-bend tests. The
performance criteria were evaluated on
the basis of their response to selected metallurgical variables.
www.astm.org
HARTBOWER ON TRANSITION BEHAVIOR

specimen is far less critical for the correlation of test results than is the choice
of criterion used in establishing the
transition temperature.
The selection of the criteria used in
this investigation for evaluating slowbend performance was based upon the
following observations regarding cracking in the V-notch Charpy specimen and
regarding the difference between ductile
and brittle fracture:
1. Crack initiation occurs as a ductile
11
gated by continuous release of the elasticstress field surrounding the crack,

whereas a ductile-fracture crack requires
plastic-deformation work to extend the
crack (4).
In conventional notch-bar impact
testing, results are usually expressed in
terms of (1) the energy absorbed in producing fracture, or (2) the amount of
fibrosity (or crystallinity) in the fracture
surface. In slow-bending, on the other
hand, certain additional information can
FIG. 1.Typical V-Notch Charpy Slow-Bend Load Deflection Curves.
crack in the root of the notch at the

midpoint of the specimen well before
maximum load is reached; the crack
then grows laterally as the load is increased until it reaches the sides of the
specimen, at which tune a maximum in
the load-deflection curve occurs; and
finally, beyond maximum load, the
crack deepens while extending down the
sides of the specimen (Fig. 1) (3).
2. Brittle fracture may be differentiated from ductile fracture in the manner
in which the initiating crack is propagated; a brittle-fracture crack is propa-
be obtained from the load-deflection

diagram, such as the maximum load
sustained, the deflection to maximum
load or fracture, and from the area under
the load-deflection diagram, the work
done in producing fracture. Raring's
findings (3) suggest that the energy absorbed after-maximum-load is worthy of
special consideration in that it provides
a measure of the work done in propagating a crack through the test specimen.
Thus, if there is zero energy after maximum load, the crack is self-propagating;
that is, the elastic-stress energy stored
12
in the system is sufficient to drive the

crack through the specimen.
The differentiation between ductile
and brittle fractures suggested by
Orowan appears particularly useful for
the purpose of denning transition tern-
crack is propagated. Thus, when the

load-deflection diagram indicates energy
after maximum load (plastic-deformation work), the elastic-stress energy in
the bar was insufficient to propagate
the crack completely through the speci-
TABLE I.COMMERCIAL STEELS SUBJECTED TO SUBCRITICAL HEAT

TREATMENT.
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Nitrogen, per cent
Material
Fully-killed 1^ in. plate

Semikilled 1 in. plate..
Rimmed % in. plate....
Carbon
per cent
Manganese,
per cent
Silicon,
per cent
Aluminum,
per cent
0.20
0.23
0.19
0.58
0.54
0.35
0.21
0.12
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.01
Soluble
(1:1HC1)
Insoluble
0.006
0.005
0.007
ml
nil
0.003
TENSILE PROPERTIES
(After Normalizing at 1650 F for 1^ hr)
Material
Fully-killed steel.
Semikilled steel. .
Rimmed steel. . . .
Yield Strength,
0.2 per cent
Offset, psi
Tensile
Strength, psi
Elongation in
2 in., per cent
Reduction of
Area, per cent
42 100
39 600
41 200
62 200
64 000
64 000
39.5
38.0
36.5
67.2
63.8
58.0
LABORATORY CARBON-MANGANESE STEELS

Heat Number
Carbon, per cent
Manganese, per cent
ASTM Grain Size
Pearlite, per cent
20701-G
19924-B
20704-K
20705-M
19927-E
0.04
0.09
0.15
0.21
0.45
0.43
0.43
0.49
0.47
0.43
6
6-7
7-8
8
1-3
4.0
10.0
18.0
25.0
60.0
20702-H
20415-S
19925-C
0.04
0.11
0.20
0.74
0.78
0.69
7
8
8
4.0
15.0
25.0
20703-J
20416-T
20412-F
20706-N
0.04
0.10
0.20
0.31
0.98
1.03
0.92
1.05
7
8
7-8
8
4.0
12.0
25.0
40.0
perature. Both types of fracture are

initiated by the occurrence of a crack,
and the presence of an elastic-stress
field in the surrounding regions is necessary for the occurrence of the crack. The
difference, however, between a ductile
and a brittle fracture, as stated above,
lies in the manner in which the initiating
men. At lower temperatures, however,

brittle fracture occurs at maximum load3
3
For sake of brevity throughout this report,
when a brittle-fracture crack propagates suddenly and completely through the specimen at
maximum load (zero slope of the load-deflection
curve), the crack is referred to as self-propagating, and the highest temperature permitting a
self-propagating crack is referred to as the onset
of brittle fracture.

or on the ascending part of the loaddeflection curve (see Fig. 1). In other
words, at the lower temperatures the
material is embrittled to such an extent
that the elastic-stress energy is sufficient
to propagate the crack. On the basis of
these considerations, the deformation,
fibrosity and temperature attending
13
nese content (1). The latter,4 containing

carbon ranging from 0.04 to 0.45 per
cent and manganese from 0.43 to 1.05
per cent, were prepared as laboratory
heats, deoxidized with silicon and aluminum to simulate commercial fine-grain
practice, forged to f-in. square bar stock,
and normalized from 1700 F. Metallurgi-
FIG. 2.Relation Between Lateral Deformation and Energy to Fracture.

NOTE.The intersection of the energy-after maximum load data band () with the abscissa
indicates the amount of deformation occurring at the highest temperature producing a self-propagating crack (at lower temperatures fracture would have occurred on the ascending portion of the
load-deflection diagram and the data would have appeared on the abscissa approaching 0.00-in.
deflection).
fracture at maximum load are deemed

less arbitrary as performance criteria
than, for example, a specified level of
fibrosity (50 per cent shear) or a specified
level of energy (15 ft-lb).
Materials:
The steels used in this investigation
were three commercial structural steels
representing the full range of commercial
deoxidation practice (rimmed, semikilled and fully killed), and a series of
12 heats of controlled carbon and manga-
cal and physical property data are listed

in Table I.
Test Method:
The standard V-notch Charpy specimen was used exclusively. Charpy impact data on the 12 steels of varied
carbon and manganese content were
4
Supplied through the courtesy of Messrs.
O. O. Miller and T. N. Armstrong of the Research and Development Division, International
Nickel Co., Inc., New York, N. Y.
14
obtained from the earlier work of T. N.

Armstrong and W. L. Warner (1).
For purposes of slow-bend testing, the
bars were supported horizontally by a
fixture on the platen of a hydraulic
testing machine and were loaded by a
ram fastened to the fixed head of the
machine. All dimensions of the support-
fixed head and the moving platen of the

testing machine. The energy absorbed to
a specific deflection or to fracture was
calculated from planimeter readings of
the area under the load-deflection curve.
The slow-bend testing, in contradistinction to the case of impact where adiabatic
deformation may occur, was essentially
FIG. 3.Effect of Aging on the Energy-Deformation Relationship.
ing fixture and loading ram were made

to conform with those specified for the
anvil and striking hammer in the Charpy
impact test. The supporting fixture was
contained in a tank so that the specimens could be tested while totally immersed in a liquid. The slow-bend specimens were loaded at a deflection rate of
0.01 in. per min. The load-deflection diagram was automatically recorded by a
microformer-type deflectometer actuated
by the change hi distance between the
isothermal hi that the rate of loading

was slow and the specimen was completely immersed hi liquid.
TEST RESULTS
Amount of Deformation Attending Brittle
Fracture:
A single plate of commercial fullykilled pearlitic steel, in the as-rolled
condition and containing a variation in
grain size from end to end of the plate,
15
FIG. 4.Effect of Carbon and Manganese on the Energy-Deformation Relationship.

NOTE,The groups containing 0.04 and 0.20 per cent carbon consist of three heats each with
manganese ranging from 0.43 to 0.92 per cent.
was tested in slow bend over a range of

temperatures encompassing the transition from ductile to brittle behavior,
The data as plotted in Fig. 2 indicate
that a simple relationship exists between

energy absorbed and lateral deformation
throughout the range of energy in which
the specimen was completely fractured
16
FIG. 5.Effect of Carbon and Manganese on the Fibrosity-Energy Relationship.

NOTE.The groups containing 0.04, 0.10 and 0.20 per cent carbon consist of three heats each
with manganese ranging from 0.43 to 1.03 per cent.
FIG. 6.Effect of Carbon and Manganese on the Fibrosity-Energy Relationship.

NOTE.Data are for 12 laboratory heats tested in slow bend over a range of temperature encompassing the ductile-to-brittle transition.
and also reveal that a substantial amount

of deformation occurred in the test
specimen, even at temperatures producing a self-propagating crack (sudden
and complete fracture at maximum load).
The latter observation is based upon the
fact that the energy-after-maximum-load
band intersects the abscissa at approximately 0.04 in. (10 per cent) lateral
expansion. Furthermore, it is deduced
that the deformation measured in fractured test specimens which suddenly
and completely separated at maximum
load was prefracture deformation; that

is, it was the deformation attendant
upon the bending and crack-initiation
stage of the fracture process.
Three commercial pearlitic steels of
fully-killed, semikilled and rimmed deoxidation practice, subjected to a variety
of subcritical heat treatments, were
tested in slow bending over a range of
temperatures encompassing the transition from ductile to brittle behavior.
The data as plotted hi Fig. 3 confirm the
observation that appreciable deformation occurred in the test specimen, even
at temperatures producing brittle fracture, and show that the amount of deformation is affected by metallurgical
variables introduced by deoxidation
practice and subcritical heat treatment.
Likewise, in the case of the laboratory
heats of carbon-manganese steel (Fig. 4),
an appreciable amount of deformation
occurred in specimens tested at temperatures producing brittle fracture. Note
that as the carbon (pearlite) content
increased, the deformation corresponding to the case of a self-propagating
crack decreased from approximately 15
per cent (with 0.04 per cent carbon) to
somewhat less than 5 per cent (with 0.45
per cent carbon).5
Amount of Fibrosity Attending Brittle
Fracture:
The laboratory heats containing varying amounts of carbon and manganese
were examined as to the relationship
between per cent fibrosity and energy
after maximum load (work required for
crack propagation). The steels as plotted
in Fig. 5 are grouped according to carbon
content; the groups containing 0.04, 0.10
and 0.20 per cent carbon consist of three
heats each, with magnanese ranging
from 0.43 to 1.03 per cent. The data
8
In the case of the 0.04 and 0.20 carbon plots,
each contains data from three steels with manganese content ranging from 0.43 to 0.98 per
cent. These data when plotted separately (according to manganese content) showed little or
no separation.
17
indicate that the amount of fibrosity

attending the onset of brittle fracture
(highest temperature permitting a selfpropagating crack) consistently fell
within the range of 0 to 20 per cent for
all carbon contents investigated. The
average for all steels was 10 per cent
fibrosity (90 per cent crystallmity).
Thus, the amount of fibrosity attending
the onset of brittle fracture was low
and relatively unaffected by carbon
content.
Relationship Between Fibrosity and Total
Energy:
For a more complete understanding
of the two performance criteria, the
relationship between per cent fibrosity
and total energy was plotted for several
of the carbon-manganese heats (Fig. 6).
Again, the heats were grouped according
to carbon content (seven heats fell into
the group containing 0.04 to 0.15 per
cent carbon, and although manganese in
this group ranged from 0.43 to 1.03 per
cent, separate plotting revealed no distinction between heats). The data as
plotted in Fig. 6 indicate that: (1) the
work required to produce fracture decreased with increasing crystallmity,
(2) the rate at which the work decreased
with increasing crystallmity was a
function of carbon (pearlite) content,
and (3) the maximum amount of work
attending 90 per cent crystallinity
varied from approximately 10 ft-lb for
0.45 per cent carbon to 85 ft-lb for
0.04 per cent carbon.
Ejfect of Carbon and Manganese on the
Shape of Transition Curve:
Total energy as measured by planimeter from the slow-bend load-deflection
diagram was plotted against testing
temperature and, for purposes of comparison, the data obtained from impact
tests by Warner and Armstrong (l) were
replotted on the same coordinate system.
The five heats containing carbon ranging
18
FIG. 7.Effect of Carbon on the Energy-Temperature Relationship in Slow Bend and Impact.
NOTE.The steels shown contain essentially constant manganese (0.43 to 0.49 per cent).
FIG. 8.Effect of Carbon on the Fibrosity-Temperature Relationship in Slow Bend and Impact.
NOTE.The steels shown contain essentially constant manganese (0.43 to 0.49 per cent).

between 0.04 and 0.45 per cent with
essentially constant manganese (0.43 to
0.49 per cent), are compared in Fig. 7.6
From these conventional plots of total
energy versus testing temperature, it is
evident that both the difference in
deflection rate between slow bend and
impact and the metallurgical variables introduced by composition affected
the transition from ductile to brittle
behavior. However, the curves do not
differentiate between the various stages
involved in the fracture process; that is,
the total energy (or work) in impact and
slow-bend provides only an integration of
the work required for bending, crack
initiation and crack propagation. Moreover, as a result of the changes in shape
of the transition curves produced by
various metallurgical variables, it is
apparent that both the choice of performance criterion and the definition of
transition temperature determine to a
large degree the conclusions which are
drawn from the conventional transition
curves. Similar observations can be
made from Fig. & which presents the
fibrosity-temperature relationships for
slow bend and impact.
TABLE IITRANSITION TEMPERATURES IN SLOW BEND AND IMPACT.

(Based on Onset0of
Brittle Fracture )
Carbon,
per cent
6 Other combinations of the twelve carbonmanganese heats were evaluated; both elements
were found to affect the transition curve. Carbon
was found to both shift and change the shape of
the curve; whereas, manganese only shifted the
curve in impact, but both shifted and somewhat
changed the shape of the curve in slow-bend.
The effect of increasing carbon in changing the
shape of the transition curve consisted of a
lowering of the maximum energy and a widening
of the range of temperature over which the
transition from ductile to brittle behavior occurred. With increasing carbon the transition
occurred at increasingly higher temperature;
with manganese, on the other hand, the transition was generally lowered.
(Based on 90 per cent

Crystallinity)
Temperature, deg
TemperaCent
ture, deg Carbon,
Cent,
per cent
Slow Bend
Slow Bend Impact
0.43 TO 0.49 PER CENT Mn
0.04
0.09
0.15
0.21
0.45
-90
-100
-60
-60
-20
0.04
0.09
0.15
0.21
0.45
-100
-110
-60
-60
-40
-40
-40
-60
-60
-20
0.69 TO 0.78 PER CENT Mn
0.04
0.11
0.20
-120
-120
-100
0.04
0.11
0.20
-120
-120
-100
-80
-80
-70
0 . 92 TO 1 . 05 PER CENT Mn
0.10
0.20
0.31
-140
-100
-80
0.10
0.20
0.30
ManManga- Temperature, deg ganese,

nese,
Cent,
per cent Slow
Bend per cent
Definition of Transition Temperature for

Slow Bend:
The amounts of deformation and
fibrosity attending sudden and complete
19
-140
-100
-80
-80
-80
-80
Temperature, deg
Cent
Slow Bend Impact
0.04 PER CENT CARBON
0.43
0.74
0.98
-9a0
-120 0.74
-140 0.98
0.43
0.874
0.9+8
-100
-120
-140
-40
-80
-80
0.09 TO 0.11 PER CENT C
0.43
0.78
1.03
-100
-120
-140
0.43
0.78
1.03
-110
-120
-140
-40
-80
-80
0.20 TO 0.21 PER CENT C
0.47
0.69
0.92
-60
-100
-100
0.47
0.69
0.92
-60
-100
-100
-60
-70
-80
0 Highest temperature producing

a selfpropagating crack (zero energy after maximum
load).
20
fracture of the V-notch Charpy slowbend bar at maximum load have been
discussed. It has been shown that the
amount of deformation attending the
self-propagating crack is dependent upon
certain matallurgical variables, whereas,
fibrosity is relatively independent of the
metallurgical variables investigated. To
fulfill the objective of this investigation,
temperature is the final consideration as
a criterion of performance in slow bend.
Transition temperature has been defined herein as the highest temperature
resulting in sudden and complete fracture
at maximum load. In other words, transition temperature is the highest temperature at which the initiating crack can
propagate under action of the elasticstress energy alone. For sake of brevity
throughout this report, such a crack is
referred to as self-propagating, and the
highest temperature permitting a selfpropagating crack is referred to as the
onset of brittle fracture.
Table II shows the effect on the onset
of brittle fracture of carbon at three
levels of manganese and of manganese
at three levels of carbon. With increasing
carbon content, self-propagating cracks
tended to occur at increasingly higher
temperature, whereas, with increasing
manganese content, the onset of brittle
fracture tended to occur at progressively
lower temperatures. Thus, transition
temperature based upon the condition of
a self-propagating crack appears to be a
useful and sensitive performance criterion for slow bend.
In order to make a quantitative comparison between impact and slow rates
of loading, it is necessary to apply the
same definition of transition temperature
to both tests. Unfortunately, the condition of a self-propagating crack cannot
be readily determined from conventional
V-notch Charpy impact tests without
special instrumentation for determining
the load-deflection curve. The percentage
of fibrosity, on the other hand, can be

estimated directly from the fracture
surfaces in both the slow bend and impact test specimens. Figure 5, which
presented the relationship between fibrosity and energy after maximum load,
suggests a definition of transition temperature based upon per cent fibrosity. The
onset of brittle fracture (zero energy
after maximum load) is shown to correspond to 90 per cent crystallinity for all
carbon-manganese compositions investigated. Thus, if transition temperature is
defined as that temperature corresponding to 90 per cent crystallihity, the
transition temperatures in slow bend
should be the same as those determined
on the basis of a self-propagating crack.
The data in Table II confirm this observation. In impact, however, the
temperatures corresponding to 90 per
cent crystallinity did not show a consistent trend as regards the effects of
carbon. Yet, increasing manganese did
produce a trend toward lower transition temperature. Until the relationship
between per cent crystallinity and onset
of brittle fracture is established for impact, the grounds for selecting 90 per cent
crystallinity as a criterion for impact
testing are open to question.
FUTURE WORK
Using a modification of the technique
developed at the Naval Research Laboratory by Harris, Rinebolt, and Raring
(5), it may be possible to differentiate
between the various stages of fracture in
the V-notch Charpy impact test, and at
the same time to determine the highest
temperature producing a self-propagating crack. The technique developed at
the Naval Research Laboratory demonstrated that for a given steel there is a
critical energy level above which a crack
occurs in the V-notch Charpy specimen
and below which no crack occurs. Different amounts of kinetic energy were

delivered to the specimen by allowing
the anvil of the impact testing machine
to fall from different heights. Using this
technique, the NRL investigators observed that brittle fracture by "low
blows" occurred at somewhat lower
temperature than indicated by the conventional transition curve. Later work
by Raring (2), indicated that the lower
transition temperature may be a function
of deflection velocity (a 240-ft-lb blow
using a 60-lb hammer is delivered at
approximately 16 ft per sec whereas a
15-ft-lb blow, using the same hammer
falling from a lesser height, is delivered
at approximately 4 ft per sec). Of particular significance to the self-propagating-crack concept is the fact that crack
initiation by a "low blow" appears to be
independent of testing temperature over
the range producing ductile fracture,
whereas at a lower temperature a brittlefracture crack is formed which propagates readily to produce complete fracture under the "low blow." Thus, at the
crack-initiating energy level it may be
possible to determine the temperature at
which the elastic-stress energy is- sufficient to propagate the crack and thereby
differentiate between the energy required to produce bending, crack initiation, and crack propagation.
Based on the above observations, the
following modification of the Naval
Research Laboratory "low blow" technique is proposed: The first step will be
to determine the minimum energy level
which will initiate cracking (in the
temperature range producing ductile
fracture), and the second step will be to
determine the temperature at which the
initiated crack (using the minimum
crack-initiating blow) readily propagates
to complete fracture of the specimen.
Correlation between this temperature
and the temperature obtained in slow
bending using the brittle fracture (selfpropagating crack) criterion is antici-
21
pated, at least in those steels where

deflection velocity is not a controlling
factor.
SUMMARY
1. Slow-bend tests provide a measure
of the temperature, fibrosity and deformation attending brittle fracture
(formation of a self-propagating crack).
2. An appreciable amount of deformation occurs in the V-notch Charpy
slow-bend bar at the onset of brittle
fracture; the amount of deformation decreases with decreasing temperature and
is directly proportional to the work required to produce fracture.
3. The amount of deformation attending the onset of brittle fracture provides a measure of the relative embrittlement of a series of steels or of a given
steel under various metallurgical conditions.
4. The amount of fibrosity attending
the onset of brittle fracture is largely
independent of metallurgical variables.
In the steels investigated, the amount of
fibrosity occurring at the onset of brittle
fracture fell within the range of 0 to 20
per cent. Consequently, slow-bend criteria based upon a self-propagating crack
and 90 per cent crystallinity resulted hi
approximately the same values of transition temperature.
5. From the changes in shape produced in the transition-temperature
curve by the metallurgical variables investigated, it is apparent that both the
choice of performance criterion and the
attendant definition of transition temperature determine to a large degree the
conclusions which may be drawn with
respect to the effect of metallurgical
variables on the transition behavior of
steels.
CONCLUSION
Other researchers have observed
that local plastic deformation prior to
22
the formation of cleavage fracture is a tion measured in specimens developing

phenomenon common to all laboratory brittle fracture reflect the resistance of
test specimens, even at low temperature the material to bending and to formation
and impact rates of loading. In the case of the initiating crack. Thus, performof catastrophic service failures, on the ance criteria based upon the formation
other hand, it has been commonly ob- of a self-propagating crack should be
served that brittle fracture is surrounded useful in connection with the brittleby non-deformed metal. These facts are fracture problem by separating the cracknot inconsistent if it is recognized that propagation and crack-initiation stages
local plastic deformation precedes brittle of fracture.
fracture in both service structures and
Because of the economy of impact
laboratory test specimens.
testing (as opposed to the time-consumFrom previous work, it was established
that the amount of plastic deformation ing slow-bend operation) and because of
occurring in the Charpy bar is directly the detrimental effects of higher deflecproportional to the amount of energy tion velocity in some metallurgical con
expended in fracturing the test specimen ditions, it is recommended that a modifi(6). Since the plastic deformation at- cation of conventional V-notch Charpy
tending brittle fracture preceded the impact testing technique be attempted in
crack-propagatibn stage, it follows that order to permit differentiation between
the energy absorbed and the deforma- the various stages of the fracture process.
REFERENCES
(1) T. N. Armstrong and W. L. Warner, "Low
Temperature Transition of Normalized Carbon-Manganese Steels," this Symposium,
p. 40.
(2) R. D. Stout and L. J. McGeady, "The Meaning and Measurement of Transition Temperature," The Welding Journal, Vol. 27,
No. 6, June, 1948, p. 299-s.
(3) R. Raring, "The Load-Deflection Relationship in Slow-Bend Tests of Charpy V Notch
Specimens," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol. 52, p. 1034 (1952).
(4) E. Orowan, "Fracture and Strength of

Solids," Reports on Progress in Physics,
Physical Society of London, Vol. 12, pp.
185-232 (1949).
(5) W. Harris, J. Rinebolt, and R. Raring,
"Upper and Lower Transitions in Charpy
Tests," The Welding Journal, Vol. 30, No.
9, p. 417-s (1951).
(6) C. E. Hartbower, "The Poisson Effect in
the Charpy Test," Proceedings, Am. Soc.
Testing Mats., Vol. 54, p. 929 (1954).
DISCUSSION
MR. S. L. HoYT.1This paper throws
a lot of light on this problem of brittle
behavior.
There is one point I should like to discuss, and that is the effect of the low
blows.
Steels retain their ductile behavior
over a wider temperature range with
static loading than they do with impact
loading. I tried to account for that by
means of a diagram which shows that as
you increase the speed of testing you
raise this match point. Increasing the
strain rate raises the yield strength or
the critical shear stress, and the match
point then comes at a higher temperature, at which the lowering of the yield
point is just equalled by the amount by
which it was raised due to the higher
strain rate.
. Work done at the Naval Research
Laboratory seems to indicate that the
low blow effect comes at the lower end
of the transition.
With impact at a given temperature,
the yield strength is at a high level and the
bar is brittle. But with a low-velocity
blow, the metal is strained at a lower
rate, the yield strength is left at its low
level, and therefore the bar is able to
deform.
There is one other question. Mr.
Hartbower has shown slides of test
bars that have a small amount of plastic deformation at the root of the notch.
I once saw a series of test specimens
which showed that, as the temperature dropped, the amount of that plastically deformed metal at the base of
the notch decreased continuously, but

and here is the pointat the low temperature which I regard as the match
point, the plastically strained metal disappeared.
In other words, it appears that there
is a temperature at which the crack is
not initiated by that small amount of
plastic deformation. That point can be
settled experimentally, and it seems to
me that in developing the mechanism of
crack formation and crack initiation, it
would be well to do so.
MR. D. K. FELBECK.2Additional information is available which should further confirm the statements about deformation.
Some work3 done at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology a few years ago,
with which Mr. Hartbower may be
acquainted, involved producing a crack
at liquid nitrogen temperature in ship
plate specimens. This was done by driving a wedge into a notch. The specimens
had been annealed before the crack was
produced. The X-ray back reflection
photographs, which were taken of the
fracture surface, produced at low temperature, demonstrated that there was a
very small deformation at the surface.
More recent work4 done in Switzerland
by Felix and Geiger appears to confirm
this.
2
Committee on Ship Steel, National Academy
of JSciences, Washington, D. C.
D. K. Felbeck and E. Orowan, "Experiments
on Brittle Fracture of Steel Plates," Welding
Journal, Research Supplement, Vol. 34, No. 11,
November,
1955, pp. 570S-575S.
4
W. Felix and Th. Geiger, "Brittle Fracture
of Steel," Schweiz. Arch.,Vol. 21, No. 2, February,
1955, pp. 33-49.
1
Metallurgical Consultant, Columbus, Ohio.
23
'24
A visual examination of the liquid

njfKên crack did not show any ductility of this nature. However, when
specimens containing such a sharp crack
were tested at very low head speeds at
room temperature (which was possible
because of the poor quality of the steel),
a shear fracture visible to the unaided
eye Always preceded cleavage propagation^ the crack.
This is contradictory to reports that
have been given in the past of service
fractures which were said to exhibit no
ductile crack propagation.
^ 'I think that when service fractures are
examined it should be done with great
care. A casual examination is quite different from a careful examination by a
trained observer. Fracture occurring
under service conditionsnot at liquid
air temperaturesmay always exhibit
this initial shear deformation prior to
high-speed fracture, because of the essential contribution of the resultant
triaxiality of stress to the initiation of
cleavage fracture.
MR. CARL E. HARTBOWER (author's
closure).Mr. Hoyt's discussion is focused hi large part on the description of
futurejvork that has been suggested as a
result of the study of V-notch Charpy
impact versus slow bend.
First, with regard to Mr. Hoyt's comments on the difference hi velocity between low-energy blows: If a full blow of
the impact pendulum is delivered, the
deflection velocity is 16 ft per sec,
whereas, with a 15 ft-lb low blow the

velocity is only 4 ft per sec. Thus, with
each low blow there is a different velocity. However, data obtained by means
of drop-weight tests and by means of
pendulum impact with different weights
of hammer have shown that differences
in velocity hi the range of 4 to 16 ft per
sec do not have a significant effect on the
onset of brittle fracture. Further details
on these findings will be contained hi a
forthcoming report which is being submitted for presentation at the 1956
Annual Meeting of the ASTM.5
Mr. Hoyt's second point was that at a
sufficiently low temperature the plastic
deformation preceding fracture would be
negligible. This is undoubtedly true, but
in laboratory-size specimens the temperature at which ductility disappears is
too low to have engineering significance.
For example, in the quench-and-tempered AISI 4340 steel which I am
presently investigating, plastic deformation and fibrous cracking occurs at the
apex of the Charpy V-notch at temperatures down to the lowest testing temperature investigated (196 C). Even in
a notch-sensitive condition (quench-andtempered to Rockwell hardness C 45),
brittle fracture in this steel initiated
from a shear crack at temperatures well
below .practical service temperatures.
These observations tend to confirm the
observations of Mr. Felbeck.
6
Carl E. Hartbower, "Crack Initiation and
Propagation in the V-Notch Charpy Impact
Specimen," to be published in Proceedings, Am.
Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 56 (1956).
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
EFFECTS OF MANGANESE AND ALUMINUM CONTENTS ON

TRANSITION TEMPERATURE OF NORMALIZED
NICKEL STEEL
BY T. N. ARMSTRONG1 AND O. O. MlLLER1
It has been fairly well established that

fine ferrite grain size is conducive to low
temperature of transition from ductile to
brittle behavior in normalized carbon
steels of moderate to low carbon content
(I).2 The generally accepted practice for
producing fine grained steels is to add
aluminum to the melt after preliminary
deoxidation with silicon. Although the
amount of the addition will depend upon
the condition of the melt, a residual or
acid-soluble aluminum content of 0.015
per cent usually will ensure fine austenite
grains at the temperatures associated
with normalizing and fine ferrite grains
after air cooling (2, 3). There has been
recurring evidence, however, that the effect of aluminum on transition temperature may be more extensive than that of
grain refinement alone (4); consequently,
the minimum aluminum content required
to obtain fine grain size might not necessarily be the optimum quantity to produce the lowest transition temperature.
The transition temperature of mild
carbon steel also may be lowered by increasing the manganese content (5, 6),
and the addition of nickel long has been
recognized as one of the most effective
means of lowering the temperature of
embrittlement (7). What has not been
determined is whether the effects of man1
Development and Research Division, and
Research Laboratory, respectively, The International
Nickel Co., Inc., New York, N. Y.
2
to the list of references appended to this paper,
see p. 37.
ganese and nickel are additive and

whether the optimum aluminum content
for lowering the transition temperature
of carbon steels is independent of the
manganese content and whether the
optimum aluminum addition is the same
for nickel steel as for carbon steel.
The plan evolved to study the effect
of nickel, manganese, and aluminum on
transition temperature called for 24
heats, half of which contained no nickel
and the other half 2\ per cent nickel,
with each type at three manganese levels
of 0.4, 0.95, and 1.5 per cent, and each
of these six combinations at the four
levels of acid-soluble aluminum of nil to
0.005, 0.030, 0.055 and 0.090 per cent.
Carbon level of all melts was maintained
at 0.15 0.01 per cent. This block-type
design improves validity on the effects
of nickel, manganese, and aluminum
because it provides data on the effect of
each one at all combinations of the others
and permits easy comparison when the
results are presented graphically. This
design has the additional advantage that
the data can be analyzed statistically by
the powerful "analysis of variance"
technique (8) to indicate the degree of
certainty of the conclusions, provided, of
course, that no large uncontrolled variables are involved. Unfortunately, normalizing produced a significant quantity
of martensite in four heats, and the
aimed-for deoxidation practice was not
quite achieved in one heat. These relatively large uncontrolled variables made
25
www.astm.org
26
TABLE I.CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, NORMALIZED GRAIN SIZE,

AND HARDNESS OF EXPERIMENTAL STEELS.
ASTM Grain Size
Chemical Composition, per cent

Steel
Carbon
Manganese
Silicon
Nickel
Aluminum0 Austenitic
Ferritic
Brinell
Hardness
CARBON-MANGANESE SERIES
0.40 MANGANESE
No.
No
No,
No.
1
2
3
4
0.14
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.41
0.42
0.40
0.42
0.18
0.24
0.22
0.19
0.07
0.03
0.03
0.09
0.008
0.024
0.062
0.093
3-5
6-8
6-8
6-8
5-8
7-9
7-8
7-9
108
117
112
114
0.004
0.035
0.052
0.088
2-6
7-8
8-9
7-8
5-8
8-9
8-9
128
127
122
122
0.004
0.030
0.052
0.090
3-7
8
6-8
7-8
8-10
8-10
8-10
6-9
143
144
139
141
0.007
0.030
0.055
0.100
4-8
8-9
7-8
7-8
8-10
8-10
8-10
8-10
143
142
140
141
0.004
0.025
0.052
0.099
4-7
8
7-8
6-8
7-10
9-10
9-10
8-10
153
158
155
156
0.003
0.031
0.050
0.091
3-6
8-9
7-9
6-9
8-10*
9-10fc6
9-10
8-106
191
188
198
195
0.95 MANGANESE
No
No
No
No
5
6
7
8
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.94
0.93
0.87
0.89
0.22
0.20
0.15
0.17
0.05
0.06
0.09
0.06
8-10
1.50 MANGANESE
No
No
No
No.
9
10
11
12
0.15
0.16
0.14
0.16
1.46
1.53
1.55
1.53
0.25
0.25
0.22
0.24
0.05
0.08
0.14
0.06
2.25 NICKEL SERIES

0.40 MANGANESE
No.
No.
No
No
13
14
15
16
0.16
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.45
0.43
0.43
0.42
0.26
0.23
0.24
0.25
2.29
2.25
2.26
2.35
0.95 MANGANESE
No.
No
No.
No.
17
18
19
20
0.15
0.15
0.14
0.15
0.96
1.00
0.99
1.00
0.19
0.23
0.23
0.22
2.31
2.28
2.25
2.26
1.5 MANGANESE
No.
No
No
No.
21
22
23
24
0.15
0.16
0.15
0.16
1.46
1.51
1.59
1.53
0.23
0.23
0.25
0.23
2.16
2.30
2.26
2.28
a Aluminum reported is acid-soluble aluminum. Sulfur and phosphorus not determinedunder 0.04 per cent.
b Martensite interferes to give questionable ratings.
ARMSTRONG AND MILLER ON NICKEL STEEL

it impossible to apply successfully the
analysis of variance; however, several
simpler statistical tests were applied to
the data, as shown later in the paper.
27
Heat Treatment:
The effect of temperature on the

austenite grain size was determined for
each steel in order to select suitable
austenitizing temperatures for heat treatSTEEL-MAKING PROCEDURE
ment. After careful study, a normalizing
The steels were made in a 30-lb, high- temperature of 1625 F was selected for
frequency induction furnace. The ingot steels Nos. 1 to 12 (carbon-manganese
iron charge was melted, the heat blocked series) and 1600 F for steels Nos. 13 to
with a small ferrosilicon addition, high- 24 (2.25 per cent nickel series). These
carbon ferromanganese was added, and temperatures were safely above the AS
the remainder of the ferrosilicon was temperatures, yet low enough to avoid
charged. The surface was then skimmed, significant austenite grain coarsening.
the power turned off, aluminum intro- The austenite and ferrite grain sizes for
duced, and the heat poured into pre- each steel were measured and are recorded
heated 4 by 4 by 7-in. cast iron ingot in Table I.
molds with double hot tops. The nickel
The f-m. bars were normalized by
steels were made in identically the same heating to 1600 or 1625 F, holding for
manner as the carbon steels, except that 45 min, and cooling in still air. A total
electrolytic nickel was added just after of 567 Charpy impact specimens was
the meltdown. The bottom half of each prepared. The specimens were raningot was forged and rolled to 6| ft of domized for drilling the keyhole notches
f-in. square bar for the testing program. to prevent the possibility of drilling
The top half was reduced to 1 j-in. rounds variability being concentrated on any
one of the steels. All specimens were
and held in reserve.
A total of 43 heats was made before 26 prepared with the notch transverse to
satisfactory steels were provided since, the direction of rolling.
in some cases, difficulty was experienced
CHARPY TESTS
in obtaining the desired acid-soluble
The Charpy specimens of each steel
aluminum content. Chemical analysis for
carbon, manganese, silicon, and nickel were tested at a series of temperatures
was made from the top or middle of each within the range 212 to 320 F. The
ingot, but each f-in. bar was checked for energy absorbed in breaking each specimanganese, nickel, and aluminum for men and the test temperature are given
positive identification after rolling. in the Appendix at the end of the paper.
Chemical analyses are listed in Table I. From these data, energy-temperature
The aluminum analyses reported are transition curves were plotted for each
steel. The fracture appearance also was
from the middle of the ingots and are
recorded and, although not included here,
not significantly different from incom- the percentage of granular fracture inplete^ results from top and bottom. Each creased as the absorbed energy decreased,
f-m. bar was rated for size and number as would be expected. For convenience,
of inclusions, and it was found that the the curves of steels of the same maninclusion differences among the heats ganese content are assembled in groups
were not marked.
in Fig. 1. The temperature correspond-
FIG. 1.Effect of Aluminum Content on Transition Temperature of Normalized 0.15 per cent Carbon, Carbon-Manganese, and 2.25 per cent
Nickel Steels.

ing to a value of 15 ft-lb was arbitrarily
selected as the transition temperature
because it is the value required in ASTM
specifications.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Effect of A luminum:
The grouping of curves for steels of
the same manganese content in Fig. 1
permits ready comparison of the effect of
aluminum on the impact properties of
29
obtained with aluminum content of

0.030 per cent but it is believed that this
is of no particular significance.
Although there is no significant difference in transition temperature attributable to differences of aluminum within
the range 0.030 to 0.090 per cent, the
steels in this range have transition temperatures which on the average are 70 F
below that of steels with 0.005 per cent
aluminum.
FIG. 2.Effect of Manganese on Transition Temperature of Normalized 0.15 per cent Carbon
Steels.
these steels. In both the carbon-manganese steels and the nickel steels, the
heats with less than 0.01 per cent acidsoluble aluminum (steels Nos. 1, 5, 9, 13,
17 and 21) have the highest transition
temperature in each manganese group,
because these steels are the silicon-killed
or coarse-grain type, as suggested by
their grain size in Table I. The three
remaining steels of each manganese
group show no major differences attributable to the variation in acid-soluble
aluminum within the nominal range of
0.030 to 0.090 per cent. In the nickel
steels with 0.95 and 1.5 per cent manganese, lowest transition temperatures were
Effect of Manganese:
The effect of manganese is shown in
Fig. 2. These curves are the same as
shown in Fig. 1 for heats containing
nominally 0.03 per cent aluminum but
the curves representing the three different levels of manganese for both the
carbon-manganese steels and the nickel
steels are grouped to show more readily
the manganese effect.
The three carbon-manganese steels,
Nos. 2, 6, and 10, show progressively
lower transition temperatures as the
manganese is increased up to 1.50 per
cent. For the nickel steel, there is a lowering of the transition temperature as the
30
manganese is increased from 0.4 to 0.95

per cent for two aluminum levels, but
the effect is not consistent with results
of the other melts, as shown in the folowing tabulation:
The mean or average drop in transition temperature due to nickel is 104 F,

the drop being greater at 0.4 than at
0.95 per cent manganese. It is quite
possible that some manganese content
Transition Temperature for 15 ft-lb,

deg Fahr
Steel Type
Nickel,
per cent
Aluminum,
per cent
None
None
None
None
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25
0.005. . . . . . .
0 030
0.055
0.090
0.005 . ...
0.030
0 055
0.090
Drop in Transition Temperature
0.4 Mn
0.95 Mn
1.5 Mn
0.4 to
0.95 Mn
0.95 to
1.5 Mn
0.4 to
1.5 Mn
5
-90
-70
-90
-180
-200
-195
-190
-75
-130
-125
-140
-125
-255
-235
-170
-95
-165
-165
-190
80
40
55
50
-55
55
40
-20
20
35
40
50
100
75
95
100
On the basis of these values, the average drop in transition temperature of

carbon-manganese steel for each 0.10 per
cent increase in manganese within the
range 0.4 to 0.95 per cent is 10.2 F and
within the range 0.95 to 1.50 per cent
6.6 F.
between 0.4 and 0.95 per cent would be

the optimum for producing the lowest
transition temperature in 0.15 per cent
carbon - 2.25 per cent nickel steel. On
the basis of these results, each 1 per cent
nickel within the range 0 to 2.25 per cent
lowers the transition temperature 46 F.
Effect of Nickel:
Microstructure:
Since only one level of nickel was used

in these tests, comparison to show the
effect of nickel can be made only between
the steels with no nickel and those with
2.25 per cent nickel. The following
tabulation permits comparison on the
basis of temperature required for 15 ft-lb:
The microstructure of steels Nos. 1

through 20 comprised equiaxed ferrite
and pearlite with some Widmanstatten
structure in the steels of larger austenite
grain size. There was some banding, but
it was not particularly pronounced. The
microstructures of steels Nos. 5, 7, 17,
and 19 in Fig. 3 are representative of
steels Nos. 1 through 20. Steels Nos. 17
through 20, containing 0.95 per cent
manganese and 2.25 per cent nickel, have
sufficient hardenability to produce a
small quantity of martensite which does
not appear to be particularly detrimental,
although the scatter in results indicates
that this combination may be borderline.
Steels Nos. 21 through 24, containing
1.5 per cent manganese and 2.25 per cent
nickel, have hardenability sufficiently
high to produce 10 to 15 per cent marten-
Steel Type
Manganese,
per cent
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95
Aluminum,
per cent
0.005
0.030
0.055
0.090
0.005
0.030
0.055
0.090
Transition Temper- Drop in

ature for 15 ft-lb, Transition
deg Fahr
TemperaNo
Nickel
5
-90
-70
-90
-75
-135
-125
-140
ture
Caused by
2.25 2.25 per cent
per cent Nickel,
deg Fahr
Nickel
-180
-200
-195
-190
-125
-255
-235
-170
185
110
125
100
50
120
110
30
FIG. 3.Microstructure of Normalized 0.15 per cent Carbon Steels. Steels Nos. 5 7 17 and 19fernte plus fernte, picral-metal etch. Steels Nos. 21 and 22: ferrite (white) plus pearlite (black)'
plus bainite (white with black dots), plus martensite (gray), picral etch. Austenite may be retained
in the martensite.
31
32
site with some bainite. This microstructure raises the transition temperature
significantly.
There appears to be no correlation
between hardness and transition temperature in these data. The presence of
appreciable martensite in the four steels
Nos. 20 through 24 is reflected in higher
hardness; however, the high transition
previous discussion that this is an undesirable combination for low-temperature toughness due to the presence of
appreciable martensite after normalizing.
Application of the well-known statistical test for the significance of a
single mean (8) to the effect of adding
FIG. 4.Effect of Manganese, Nickel, and Aluminum on the Ductility Transition (15 ft-lb) of
Normalized 0.15 per cent Carbon Steels.
temperatures are believed to be related

to martensite rather than to hardness
per se.
Summary of Effects of Manganese,
Nickel, and A luminum:
The effect of the three variables,
manganese, nickel, and aluminum, on
the transition temperature (15 ft-lb) of
0.15 per cent carbon steels is presented
graphically in the bar chart, Fig. 4, and
by the curves in Fig. 5. The data for 1.5
per cent manganese - 2.25 per cent nickel
steels are not included in Fig. 5, since
it is obvious from Fig. 4 and from the
FIG. 5.Effect of Manganese, Nickel, and

Aluminum on Transition Temperature of Normalized 0.15 per cent Carbon Steels with Microstructure of Ferrite plus Pearlite.

aluminum to the 0.4 and 0.95 per cent
manganese steels shows that, if nickel
had no real effect in lowering transition
temperature, the results obtained would
occur by chance alone less than one tune
in 1000. Such odds amount to certainty;
in fact, the statistician most frequently
considers an effect to be real if it would
occur by chance alone one tune in 20.
Likewise, the effect of manganese in
lowering transition temperature could
occur by chance alone only one time in
100. The same type of test shows that
the steels containing 0.030, 0.055, and
33
tempered at 1100 F for 1 hr. Impact tests

were then made on these steels and the
data used to plot the curves shown in
Fig. 6. There is no significant difference
in curves representing the tempered and
untempered condition for the 0.4 per
cent manganese - 2.25 per cent nickel
steel, steel No. 14. Both of the steels
containing 1.5 per cent manganese,
carbon-manganese steel No. 10 and
nickel steel No. 22, show the effect of
tempering by lower transition temperatures. The effect on the carbon-manganese steel is moderate, the transition
FIG. 6.Effect of Tempering on Impact Properties of Three Normalized Steels.
0.090 per cent aluminum are not significantly different in transition temperature; however, there is a real difference between the coarse-grained (0.005
per cent aluminum) and the fine-grained
types (0.030 to 0.090 per cent aluminum)
which could happen by chance alone, if
there were no real effect of aluminum in
lowering transition temperature, less
than one time in 50.
Effect of Tempering:
The relatively high transition temperatures of the nickel steels with high manganese content have been attributed to
the presence of appreciable percentages
of bainite and untempered martensite.
To study the effect of tempering, steels
Nos. 10, 14 and 22 were normalized and
temperature being lowered from 165

to 200 F. The effect is more pronounced in the nickel steel in which
transition temperature was lowered from
-180 to -270 F by tempering.
There is no significant difference between the microstructures of the normalized and the normalized and tempered conditions of steels Nos. 10 and 14,
as will be noted in the upper four photomicrographs of Fig. 7, all of which show
a structure of pearlite and ferrite.
The situation is quite different for
steel No. 22 for which the transition
temperature dropped 90 F on tempering.
The reason for this large change is quite
evident on examining the two photomicrographs at the bottom of Fig. 7.
FIG. 7.Microstructure of Three Steels in the Normalized and Normalized and Tempered Conditions. Steels Nos. 10 and 14: ferrite and pearlite. Steel No. 22 normalized: ferrite (white), pearlite
(black), bainite (white with black dots), and martensite (gray). Steel No. 22 normalized and tempered: ferrite and ferrite-carbide aggregate. Picral etch. (X 500).
34

In the normalized condition the microstructure contains 10 to 15 per cent
martensite and some bainite. The microstructure of the tempered steel consists
of ferrite and ferrite-carbide aggregate
which is a mixture of tempered martensite, tempered bainite, and pearlite
the carbide phase being fairly well dispersed in the ferrite.
Effect of Grain Size:
Steels Nos. 3 and 15 were selected for
study of the effect of grain size. By
35
corresponding to two grain size numbers

raises the transition temperature of
steel No. 3 by 15 F and of steel No. 15
by 60 F. These values are too widely
divergent to strike an average value for
the effect of one grain size number.
SUMMARY
The authors wish to emphasize that
the results of this investigation were
obtained by testing specimens taken from
f-in. bars rolled from steels made in a
small induction furnace operated under
FIG. 8.Effect of Grain Size (Normalizing Temperature) on Impact Properties of Two Steels
austenitizing at 1850 F, the average

austenite grain size was increased by
five ASTM grain size numbers and the
average ferrite grain size by two numbers
over those resulting from normalizing at
1600 or 1650 F. Charpy transition curves
for the two steels normalized at the two
different levels of temperature are shown
in Fig. 8.
The grain size of both the prior austenite and of the ferrite have an influence
on the transition temperature, but since
the ferrite grain size probably has more
influence in this instance, this will be
used for comparison, as illustrated in
Fig. 9, The increase in ferrite grain size
closely controlled conditions. Under these

conditions numerical values may differ
from results of similar tests made on
specimens taken from large plates of
commercial steels, but the relative effect
of the variables studied should apply.
From the results of these tests the
authors conclude that:
1. Deoxidation with silicon plus sufficient aluminum to obtain 0.03 to 0.09
per cent acid-soluble aluminum in the
steel in place of silicon alone lowers the
transition temperature of normalized
0.15 per cent carbon steel by 70 F on
the average.
2. There is believed to be no signifi-
36
cant difference in transition temperature

among acid-soluble aluminum contents
of 0.030, 0.055, and 0.090 per cent, al-
minimum aluminum content for insuring low transition temperature in siliconkilled 0.15 per cent carbon steels was
FIG. 9.Effect of Austenitizing Temperature on Ferrite Grain Size of Two Steels. Both steels
show eqiuaxed ferrite and pearlite resulting with the lower austenitizing temperature. Larger ferrite
grains and some Widmannstatten structure result from higher austenitizing temperature.
though the lowest transition temperature

was obtained in the nickel steels of each
of the higher manganese series with
aluminum content of 0.030 per cent. The
not determined in this work, but published data indicate that it may be as
low as 0.015 per cent,
3. Manganese significantly lowers the

transition temperature of normalized
0.15 per cent carbon, plain carbon steels.
The average magnitude of this effect,
based on data at 0.4, 0.95, and 1.5 per
cent manganese, is to lower the transition temperature by 84 F for each 1
per cent manganese. The effect is more
pronounced^with increase in manganese
withh\J/ne range 0.4 to 0.95 per cent
manganese than within the high range
of 0.95 to 1.5 per cent manganese.
4. Nickel effectively lowers the transition temperature of normalized carbon
steel. The average magnitude of this
effect, based on data at 0 and 2.25 per
cent nickel at the two levels of manganese of 0.4 and 0.95 per cent and the
four levels of aluminum, is to lower the
transition temperature 46 F for each 1
per cent of nickel. The principal advantage in nickel over manganese, although not shown in these data, is that
the transition temperature of low-carbon
steels is progressively lowered with increase in nickel content while there
appears to be a limit on the percentage
of manganese that may be beneficial.
5. In the presence of 2.25 per cenfr
nickel, an increase in manganese content
from 0.4 to 0.95 per cent has no signifi-
37
cant effect on transition temperature,

both increases and decreases in transition temperature being found.
6. The combination of 2.25 per cent
nickel and 1.5 per cent manganese consistently produces 10 to 15 per cent
martensite in these normalized, f-in.,
0.15 per cent carbon steel bars which
raises the transition temperature appreciably.
7. The tempering of normalized 0.15
per cent carbon steel produces no significant change in its transition temperature, as determined by the Charpy keyhole-notch test, if the microstructure is
pearlite plus ferrite. If sufficient martensite is present in the normalized condition to contribute brittleness, such as
occurred in the 1.5 per cent manganese 2.25 per cent nickel steels, tempering
significantly lowers the transition temperature.
8. A decrease in both austenite and
ferrite grain size is associated with lower
transition temperature. The grain size
of the ferrite appears to have more influence on transition temperature than the
prior austenite gram size.
REFERENCES
(1) J. M. Hodge, R. D. Manning, and H. N.
Reichhold, "Effect of Ferrite Grain Size on
Notch Toughness," Transactions, Am. Inst.
Mining and Metallurgical Engrs., Vol. 185,
pp. 233-240 (1949).
(2) T. S. Washburn, "Deoxidation Basic OpenHearth Steel," Transactions, Am. Inst.
Mining and Metallurgical Engrs., Vol. 162,
pp. 658-671 (1945).
(3) O. O. Miller, "Influence of Austenitizing
Time and Temperature on Austenite Grain
Size of Steel," Transactions, Am. Soc.
Metals, Vol. 43, pp. 260-289 (1951).
(4) S. L. Case and Kent R. Van Horn, "Aluminum in Iron and Steel," Iron Research
Monograph Series, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York, N. Y., pp. 138-178, (1953).
(5) J. A. Rinebolt and W. J. Harris, Jr., "Effect of Alloying Elements on Notch Toughness of Pearlitic Steels," Transactions, Am.
Soc. Metals, Vol. 43, pp. 1175-1214 (1951).
(6) H. M. Banta, R. H. Frazier, and C. H.
Lorig, "Metallurgical Aspects of Ship Steel
Quality," Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol. 30, pp. 79s-90s (1951).
(7) T. N. Armstrong and A. P. Gagnebin, "Impact Properties of Some Low Alloy Nickel
Steels at Temperatures Down as Low as
-200 F," Transactions, Am. Soc. Metals,
Vol. 28, pp. 1-24(1940).
(8) K. A. Brownlee, "Industrial Experimentation," His Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 4th Ed. (1949).
38

APPENDIX
CHARPY KEYHOLE-NOTCH IMPACT DATA FOR SPECIMENS FROM
NORMALIZED f-IN. SQUARE BAR.
Charpy Impact Values, f t-lb
Test
temperature,
deg
Fahr
212
4? 7
44.6
45.0
62.1
63.3
ISO. . .48.3 53.0 54.5
47.8 54.4 53.1

47.4
70;...
50.2
48.7
42.6 42.1
43.0 43.4
51.8 37.4 43.0 41.0 41.0

56.3 39.1 44.3 40.7 41.6
49.1 58.7 57.8 59.9 58.9 57.8 56.0 58.7 58.0 69.6 72.4 69.0 52.4 50.6 51.2 53.1 53.2 57.8 61.8 58.0 30.1 43.1 37.3 38.5
50.7 60.0 58.4 59.0 61.2 55.4 60.9 60.6 58.4 70.2 69.2 67.0 49.7 53.3 52.9 53.6 52.4 57.8 58.3 56.9 31.4 46.5 38.0 38.4
53.9
47.6 56.2
46.2
56.4
54.7
57.1
32... 43.4 55.0 55.9

31.8 55.2 57.0
45.6
44.4
51.1 40.4
49.9
47.8
47.5
56.2 46.9
46.0
59.4 44.6 25.7 37.0 28.6 31.0

0... 14.7 59.5 50.6 58.9 44.0 59.3 56.5 61.0 46.5 68.3 68.4 68.6 51.5 54.5 50.5 54.9 37.0
12.9 49.0 47.7 58.5 60.8 59.4 53.2 59.5 49.0 68.6 69.4 68.8 43.5 51.3 51.0 43.2 37.2 55.6 55.6 43.4 22.0 37.0 29.5 26.9
68.2
44.6
12.6 48.5 44.1 56.6 67.5
59.0
25
41 4 36.4
44.2 40.6
40.5
-50... 3.8 58.2 37.3 44.3 6.5 59.0 53.4 54.2 37.5
3.6 45.2 35.0 46.5 42.7 56.5 53.8 55.6 36.2
37.7
3.8 39.5 33.6 40.3 36.7
39.3
-75...
33.6 12.4 5.1 35.0 40.2

34.4 30.1 34.8 37.6 40.7
3.1
34.3 3.5
68.0 68.2
59.1 60.7
66.2
52.0 38.2
41.2 38.7
31.5
29.5
54.9 48.6
48.1
20.8
21.0
11.6
36.0
29.8
38.0
26.5 23.0
22.5 22.3
13.6
12.2
-100. . . 6.7 3.8 4.0 23.0 2.0 42.3 40.0 42.8 7.3 65.9 57.3 48.8 29.7 37.5 33.3 33.6 21.6 42.2 42.8 32.8 8.6 24.8 25.1 19.6
1.8 3.6 2.5 3.4 2.1 4.0 47.2 54.4 7.8 67.5 52.8 52.0
33.0 34.5 36.3 23.3 44.5 44.0 33.4 7.3 23.3 20.6 18.5
44.2
43.8
2.1 2.4 2.3 3.3 26.1 36.2 33.7 33.5 9.7 63.3
6.5
48.6
37.1 41.1 35.0
1.5
125
36.0 5.6 32.2

34.4 35.4 37.9
3.1 40.5
-150... 1.9 2.2 2.1 1.8

1.4 2.1 1.5 2.3
2.6
24.3 2.8 29.5 1.5 44.5 4.2 38.2 27.2 27.6 28.1 26.6 8.6 36.4 38.4 24.0 3.7 21.9 11.3 6.6
28.0 2.4 2.1 1.4 43.4 40.2 29.9 24.4 28.5 25.0 30.3 9.4 37.7 35.2 24.2 2.5 21.4 12.5 6.2
2.0 27.7 2.4
2.9 42.0 41.8 26.2 22.3 27.3 28.7 7.4
23.8
21.4 10.0 6.6
42.4
2.9
2.2 3.0 1.9
2.0 2.5 3.2
2.0 2.2
-175...
200
1 4
1.7
42.9
41.0
38.0
11.0
20.1
24.0
11.6
11.9
2.0 23.5 24.5 24.8 23.0

26.2 9.8 26.9 22.6 21.9
24.0 22.9
29.0 3.0
30.6
24.4
35.6
5.2
19.9
11.6
2.2 1.5 2.0 1.0 1.7 28.0 2.4 18.3 21.8 16 0 10.2 1.8 23.1 24.6 5.9 2.0 15.6 6.6 2.6
1.6 1.6 1.9 1.5 1.7 21.7 13.1 1.9 7,8 3.6 3.2 2.9 27.7 22.0 3.8 2.1 7.8 5.1 3.9
1.7 22.6 8.5 16.5 18.0 5.9 3.2 29.8
10.2
16.9
1 6 ^ 8 ? S 1 <1
1.6 4.5 3.2 1.7
225
1 8
1.6
1.8
250 . .
1 6 1 7 7 S ? 1 ? 4 ? 0
0.9 1.0 1.8 1.8 2.0 1.8
1.5
2.1
285 .
320
76 1 ?? <)
27.5 25.5
?? ^ 1 4 ? 1
13.2 5.6 2.7
16.2 5.2
1 8 ^ 0
2.4 2.2
1.7
5.3 3.2 2.0

5.3 3.1 2.1
4.5 ? 7
3.8 2.0
30
2.8
39
CHARPY KEYHOLE-NOTCH IMPACT DATA FOR SPECIMENS FROM

NORMALIZED-TEMPERED f-BST. SQUARE BAR.
Charpy Impact
Values, ft-lb
Charpy Impact
Values, ft-lb
Charpy Impact
Values, ft-lb
Charpy Impact
Values, ft-lb
Steel Steel Steel

22
14
10
Steel Steel Steel

14
22
10
Steel Steel Steel

22
14
10
Steel Steel Steel

10
14
22
7 0 . . . . 71.4
68.3
58.1
56.5
65.2
64.8
-100.... 66.5
65.2
0.... 69.7
70.1
58.1
58.3
65.0
63.0
-125.... 44.5
25 .
44.1
44.3
64.0
58.6
-50....
39.8
60.8
-150.... 39.3
41.2
40.6
35.3
40.0
48.0
52.6
-175.... 42.6
29.4
35.5
27.2
27.2
30.1
39.7
39.6
-200.... 21.0
29.5
3.1
21.3
20.8
22.0
2.4
3.8
2.3
5.4
1.9
-225....
250
33.1
35.5
1.9
1.7
1.6
2.0
1.7
2.5
29.1
31.0
22.6
-285....
4.4
5.4
6.0
-320. . . .
2.1
2.4
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
LOW-TEMPERATURE TRANSITION OF NORMALIZED

CARBON-MANGANESE STEELS*
BY T. N. ARMSTRONG1 AND W. L. WARNER2
In studying the literature on the

properties of carbon and low-alloy steels
at low temperatures (I),3 it will be noted
that there does not appear to be particularly close agreement among different
investigators on the effect of composition
on transition temperature. Two of the
most comprehensive reports (2, 3) give a
clear indication of the effects of carbon
and of manganese, although there is considerable doubt as to whether the specific
quantitative values for each increment
of carbon and of manganese derived from
results in one of these papers would apply
to commercial steels except under very
limited conditions.
The investigation reported here was
undertaken to determine the energytemperature relations for a number of
carbon-manganese steels as one phase of
a study of the effects of welding on the
transition temperature. The objectives
were, first, to attempt to resolve differences in published results of other studies
and, second, to aid in the selection of a
limited number of compositions for
welding studies.
* The statements and opinions appearing in
this paper are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the Army Ordnance Department.
1
Development and Research Division, The
International Nickel Co., Inc., New York, N. Y.
2
Research Laboratory, Watertown Arsenal,
Watertown, Mass.
3
see p. 54,
EXPERIMENTAL STEELS
Melting Practice:
Specimens from nineteen 30-lb induction melts and one commercial melt were
tested. Each experimental steel was made
by melting an ingot iron charge, adjusting the carbon and manganese to the
desired level with ferromanganese and
wash metal, deoxidizing with ferrosilicon
and finally with aluminum, and casting
into 4 by 4-in. ingots. Sufficient aluminum was added, except in the case of one
melt, to ensure in excess of 0.015 per cent
residual. The amount of the aluminum
addition required to obtain the desired
residual percentage varied with the carbon and manganese content. The 4 by
4-in. ingots were hammered and rolled
to f-in. square bars and then normalized.
The normalizing temperature was 1700 F
for all steels except those containing over
0.40 per cent carbon, which were normalized at 1600 F. The average cooling
rate of the specimens was estimated to be
about 4 F per sec between 1400 and
1200 F. Bars of ingot iron were obtained
from a commercial melt, and it was intended to use the test results from these
bars as a standard or control. The temperature of embrittlement, however, was
so much higher for this material than for
any of the experimental steels that the
ingot iron results are included only as
being of incidental importance. The high
transition temperature of the ingot iron
is believed to be due primarily to coarse
grain size, but the degree of deoxidation
is probably a factor also.
40
www.astm.org
ARMSTRONG AND WARNER ON CARBON-MANGANESE STEELS
41
TABLE I.CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND GRAIN SIZE.

Sulfur and phosphorus not determined except in steel B which had 0.024 per cent phosphorus
and 0.014 per cent sulfur.
All steels austenitized at 1700 F except steels U and V which were austenitized at 1600 F.
Chemical Composition, per cent
Steel
A
B.
C.
D
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
N
P.
Q.
R
S
T
U.
V.
Carbon
Manganese
Silicon
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.09
0.11
0.10
0.15
0.21
0.20
0.20
0.32
0.31
0.45
0.46
0.44
0.02
0.16
0.19
0.43
0.56
0.74
0.98
1.37
0.43
0.78
1.03
0.49
0.47
0.69
0.92
0.48
1.05
0.43
0.70
1.09
0.04
0.27
0.32
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.26
0.25
0.19
0.27
0.21
0.27
0.27
0.25
0.21
0.25
0.23
0.25
0.28
0.30
ASTM Grain Size

Austenitic
Ferritic
5 to 8
6 to 8
5 to 7
4 to 7 (few 1 to 3)
7 to 8
7 to 8
6 to 8 (40 per cent 0 to 3)
7 to 8 (few 0 to 3)
7 to 8 (few 1 to 3)
7 to 9
1 to 9
7 to 9
7 to 9
3 to 6
-2 to 6
5 to 7
6 to 8
6 to 8
6 to 8
6 to 8 (few 5)
5 to 8
8 to 9
8 to 9
4 to 8
8 to 10 (few 5 to 7)
8 to 10
8 to 10 (few 5 to 7)
8 to 10
9 to 10
8 to 10 (few 6 to 7)
10 to 12
10 to 12
2 to 5
4 to 7
Estimated
TABLE II.GROUPINGS OF STEELS

'
Steel
Carbon, Mangaper cent pernese,

cent
Steel
Carbon, Manganese,
per cent per
cent
Steel
Carbon,
per cent
Manganese,
per cent
CABBON SERIES
A
B
F
G
H
0.02
0 02
0 04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0 02
0.02
0.16
0 19
0.43
0.56
0.74
0.98
1.37
J
K
L.
M
0.09
0.11
0.10
0.15
0.43
0.78
N.
P
0.21
0 20
0 20
0 47
0 69
0 92
R
S
0.32
0.31
0.48
1.05
T
U
V...
0.45
0.46
0.44
0.43
0 70
1 09
0.74
0.78
0.69
0.70
G
L
Q. ...
0 04
0.10
0.20
0.31
0.44
0.98
1.03
0 92
1 05
1 09
1.03
0.49
MANGANESIB SEBIE s
D
J
M
N
R
T
0.04
0.09
0.15
0.21
0 32
0.45
0.43
0.43
0.49
0.47
0 48
0.43
F
K
P
U
0.04
0.11
0.20
0.46
S..
42
FIG. 1.Temperature-Impact Curves for Experimental Carbon-Manganese Steels.

FIG. 1(Continued.').
Continued on p. 44.
43
44
FIG. 1(Continued.).
45
FIG. 2.Effect of Carbon Content on Charpy Impact Properties of Experimental Carbon-Man

ganese Steels.
Composition:
Each steel was made to conform to one
of five different carbon levels. An attempt was made to make several lowcarbon melts with practically no manganese, but it was found that unless 0,15
to 0.20 per cent manganese was present
the ingots broke up during hot working.
The very low carbon melts were made
with six different levels of manganese,

and the steels of each of the other four
carbon series were made with either two
or three different levels of manganese.
The chemical composition, austenitic
grain size, and ferrite grain size are listed
in Table I. For purposes of comparison,
the steels are divided into five groups according to carbon content and into three
46
groups according to manganese content.

This grouping of steels by composition is
given in Table II.
TEMPERATURE IMPACT DATA
rather than based on individual test

values. The energy-temperature curves
for each steel are shown in Fig. 1.
Effect of Carbon:
The impact values of the steels of the

group containing 0.45 per cent manganese
were plotted against temperature. One
family of curves was prepared by using
Charpy keyhole values, and a corresponding group was prepared from
Charpy V-notch values. Similar charts
then were made for the 0.70 per cent
manganese group of steels and also for
the 1.00 per cent manganese group.
These charts permitted ready comparison of the temperature-impact curves for
steels containing from 0.04 to 0.45 per
cent carbon at each of three levels of
manganese, as shown in Fig. 2. It will be
observed that the shape of the temperature-impact curve flattens out as the
carbon content increases, regardless of
the type of notch. Also, it will be noted
that the amount of energy absorbed in
breaking the specimen at temperatures
that produced 100 per cent shear fracFIG. 3.Effect of Carbon on the Shape of tures decreases with increase in carbon
the Temperature-Impact Transition Curve. and that the temperature at which de(After Rinebolt and Harris (2).)
parture from 100 per cent shear fracture
occurs increases with increase in carbon
ture appearance (percentage of fibrous or content of the steel. These diagrams show
shear area as compared to cleavage or that the fracture transition (4) occurs in
crystal line area) are given as Series A in a very narrow range of temperature for
the Appendix. From these data, energy- steels containing up to 0.10 per cent
temperature transition curves for both V- carbon, but for steels containing more
and keyhole-notched specimens were than 0.10 per cent carbon, the temperaplotted for each steel, and accompanying ture of transition extends over an infracture-temperature transition curves creasingly broad range as the carbon
also were prepared. For convenience, the content increases.
V-notch and keyhole-notch temperatureThese effects have been reported preimpact curves for each steel were re- viously (2) as is evident in Fig. 3 which is
plotted on the same chart, but the taken from the published literature. It is
temperature-fracture curves were omit- interesting to note in the current work,
ted to avoid confusion. All compari- however, that the ductility transition
sons, however, both of energy and temperature (4), which in this investigafracture relations to temperature were tion was arbitrarily selected as the tembased on values taken from the curves perature at which the impact value of
Charpy specimens, both keyhole and
V-notch, were machined from the normalized bars from each heat and tested
at successively lower temperatures until
decided embrittlement was encountered.
The energy absorbed in breaking the
specimen, test temperature, and the frac-
47
FIG. 4.Effect of Carbon Content on Ductility (15 ft-lb) Transition Temperature of CarbonManganese Steels.
FIG. 5.Effect of Carbon oh Fracture Transition Temperature of Carbon-Manganese Steels.
48
FIG. 6.Effect of Manganese Content on Charpy Impact Properties of Experimental CarbonManganese Steels.

15 ft-lb is obtained, is not affected in the
same manner as the fracture transition
temperature by increasing the carbon
content of the steel. Increase in carbon
content, within certain limits, may even
lower the ductility transition temperature. This is more pronounced in the 0.45
per cent manganese series than in either
the 0.70 per cent or the 1.00 per cent
manganese series.
49
Carbon and Fracture Transition:
The effect of carbon content on the

fracture transition can best be observed
by determining the temperature at which
fracture deviates from 100 per cent shear
and then plotting this value against carbon content, as was done in Fig. 5. The
point of deviation was called 95 per cent
shear instead of 100 per cent shear to
indicate departure from completely shear
FIG. 7.Effect of Manganese Content on Ductility Transition Temperature of Carbon-Manganese Steel.
Carbon and Ductility Transition:

The effect of carbon content on the
ductility transition temperature can be
observed in Fig. 4 in which the temperature at which 15 ft-lb is obtained is
plotted against carbon content. In this
figure it is quite obvious that at the
lower carbon levels increase in carbon
content does not necessarily result in a
higher transition temperature; in fact,
frequently the 15 ft-lb transition temperature was lowered by increasing the
carbon content. Results indicate that the
optimum carbon content for lowest
ductility transition temperature may be
within the range of 0.10 to 0.20 per cent
carbon,
fracture or, in other words, the knee of

the fracture appearance-temperature
curve. The effect of increasing carbon
content on the fracture transition temperature appears to be a linear relation,
but magnitude of the effect (slope of the
line) is influenced by the manganese
content.
Effect of Manganese:
The effect of increasing manganese on

the Charpy V-notch impact properties of
steels of each of five different carbon
levels is shown in Fig. 6. The effect of
increasing manganese in louring both ,
the fracture transition and the Ductility^
transition temperature is quite pro=nounced at all carbon levels up to ana
50
including 0.30 per cent carbon. For the

steels containing as much as 0.45 per cent
carbon, increase in manganese appears
to have little effect on the fracture transition and lowers the ductility transition
only slightly and sometimes not at all.
Based upon results shown hi Fig. 6, it
would appear that increase hi manganese
up to slightly above 1 per cent, which was
the usual maximum limit in this investi-
0.10, and 0.20 carbon steels fall within

such a narrow scatter band for the
V-notch specimens that one curve could
be drawn to represent all these steels
containing not more than 0.21 per cent
carbon.
Results for the keyhole notch specimens were not so consistent as those for
the V-notch, but again the trend of the
transition temperature is downward with
FIG. 8.Effect of Manganese on Fracture Transition Temperature of Carbon-Manganese Steels.
gation, does not affect the shape of the

temperature-impact curve for steels
containing 0.30 per cent carbon or less,
although it may cause a shift in the curve
with respect to the ordinate.
Manganese and Ductility Transition:
In Fig. 7, the temperature at which 15
ft-lb is obtained is plotted against the
manganese content. A curve was plotted
for each carbon level and, although the
general trend of the transition temperature for each curve is downward as the
manganese increases, the values for 0.04,
increase in manganese. In this series, the

scatter is so great that only the results
for the 0.45 carbon steels are outside the
scatter band.
Manganese and Fracture Transition:
The effect of increasing manganese in
lowering the fracture transition temperature of steels of various carbon levels is
shown in Fig. 8. It is interesting to observe that the slope of the several curves
differs for different carbon levels. The
steepest slopes are for 0.10 and 0.20 per
cent carbon steels and the least slope is
for 0.45 per cent carbon steel. This indi-

cates that, while the fracture transition
temperature of steels containing up to
0.45 per cent carbon decreases with increase in manganese, the rate of decrease
is greatest in steels containing from 0.10
to 0.20 per cent carbon.
The authors would like to interject a
word of caution at this point in connection with applying results of this investigation to actual engineering structures. It must be recognized that most of
51
transition temperatures as these experimental specimens even though the composition of the steels might be identical.
Despite the differences that might be expected between the experimental and
commercial steels, it is believed that the
effects of carbon and of manganese on
transition temperature, as determined in
this investigation, would be relatively
the same for commercial steels, providing
comparison among steels is made on spec-
TABLE III.RELATION BETWEEN DUCTILITY TRANSITION

AND FRACTURE APPEARANCE.
Keyhole Notch
V-Notch
Steel
A.
B.
C
D
E
F
H
J
K
L
M. . . .
N... .
P
Q
R
S
T
U. .
V
0
Temperature
for 15 ft-lb,
deg Fahr
Shear
Fracture,
per cent
Temperature
for 15 ft-lb
deg Fahr
Shear
Fracture,
per cent
95
-40
-55
-15
-80
-90
-90
-130
-30
-95
-110
.-45
-55
-110
-95
-10
-90
30
15
-35
20
15
16
22
15
20
15
18
15
14
16
26
14
12
10
17
10
20
24
16
70
-90
-90
-55
-135
-110
-140
-165
-45
-160
-165
-90
-125
-145
-160
-80
-155
35
0
-50
58
14
25
40
24
20
15
16
40
16
25
35
28
18
12
15
16
35
40
22
ASTM Ferrite Grain Size
3 to 6
2 to 6
5 to 7
6 to 8
6 to 8
6 to 8
6 to 8 (5)
5 to 8
8 to 9
8 to 9
4 to 8
8 to 10 (5 to 7)
8 to 10
8 to 10 (5 to 7)
8 to 10
9 to 10
8 to 10 (6 to 7)
10 to 12
10 to 12
Numbers in parentheses represent 5 per cent or less of total area examined.
the conditions were favorable in this investigation. Very small ingots were
poured, rolling and hammering temperatures were closely controlled, and the
specimens were cooled fairly rapidly from
the normalizing temperature because of
their small size. The specimens in this
investigation were normalized in order
to eliminate one of the variables. Specimens taken from as-rolled plate, f-in.
or more in thickness, rolled from large
slabs or ingots of commercially produced
steel cannot be expected to have as low
imens taken from sections of the same

general thickness.
An attempt was made to find a relationship between 15 ft-lb transition and a
definite per cent shear fracture. Table
III shows that there is a fairly close relationship in the Charpy V test, but in the
Charpy keyhole test the values are much
more scattered. Results in this table also
raise the question of the validity of a
definite relation between Charpy V and
Charpy keyhole results that applies except for a steel in a definite condition of
heat treatment.
52
Lateral Expansion:
The criteria that have been used in
this investigation for measuring per-
pression side of the bar has been used

since it is much easier to measure. It has
been established that there is a linear
FIG. 9.Relation Between Energy and Lateral Expansion in the Impact Test for 12 Experimental
Carbon-Manganese Steels. (After Hartbower (6).)
formance are (1) temperature at which

the energy absorbed in breaking the specimen is 15 ft-lb and (2) 95 per cent shear
fracture. There is still another criterion
that is used on occasionslateral contraction at the base of the notch of the
fractured impact specimen (5). More recently, the lateral expansion on the corn-
relationship between lateral expansion

(or contraction) and the energy absorbed
in fracturing a Charpy bar.
Twelve of the steels used in this investigation were used by another investigator (6) to check the validity of
representing the plot of lateral expansion
versus energy as a straight line. These

data are presented in Fig. 9. The broken
lines have been sketched in at the lower
right-hand corner of each diagram to indicate the lateral expansion accompanying a Charpy value of 15 ft-lb. The
author concluded that a linear relation
does exist between the linear expansion
and energy to fracture the Charpy bar.
This linear relation was reported to extend over a range of 0 to 50 ft-lb in the
case of V-notch Charpy specimens and
over a range of 0 to 40 ft-lb in the case of
keyhole notch Charpy specimens.
Grain Size:
One half of a fractured Charpy specimen from each melt was selected for
metallographic examination, and both
the prior austenite grain size and the
ferrite grain size were determined. Although presumably sufficient aluminum
was added to obtain fine grain size in all
the experimental melts (0.05 per cent in
all cases except steel B which had no
aluminum added and steel C which
had an addition of 0.19 per cent), many
of the specimens had a mixed austenitic
grain size with a predominance of fine
grains but with a substantial quantity of
coarse grains. Heat N was an exception
since in this steel the coarse grains predominated. In most instances the steels
had a fine ferrite grain size although
heats B and C were, at best, borderline.
Where a mixed grain size obtains, there
always is a question as to what grain size
predominates at the base of the notch.
An attempt was made to assess the
grain size effect by observing the curves
in Fig. 6 and also by recording the grain
size in Table III. Although certain trends
were indicated, the effect of the other
two variables, carbon and manganese,
interfered with a precise evaluation of the
grain size effect.
The one steel of the entire series which
exhibited anomalous behavior was steel
D. On the basis of both composition and
53
gram size, the curve for this steel should

have fallen to the left of the curves for
steels B and C in Fig. 6. No cause could
be determined for the relatively low
Charpy values for this steel.
SUMMARY
Based upon results of these tests, the
authors conclude that:
1. Increase in carbon content up to
about 0.20 per cent carbon does not affect the ductility transition (temperature at which 15 ft-lb is obtained)
very greatly. In these tests, the optimum
content for lowest ductility transition
appears to be between 0.10 and 0.20 per
cent (Figs. 2 and 4).
2. Increase in carbon up to 0.45 per
cent raises the fracture transition temperature of normalized carbon-manganese steels. The amount the transition
temperature is raised by increase in carbon depends somewhat ugon the manganese content of the steel (Figs. 2 and
5).
3. Increase in manganese content
within the range 0.45 to 1.00 per cent decreases the ductility transition temperature of normalized carbon-manganese
steels (Figs. 6 and 7).
4. Increase in manganese content
within the range 0.45 to 1.00 per cent
lowers the fracture transition temperature of carbon-manganese steels. The
magnitude which the fracture transition
is decreased by increase in manganese
depends somewhat upon the carbon
content of the steel. The rate of decrease
appears to be greatest in those steels
containing from 0.10 to 0.20 per cent
carbon (Figs. 6 and 8).
5. The linear relationship between
energy absorbed in breaking the Charpy
specimens and the lateral contraction
measured at the base of the notch (or
lateral expansion on the compression
side of the specimen) holds for these
tests (Fig. 9).
54
6. Both the fracture transition temperatures and the ductility transition

temperatures are lower for these experimental steels than have been reported
for commercial steel plate of comparable
analyses. Homogeneity due to small
ingots and relatively rapid cooling rate of
the small specimens from the normalizing temperature probably is responsible
for the superiority of the experimental
steels. It is believed, however, that the
general effect of carbon and of manganese
would be relatively the same in normalized commercial steel plates, pro-
vided the specimens were taken from

plates of the same approximate thickness.
A cknawledgment:
The authors wish to acknowledge the

assistance of the members of the staff
of the Water town Arsenal Research
Laboratory who performed the tests, and
O. O. Miller of The International Nickel
Co. Research Laboratory, Bayonne,
N. J., who prepared and processed the
experimental steels and made the'grain
size determinations.
REFERENCES
(l) Katherine Janis, "Bibliography on Low
Temperature Characteristics of Steels, 19041954," The International Nickel Co., Inc.,
New York, N. Y., May, 1955.
( 2) J. A. Rinebolt and W. J. Harris, "Effect of
Alloying Elements on Notch Toughness of
Pearlitic Steels," Transactions, Am. Soc. for
Metals, Vol. 43, p. 1175 (1951).
(3) H. M. Banta, R. H. Frazier, and C. H.
Lorig, "Metallurgical Aspects of Ship Steel
Quality," Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol. 30, No. 2, p. 793 (1951).
(4) R. D. Stout and L. J. McGeady, "The Mean ing and Measurement of Transition Temperature," Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol. 27, No. 6, p. 299-s (1948).
(5) A. B. Kinzel, "Ductility of Steel for Welded
Structures," Transactions, Am. Soc. for
Metals, Vol. 40, p. 27 (1948).
(6^ Carl E. Hartbower, "Poisson Effect in the
Charpy Test," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol. 54, p. 929 (1954).
55
ARMSTRONG AND WARNER ON CARBON-MANGANSEE STEELS

APPENDIX
INDIVIDUAL IMPACT TEST VALUES

Charpy Keyhole Specimens
Charpy V Specimens
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
SERIES A
a
I
8.
5
9
10
3
11
7
6
12
1
212
176
158
140
131
131
122
122
113
104
104
73
79 .
79
68
64
40
46
46
52
26
8
37
6
100
100
95
90
60
65
65
75
40
20
30
10
2
5
7
3
11
1
10
12
9
8
6
4
212
176
140
122
95
73
73
59
50
32
4
-40
31
31
32
26
24
25
24
12
9
6
2
1
100
100
100
85
75
75
75
45
40
25
5
0
75
40
58
67
67
-76
76
76
85
94
83
70
66
62
68
4
63
17
12
8
7
2
100
100
100
100
100
5
100
30
15
10
5
0
75
4
22
40
40
-76
54
-67
76
112
130
-148
82
67
98
15
91
24
92
18
88
35
3
2
100
100
100
30
100
40
100
35
100
50
5
5
75
4
-13
22
40
40
58
-67
112
74
74
73
73
63
54
73
5
3
100
100
100
100
85
80
100
15
5
75
40
58
58
-76
-94
68
70
56
70
62
68
69
60
3
1
1
100
100
75
100
80
100
100
70
5
0
0
SERIES B
1
4
5 ..
11
6
7
10
82
9
3
75
4
22
22
31
31
31
40
40
58
76
212
218
238
225
12
183
15
26
9
6
7
100
100
100
too
15
100
15
20
10
10
10
1
2
5
6
11
4
7
10
9
8
3
12
112
148
SERIES C
4 .
5
6
2
7
9
10
8
12
3
11
75
4
22
31
40
40
49
49
58
58
76
94
223
239
239
239
35
239
239
8
10
6
7
18
1
4
5
2
6
3
7
8
9
10
12
11
100
100
100
100
25
100
100
5
5
5
5
10
SEBTKB D
1
2
4
6 -'
5
75
75
4
13
22
40
240
240
225
32
11
10
100
100
100
35
1
4
7
2
12
9.
10
15.
10
11
SERIES E
1
2
g
6
5
4
3
75
40
58
67
76
148
238
320
224
224
224
224
8
3
2
1
100
100
100
100
5
0
0
0
1.
2
7
9
6
10
11
8
5
103
-112
148
238
320
4
3.
Continued
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06
EDT 2016 on p.
56-58
Charpy V Specimens
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
75
-40
-76
-85
-94
-112
-148
220
235
220
230
15
6
4
100
100
100
100
20
10
5
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
75
-40
-76
-94
-103
-112
-148
79
75
79
110
78
4
2
100
100
100
100
100
10
5
75
-40
-76
-112
-120
-130
-130
-139
-139
-148
-166
-184
80
78
80
77
78
56
58
80
79
5
3
3
100
100
100
100
100
70
70
100
100
5
0
0
75
-40
-112
-130
-139
-148
-157
-166
-184
-220
97
100
98
107
87
76
36
16
11
3
100
100
c 100
100
90
80
35
15
5
0
75
32
-4
-13
-22
-31
-40
-40
-49
-58
-76
61
64
60
49
42
40
34
39
8
4
3
100
100
100
85
70
65
60
55
30
20
10
68
-40
-4
-58
-58
-67
-76
-112
-148
-166
-184
83
80
75
54
78
56
50
37
34
2
2
100
100
100
70
100
70
60
50
35
0
0
68
-76
-85
-94
-112
-148
-166
-184
-184
-238
86
78
76
53
45
35
10
4
4
1
100
100
100
65
50
35
10
0
0
0
SERIES F
--- 2
3
7
6
5
4
1
2
3
6
7
5
4
SERIES G
1
2.
3
7
6
5
4 ..
75
-40
-76
-85
-94
-112
-148
223
240
240
240
12
6
5
100
100
100
100
15
10
5
1 ..
-2
3
8 ...
9
6
5
4
75
-40
-112
-112
-121
-130
-148
-184
237
238
238
238
238
13
5
4
100
100
100
100
100
5
0
0
1..
3
6
7
4
2
5
75
32
14
5
-4
-40
-76
195
190
184
76
52
7
4
100
100
100
50
40
10
5
1
2
3
5
7
6
10
8
9
4
12
11
SERIES H
1
2
3
6
7
5
9
8
4
10
SERIES J
1
3
4
7
6
10
2
9
11
8
5
SERIES K
1
-1
3
7
6
5
4 ...
68
-40
-76
-85
-94
-112
-148
238
238
224
110
20
7
4
100
100
100
55
15
5
0
1
3
5
4
7
8
2
6
11
12
10
SERIES L
1
^_2
3
6
7 ....
g
5
4
68
-40
-76
-94
-103
-108
-112 -148
238
238
238
238
200
226
10.5
6
100
100
100
100
100
100
5
0
1
2
8
5
4
3
10
7
9
6
56

Charpy V Specimens
Specimen
57
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
75
32
22
14
-4
-4
-22
-22
-40
-76
153
154
120
119
75
113
90
97
17
6
100
100
85
80
60
75
55
60
30
10
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
75
32
14
-4
-22
-40
-58
-76
-94
-94
-112
57
53
50
48
44
38
36
30
32
10
3
100
100
100
90
85
70
55
45
40
20
5
75
32
14
-4
-22
-40
-76
112
148
50
50
42
41
39
33
31
22
3
100
100
85
80
75
60
55
40
0
75
32
14
5
-4
-40
-76
-112
-130
-148
-148
-200
54
53
56
54
44
38
31
28
24
6
24
2
100
100
100
100
80
65
45
40
25
5
25
0
75
-22
-22
-40
-58
-76
-112
-150
-150
-240
-320
55
44
53
48
41
37
28
27
23
2
1
100
80
100
85
65
50
30
25
20
0
0
175
86
72
32
-4
-4
-40
-76
-85
-94
-112
-112
40
39
35
31
24
28
21
19
3
3
3
2
100
100
90
70
65
65
40
35
10
10
5
5
SERIES M
10
6
3
9
7
8
2
5
4
6 ..
3
8
2
11
5
9
10
7
SERIES N
g
12
I
9
4
11
-2
10
5
7
122
122
75
75
50
32
14
-4
-40
-58
-76
-112
122
122
123
121
100
96
92
70
45
19
9
3
100
100
100
100
90
85
80
60
45
15
5
0
75
50
32
14
5
-4
-13
-22
-22
-40
-76
128
133
113
128
134
106
84
105
91
53
30
100
100
85
100
100
70
60
70
55
35
15
75
-40
-50
-58
-67
-76
-112
-150
-240
-320
128
124
102
31
32
48
10
5
1
1
100
100
65
20
15
25
5
g
2.
5
9 . ...
SERIES P
1
6
3
g
4
10
9
11
2
5
1 ..
3
8 ..
4
2
5
9
11 .
6
10
12
SERIES Q
1...
10
9
6
8
5'
4
3
1
9
10
2.
7
6
o0
0
8 ..
5
11
4
3
SERIES R
4
5
7
3..
6
175
104
86
72
32
-4
-40
87
87
78
56
41
30
7
100
100
85
70
45
30
5
4
8
1
3
6
7
2.
5
12
11 . ...
9
10
Continued on p. 58.
58
Charpy V Specimens
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
122
75
50
32
-4
-40
-76
-112
-148
-184
44
44
41
38
35
30
23
22
18
5
100
100
95
90
85
65
45
35
20
5
250
212
194
175
140
104
75
75
32
14
-4
-40
27
28
25
26
27
24
16
20
16
9
6
2
100
100
90
95
95
85
50
70
40
35
20
5
212
149
122
104
68
32
-4
-40
-76
-112
28
27
26
22
19
18
15
13
8
2
100
100
90
80
60
50
40
30
15
5
212
148
122
104
68
32
-4
-40
-76
-112
30
31
30
29
27
21
22
14
13
12
100
100
90
85
75
55
45
SERIES S
r\
6
4
g
3
=2
5
7
75
50
32
14
-4
-40
-76
-112
87
81
77
56
54
36
23
12
100
100
95
75
70
40
15
5
10
1
6
4
3
2
5
7
8
9
SERIES T
4
11
40
9
g
6
1
3
7
2
212
175
158
140
122
104
86
75
32
-4
-40
57
57
58
49
37
34
27
24
16
7
5
100
100
100
95
75
65
50
40
20
10
5
11
5
6
4
8
9
1
10
3
12
7
2
SERIES U
4
5
7
11
6
12
10
1
8
9
T
3
212
176
158
149
140
122
104
68
32
-4
-40
-76
50
50
50
49
44
41
37
28
18
11
10
6
100
100
100
95
90
75
65
50
30
15
10
5
3
8
9
7
1
6
5
4
2
10
SERIES V
4
S
7
11
6
12
10
1
8
29
3
212
176
158
149
140
122
104
68
32
-4
-40
-76
60
58
57
55
57
45
48
33
27
21
14
8
100
100
100
100
95
75
80
55
40
25
15
5
3
8
9
7
1
6
5
4
2
10
30
15
10
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
EFFECT OF SPECIMEN WIDTH ON THE NOTCHED BAR IMPACT

PROPERTIES OF QUENCHED-AND-TEMPERED AND
NORMALIZED STEELS
BY R. S. ZENO1
Data obtained from testing small specimens is commonly used by engineers
in the design of large structures. Since
the size and geometric configuration of a
test specimen can greatly influence the
test results, it is necessary to understand
more about this effect and the limitations
Steel
E 9310
SAE 1020
10 in. long by 5 in. wide by f in. thick.

After forging, these sections were slowly
furnace-cooled and then cold-rolled into
|-in. plate. The SAE 1020 steel was \
hot-rolled plate.
The compositions, in weight per cent,
of the steel investigated were as follows:
Carbon Manganese Phosphorus
0.12
0.20
0.63
0.83
0.020
0.020
imposed in order to apply these test data

sensibly. The present investigation was
made to further the understanding of the
effect of specimen geometry on the Vnotch Charpy impact properties of
oil-quenched-and-tempered E 9310 and
normalized SAE 1020 steels. The general
plan was to compare the impact properties of standard, one-half, and one-quarter width V-notch Charpy bars.
The impact properties determined
were the energy, fracture appearance,
and contraction of area under the notch
transition temperatures; energy per unit
fracture area (under the notch); and
energy per unit volume.
Sulfur
Silicon
Nickel
Chromium
Molybdenum
0.028
0.040
0 31
0 05
3 19
1 20
0 10
Heat Treatment:
The E 9310 |-in. plate was austenitized at 1500 F (816 C) for 1 hr and oil
quenched, followed by a 1000 F (538 C)
temper for 1 hr and air cooled. This
treatment produced a microstructure of
95 per cent tempered martensite and 5
per cent acicular ferrite with an ASTM
grain size of 8-9. 'The SAE 1020 |-in.
plate was austenitized at 1700 F (927 C)
for 1 hr and air-cooled. This treatment
produced a microstructure of elongated
grains of ferrite and pearlite with an
ASTM grain size of 5-6.
TESTS
MATERIAL
The tests made on the heat-treated

E 9310 and SAE 1020 were as follows:
1. Room-temperature tension tests.
1
Materials and Processes Laboratory, Large
2. Impact tests as a function of temSteam Turbine-Generator Department, General
perature.
Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y.
Six-inch diameter E 9310 steel was

forged at 1200 C (2192 F) into sections
59
www.astm.org
60
FIG. 1.Specimen Dimensions.

Bar Width
Standard
One half
One quarter
L, in.
5, in.
D, in.
A, in.
R,'m.
S X D , Capacity Hammer
Volume, sq in., of Impact Striking
cu in. Fracture Machine, Velocity,
ft per sec
Area
ft-lb
2.165
2 165
2 165
0 394
0 197
0 098
0 315
0 315
0 315
0 394
0 010
0 010
0 010
0 335
0 168
0 084
0 394
0 394
0 124
0 062
0 031
11.3
11.3
11.3
120
120
16
TABLE I.E 9310 V-NOTCH CHARPY BARSONE-QUARTER, ONE-HALF, AND

STANDARD WIDTH.
Temperature
Fracture Appearance,
per cent Fibrous
Energy, ft-lb
deg Cent
deg Fahr
Contraction Under Notch,

per cent
ONE-QUARTER WIDTH
-195... .
-110....
-75....
-25....
+ 25... 4
+ 50....
-319.. 2.4
-166.. 3.0
-103.. 5.4
-13.. 9.8
+ 77.. 11.0
+ 122.. 10.0
2.7
2.8
7.1
9.0
9.5
9.0
3.0
3.2
6.5
9.9
8.0
8.0
Avg
2.7
3.0
6.3
9.6
9.5
9.0
0
10
40
60
100
100
0
10
40
60
100
100
Avg
0
10
38
62
100 100
100 100
0
10
35
65
Avg
6.1
9.2
13.3
20.4
19.4
16.3
6.1
8.2
15.3
15.3
14.3
21.4
6.1 6.1
8.2 8.5
14.3
14.3
17.3
17.7
16.8
16.8
18.9
18.9
2.0
3.6
4.1
7.1
8.2
8.2
2.0
3.6
4.1
7.1
9.2
9.2
2.0
4.1
4.1
6.6
8.7
8.7
3.8
4.1
6.9
8.7
8.7
8.0
2.5
2.5
3.3
5.1
4.8
2.0
2.3
3.1
3.8
5.3
5.6
1.4
2.8
2.8
3.8
5.2
5.2
1.4
2.5
2.8
3.6
5.2
5.2
ONE-HALF WIDTH
-195....
-110... .
-75....
-25....
+ 25....
+50... .
-319..
-166..
-103. .
-13..
+77..
+ 122..
2.9 3.8 4.6 3.8

6.9 5.7 4.7 5.8
8.3 8.9 8.3 8.5
12.6
12.5 12.3 12.9
18.0 18.5 19.0
18.5
19.0
20.0 19.0 18.0
0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5
10 10 10 10
40 50 45 45
100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100
2.04
STANDARD WIDTH
6.1
17.0
30.0
-13.. . 22.0 24.0
+77... 31.0 32.0
+ 50... . + 122... 31.0 32.0
-195... .
-110... .
-75....
-25....
+ 25....
-319... 4.7
-166... 18.0
-103... 25.0
7.5 6.1
16.0
17.0
23.0
14.0
24.0
23.3
32.3
34.0
32.3
34.0
The dimensions of the V-notch Charpy

bars investigated are shown in Fig. 1.
Note that the specimen dimensions were
the same for all three bars except for
0 0 0
0
0 5 5 3
5 5 5 5
15 20 20 18.3
100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100
width. The volume of the bars was calculated as the product of the three linear
dimensions; the volume of the notch was
disregarded. For a study of true size
ZENO ON NOTCHED BAR PROPERTIES OF STEEL

effect, test bars sould be geometrically
scaled models subjected to the same
stress and strain conditions. References
61
specimen length was transverse to the

rolling direction.
The standard and one-half width bars
TABLE II.SAE 1020 V-NOTCH CHARPY BARSONE-QUARTER, ONE-HALF, AND

STANDARD WIDTH.
Temperature
Fracture Appearance,
per cent Fibrous
Energy, ft-lb
deg Cent
deg Fahr
Contraction Under Notch,

per cent
ONE-QUARTER WIDTH
-100.... -148...
-50....
-58...
0.... + 32...
+ 50.... + 122...
+ 100.... + 212...
0.3
1.9
6.5
8.1
7.2
0.4
1.1
8.5
9.5
8.6
0.4
1.8
7.9
7.7
7.5
Avg
0.4
1.6
7.6
8.4
7.8
0
0
0
2
3
3
95 97 99
100 100 100
100 100 100
Avg
0
3
97
100
100
Avg
2.1 2.1 1.0
1.7
5.2 7.1 7.2
6.5
28.6 24.5 25.326.1
28.9 25.8 27.627.4
29.6 30.6 31.6 30.6
0
0
50
100
100
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
11.2 12.2 12.12.0
7
14.1 14.6 15.2
14.6
17.1 17.7 17.2
17.3
0
0
17
99
100
0.3 0.2 0.3

0.3
0.8 0.5 0.8
0.7
5.6 5.1 5.1
5.3
10.0
9.4 10.7 10.0
10.4 10.2 10.710.4
ONE-HALF WIDTH
-100.
-50.
0.
+ 50
+ 100.
-148.
-58.
+ 32
+ 122.
+ 212
0.5
0.7
0.7 0.6
1.7' 0.8
1.1 1.2
8.6 11.112.0 10.6
17.0 16.0 17.016.7
12.0 14.0 18.0
14.7
0
0
0
0
0
0
60
30
60
100 100 100
100 100 100
0.5
STANDARD WIDTH
1.4
1.4 1.4
-100.... -148... 1.3
-58... 3.8
2.2 3.4 3.1
-50....
0.... +32... 16.0 16.0 16.016.0
34.7
+ 50.... + 122... 35.0 35.0 34.0
+ 100.... +2l2... 36.0 35.0 34.0
35.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
10 20
99 99
99
100 100 100
TABLE III.SUMMARY OF ENERGY, FRACTURE APPEARANCE, AND CONTRACTION-UNDER NOTCH TRANSITION TEMPERATURES FOR OIL-QUENCHED-ANDTEMPERED E 9310 AND NORMALIZED SAE 1020 STEELS.
Material
Bar Width
Energy
Transition
Temperature
Fracture
Appearance
Transition
Temperature
Contraction-.
Under-Notch
Transition
Temperature
deg
Cent
deg
Fahr
deg
Cent
deg
Fahr
deg
Cent
deg
Fahr
E 9310
E 9310
E 9310
One quarter
One half
Standard
-70
-35
0
-94
-31
+ 32
-48
-28
0
-54
-18
+ 32
-80
-38
-20
-112
-36
-4
SAE 1020
SAE 1020
SAE 1020
One quarter
One half
Standard
-25
-5
+5
-13
+ 23
+41
-25
0
+ 20
-13
+ 32
+ 68
-23
-20
0
-9
-4
+32
made to size effect in this paper should

be considered in the light of the test bars
investigated. The notch was machined
perpendicular to the plate surface. The
were tested on a Tinius Olsen Impact

Tester at the 2-ft fall setting or 120 ft-lb
capacity, with a hammer velocity at impact of 11.3 ft per sec. The one-quarter
Temperature, deg Cent, deg Fahr

FIG. 2.Energy Transition Curves, Oil-Quenched-and-Tempered E 9310.
FIG. 3.Fracture Appearance Transition Curves, Oil-Quenched-andTempered E 9310.
FIG. 4.Energy Transition Curves, Normalized SAE 1020.
FIG. 5.Fracture Appearance Transition Curves, Normalized SAE 1020.
64
width bars were tested on a BaldwinSouthwark machine. The maximum

capacity of this machine was 16 ft-lb at
a 2-ft fall, with a hammer velocity at impact of 11.3 ft per sec.
TEST RESULTS
Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties:
The room-temperature tension test results (average of three results) were as
follows:
Tensile strength psi .

Yield strength, 0.02 per cent offset, psi
Proportional limit
Elongation in 2 in., per cent
Reduction of area, per cent
Hardness (average of ten results)
E9310
SAE 1020
157 500
137 500
127 000
12 5
63 500
39 000
33 Rockwell C
30 5
64 0
69 Rockwell B
Impact Properties:
The V-notch Charpy data and transition temperatures are summarized in
Tables I to III and Figs. 2 to 7.
The energy transition temperatures
given in Table III were determined by
estimating the temperature of greatest
slope of the curves of impact energy
versus temperature. The fracture appearance transition temperatures were determined as the 50 per cent ductile fracture
from the plots of per cent fibrous fracture
versus temperature. Contraction-undernotch transition temperatures (deformation) were determined by estimating the
temperature of greatest slope of the
curves of per cent contraction versus
temperature.
The energy per unit fracture area and
energy per unit volume calculations are
summarized in Table IV and Figs. 8
through 11.
DISCUSSION
Transition Temperature:
FIG. 6.Contraction Under Notch Transition Curves, Oil-Quenched-and-Tempered E
9310.
A decrease in bar width for both the

E9310 and SAE 1020 steels shows a
definite size effect, the smaller specimens

always exhibiting lower transition temperatures (Figs. 2 to 7). This same
Charpy bar size effect has been shown by
Buffum (l),2 Armstrong et al. (2), Zeno
65
axial stresses under the notch. Zeno and

Low (5) found this to be true in ship
plate steel for unnotched single- and
double-width Charpy bars. The un-
FIG. 7.Contraction Under Notch Transition Curves, Normalized SAE 1020
and Dolby (3), Schwartzbart and Sheehan (4), and others.

The higher transition temperatures of
the larger bars are partially due to the
greater restraint of the wider specimens,
which increases the severity of the tri2
see p. 69.
notched double-width specimens had a

higher transition temperature than the
unnotched single-width specimens. Increasing the width of an unnotched or
notched impact specimen has the effect
of increasing the transverse tensile stress
at the surface. Thus the wider specimens
present a more severe condition of loading, resulting in higher transition temperatures (Figs. 2 to 7). The edge effect,
66
FIG. 8.Energy per Unit Fracture Area as a Function of Bur Width and Temperature for Oil
Quenched-and-Tempered E 9310 Steel.
FIG. 9.Energy per Unit Fracture Area as a Function of Bar Width and Temperature for Normalized 1020 Steel.
67
FIG. 10.Energy per Unit Volume as a Function of Bar Width and Temperature for Oil-Quenchedand-Tempered E 9310 Steel.
FIG. 11.Energy per Unit Volume as a Function of Bar Width and Temperature for Normalized
1020 Steel.
68
particularly with less than standard

width Charpy bars, may also be considered as a possible variable in evaluating test results.
Maximum Energy per Unit Fracture A rea
and Unit Volume:
As noted by Schwartzbart and Sheehan (4), previous investigations have indicated that the energy necessary to
fracture an impact bar consists of twopor-
It is not understood by the author why

the results were inconsistent for this
temperature.
A size effect was also observed for the
SAE 1020 steel. From the curves of
energy per unit fracture area versus testing temperature, it will be noted that
above the highest energy transition
temperature (+5 C for the standard
width bar) the impact energy increased
with specimen width. Below this transi-
TABLE IV.ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME AND UNIT FRACTURE AREA AS A

FUNCTION OF SPECIMEN WIDTH.
Bar Width, Total Energy," ft-lb

Temperature,
deg Cent
One
Quarter
One Half
Full
Bar Width, Energy per Unit

Volume, ft-lb
One
Quarter
One Half
Full
Bar Width, Energy per Unit

Fracture Area, ft-lb
One
Quarter
One Half
Full
87.2
96.8
203.2
309.8
306.1
290.0
61.3
93.6
137.1
203.2
298.8
306.5
49.2
137.1
185.4
187.8
260.4
260.4
12.9
51.6
245.0
271.0
251.0
19.4
171.0
269.3
237.0
9.7
11.3
25.0
129.0
279.4
282.0
QUENCHED-AND-TEMPEHED E 9310 STEEL

- 195
-110
-75
25
+ 22
+50
2.7
3.0
6.3
9.6
9.5
9.0
3.8
5.8
8.5
12.6
18.5
19.0
6.1
17.0
23.0
23.3
32.3
32.3
32.2
35.7
75.0
114.2
113.1
107.1
22.6
34.5
50.6
75.0
110.1
113.1
18.2
50.8
68.7
70.2
96.4
96.4
NORMALIZED SAE 1020 STEEL

100. .
50
+50
+ 100
0.4
1.6
7.6
8.4
7.8
0.6
1.2
10.6
16.7
14.7
1.4
3.1
16.0
34.7
35
4.8
19.1
90.6
100.0
92.9
3.6
7.2
63.2
99.4
87.6
4.2
9.3
47.8
103.5
104.5
" Average of three values.
tions. One is a function of fracture area

and the other a function of volume. The
latter is made up of the elastic strain
energy stored in the entire test bar and
the stressed parts of the testing machine.
This total stored energy is released when
it reaches a value high enough to cause
self-propagation of the crack without the
application of further external energy.
For the E 9310 steel, the curves of
energy per unit fracture area versus testing temperature indicate a definite size
effect. The impact energy level decreased
with increasing specimen width for all
temperatures except H O C (166 F).
tion temperature, the energy decreased

with increasing specimen width.
Similar size effects were observed for
both the E9310 and SAE 1020 steels
from the plots of energy per unit volume
versus testing temperature.
Schwartzbart and Sheehan (4) reported
an increase in maximum energy per unit
fracture area for quenched-and-tempered
steels as the Charpy bar size increased.
They also reported a decrease in maximum energy per unit volume with increasing specimen size. The geometry of
their Charpy bars was somewhat different from that used in this study.
69
From the present data and the work

of other investigators, it is evident that
energy per unit fracture area and volume
is not only a function of specimen geometry but microstructure and transition
temperature as well.
The use of impact energy per unit fracture area and volume in the design of
large structures should be approached
with caution since these values can vary
significantly, particularly at or near the
transition temperature of the material.
As previously shown by Buffum (1)
and from the present data it is advantageous to use specimens as large as
possible in order to obtain realistic design data.
tion temperatures were lowered as the

specimen width decreased.
2. Energy per unit fracture area and
volume decreased with increasing specimen width for the E 9310 steel for all
testing temperatures except H O C
(-166F).
volume for the SAE 1020 steel increased
above the highest energy transition temperature and decreased below this transition temperature with increasing specimen width.
volume is not only a function of specimen
geometry but of microstructure and
transition temperature as well.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn:
1. A size effect was exhibited in transition temperature for both the E 9310
and SAE 1020 steels. The energy, fracture appearance, and deformation transi-
A cknowledgment:
The author is grateful to J. R. Low,

Jr., Research Laboratory, and S. Yukawa, Materials and Processes Laboratory, General Electric Co., for their
critical reviews of this paper.
REFERENCES
(1) D. C. Buffum, "Investigation of Square SubSized V-Notch Charpy Specimens," ASTM
BULLETIN, No. 160, Sept., 1949, p. 45 (TP
143).
(2) T. N. Armstrong, N. A. Kahn, and H.
Thielsch, "Transition from Ductile to
Brittle Behavior in Pressure Vessel Steels,"
The Welding Journal, Research Supplement, Aug., 1952, pp. 2-11.
(3) R. S. Zeno and J. L. Dolby, "The Effect of
Specimen Geometry on Impact Transition
Temperature," ibid., Research Supplement,
Apr. 1953, pp. 190S-197S.
(4) H. Schwartzbart and J. P. Sheehan, "Effect

of Specimen Size on Notched Bar Impact
Properties of Quenched-and-Tempered
Steels," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol. 54, p. 939 (1954).
(5) R. S. Zeno and J. R. Low, Jr., "The Effect of
Variation in Notch Severity on the Transition Temperature of Ship Plate Steel in the
Notched Bar Impact Test," The Welding
Journal, Research Supplement, March,
1948, pp.145S-147S.
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
REPRODUCrBILITY OF CHARPY IMPACT TEST

BY DAVID E. DRiscoix1
SYNOPSIS
To demonstrate that the Charpy impact test is truly a reproducible test, a
special heat of steel cut up to provide 18,000 blanks and heat treated to three
energy levels was obtained by the Watertown Arsenal Laboratory. Two hundred specimens at each energy level were tested in Charpy machines manufactured by two different companies to obtain the deviation and average energy
values. The remainder of the specimens are being used to check Charpy impact
machines throughout the country to determine the causes of the variations
encountered. Charts of some of the results obtained are shown and discussed.
When the Charpy impact test was
incorporated into the specifications
of the Ordnance Department in the
1940's, there were many who thought
that it was not a reproducible test and
therefore should not be used as an
acceptance test.
Their concern was valid, as there had
been numerous reports published that
showed the Charpy impact test was
unreliable, with a wide scatter reported
when a material was tested on one
machine and the same wide scatter also
reported when tests were conducted
using a large number of machines.
The Watertown Arsenal Laboratory
had been using this Charpy specimen for
years and, regardless of operating personnel and time lapse between original
tests and check tests, had been able to
obtain reproducible results on the
various impact machines used. In fact,
some tests were made six months apart,
and the results obtained still fell on the
original plotted curve.
Since the same caliber of technical
1
Chief, Mechanical Metallurgy Branch,
Watertown
Arsenal, Watertown, Mass.
personnel were operating the Charpy

machines in private industry as were
employed at the Watertown Arsenal
Laboratory, it was decided that the
differences noted could be caused by any,
'one or a combination of _the_JoUowing
factors:
\ Vly Condition of Charpy impact maI chine,
A2^ Methods of machining and finishing
!the Charpy specimen, and
r \3\ Techniques of cooling and testing
specimens.
The Ordnance Department, therefore,
set up a program to study these factors
and to attempt to prove to the satisfaction of those concerned that the
Charpy test was reproducible and
therefore a reliable tool for inspection
purposes.
To demonstrate the reliability and reproducibility of the impact test, it was
first necessary to obtain a homogeneous
steel where the variation in composition
was held to a minimum, as a study of
the specimens used in some past surveys
showed many with marked variations in
steel quality and microstructure. Some
70
www.astm.org
DRISCOLL ON REPRODUCIBILITY OF TESTS
71
TABLE I.COMPOSITION OF SPECIMENS, PER CENT.

Carbon
Manganese
Silicon
Sulfur
Phosphorus
Nickel
Chromium
Molybdenum
0.37 to 0.75 to 0.77 0.27 to 0.28 0.013 to 0.013 to 1.73 to 1.77 0.83 to 0.86 0.25 to
0.385
0.015
0.016
0.27
FIG. 1.Results of Tests on 4340 Steel Conducted on Charpy Impact Machines.
had shown bad laminations of nonmetallic inclusions, some were almost

completely martensitic, and some were
of a mixed martensite and bainite
microstructure. These factors have a
great effect on the impact resistance of
steel; therefore, when the steel is nonuniform in quality, wide variations in
impact values can be expected. These
variations are not a reflection on the
impact test itself, but point up the
fact that reliability and reproducibility.
of the impact test can be demonstrated

only by using uniform material.
PROCEDURE
The Watertown Arsenal Laboratory
obtained two tons of a basic aircraft
quality 4340 steel that had been rolled
into 3-in square rods; the end of each
rod was examined by macroetching
and the rods were then rolled into
20-ft lengths of f-in. square stock.
Twenty of these rods were picked at
72
TABLE II.AVERAGE ENERGY VALUES

OF 200 SPECIMENS.
Machine
Tvoe 1
Type 2
Energy Values, ft-lb

Low
Medium
High
12.7
12.6
48.6
49.1
78.4
77.9
energy level were tested in each of two

machines to determine the expected
spread. Of the 400 specimens tested in
the two machines at the low energy
level, 364 specimens fell within a
1.0 ft-lb range, and only three specimens, or less than 1 per cent, fell outside
FIG. 2.Deviation and Energy Values Obtained on Machines from Four Different Manufacturers. (Watertown Arsenal machines used as standard.)
random and chips were taken for analysis. The chemical compositions in Table
I show the small spread encountered in
composition.
This material was divided into three
lots of approximately 6000 specimens
each and heat treated to three energy
levels. Two hundred specimens at each
of a 1.5 ft-lb range. The medium

energy range had about the same
spread and the high energy range had
considerably less. Figure 1 shows the
actual results obtained. In this chart the
energy scale was purposely magnified
to show a clear picture of the actual
spread. The averages of the 200 speci-
DRISCOLL ON REPRODUCEBILITY OF TESTS

mens tested in each machine at each
energy level are given in Table II.
Once these averages were determined,
an additional ten sets of five specimens
each were tested, and the average of the
five specimens was used to see how well
73
filled out at the testing facility This

questionnaire when filled out shows the
type and capacity of the Charpy
machine, the techniques used in conducting the test, and finally the results
obtained. The questionnaire and the
FIG. 3.Deviation and Energy Values Obtained in Second and Third Tests on Same Machines.
(Watertown Arsenal machines used as standard.)
it matched the results of the original

tests. From the results obtained it was
apparent that if the Charpy machine
were in good working condition, properly
calibrated, and the proper testing
techniques observed, over 90 per cent of
the specimens tested would fall within a
spread of 1.0 ft-lb up to 20 ft-lb, and
5 ft-lb above 20 ft-lb. If the average
of five specimens were used, the major
portion of the remaining ten per cent
would fall within the limits prescribed.
These specimens were then made up
into sets consisting of five specimens at
each of the three energy levels and sent
out along with a questionnaire to be
broken specimens are returned to the

Watertown Arsenal Laboratory where
the results are analyzed and a report is
forwarded to the Ordnance District
concerned and to the testing facility
upon request. Where the results show an
error greater than the tolerance allowed,
suggestions as to methods of overcoming
this error are included in the report. If
necessary, and when requested by the
Ordnance District, Watertown Arsenal
Laboratory technicians will visit the
facility, inspect the machine, check the
specimens and testing techniques, and
recommend changes in the machine or
testing techniques.
74
Figure 2 illustrates results obtained on

machines from four different manufacturers. Many of the machines tested
for the first time consistently show errors
on the high side of the energy values.
This is not unusual or unexpected, as
most of the faults encountered, such as
specimen jamming on side supports,
jamming between pendulum and side
supports, loose foundation, worn bearings, etc., cause the pendulum to slow
down, thereby causing an apparent
high reading.
When the causes of the high readings
have been determined, the information is
forwarded to the testing facility, and
upon notification that the faults have
been corrected, the Watertown Arsenal
Laboratory forwards a second set of
specimens to be tested.
Figure 3 shows the results obtained
from the machines where the second test
had been completed, and also the results
of the third test in one case where the
second test results were still high. As can
be seen from the chart, most of these
machines are within the tolerances
previously mentioned. One large steel

company has five machines, representing two different manufacturers, scattered through their plants, and the data
from all five machines agree with those
from the machines at the Watertown
Arsenal Laboratory.
CONCLUSION
While many of the reports published
show that the Charpy machine produces a wide scatter in energy values
and in many cases a variation in energy
values where two or more machines are
used, it has been proved in general that
the wide scatter is due to poor steel
quality, poor heat treatment, or both,
and the variations in machines are
caused by poor testing techniques, the
poor condition of the Charpy machine,
or possibly both. As a result of these
surveys, the Watertown Arsenal Laboratory and many private facilities concur
in the feeling that when properly conducted, the Charpy test is_Jruly an
accurate and reproducible test.
DISCUSSION
MR. S. L. HoYT.1Was any coolant
used during the machining of the
notches? Or how was a possible heating
effect taken care of?
MR. D. E. DRISCOLL (author).Mr.
Hoyt has asked whether, during the machining of the notches, we use anything
for a coolant. The answer is, no. With the
single tooth carbide cutter, we have
found that the heat generated is so low
that we have no changes in the notch.
We have tried it both with and without
cooling and we get exactly the same results, regardless of the energy value of
the material.
MR. A. H. ScoTT.2I would like to ask
Mr. Driscoll if the Watertown Arsenal is
offering to calibrate impact testing machines for those interested.
MR. DRISCOLL (author'sclosure).The
Watertown Arsenal Laboratories, work-
ing with the Ordnance districts, have

checked many Charpy impact machines. If a company has Government
contracts to produce Ordnance items,
the Ordance district will send an inspector out to the plant with a set of Charpy
specimens to check the machine whenever they deem it necessary.
In the case of a company not having a
Government contract, a letter to my attention or to the District Ordnance
Office involved will receive, in most instances, an affirmative answer, since it is
considered in the best interests of the
Government to have as many facilities as
possible using proper testing techniques
on an acceptable Charpy machine.
In the event of a national emergency,
the Government, having this information, will be able to speed up defense
work and save money by eliminating one
of the slowdowns encountered during the
1 Metallurgical Consultant, Columbus, Ohio.
Korean conflict when many Ordnance
2 Formerly Research Mechanical Engineer,
Dept. of Metallurgical Research, Kaiser Alu- components were rejected after being
minum & Chemical Corp., Spokane, Wash. Now previously accepted due to high energy
Mechanical Design Engineer, Mead Works, values obtained on a faulty Charpy
Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corp., Spokane,
machine.
Wash.
75
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
AUTOMATIC IMPACT TESTING FROM ROOM TEMPERATURE

TO -236 C
BY THOMAS S. DESisxo1
SYNOPSIS
Using liquid nitrogen and liquid helium as coolants, Charpy V-notch impact
tests were conducted from room temperature to 236 C in an automatic device, which houses within a vacuum a complete impact machine and storage
space for 105 specimens.
Comparison impact tests of AISI 4340 steel conducted on both a conventional and the low-temperature impact machine to 195.8 C show that the
device is a useful and accurate impact tool.
Impact testing has been carried out at
temperatures as low as 252.7 C, but
the range between liquid nitrogen
(195.8 C) and
liquid hydrogen
(252.7 C) has not been explored.
Fontana2 conducted impact tests at
252.7 C by placing an impact specimen in a paper boat that was then filled
with liquid hydrogen.
of the fractured surface could be obtained, but the energy to fracture could
not be recorded.
In the meantime, a contract was initiated for the design and manufacture of
an automatic machine for impact testing
to 10 K (-263 C). The final product, the
low-temperature impact machine, was
installed at the Watertown Arsenal
Laboratory in June 1954. It had been
hoped that temperatures as low as
263 C could be obtained; but, as yet,
only temperatures as low as 236 C are
being obtained.
In 1950, the Watertown Arsenal became interested in obtaining impact

data in the low Kelvin ranges. Subsequently, a Collins helium cryostat was
obtained, and a fixture, capable of breaking specimens in the 4-in. diameter working chamber of the cryostat, was designed. In this fashion, a description
The purpose of this paper is to describe

a device capable of conducting impact
tests automatically from room temperature to 236 C, to discuss comparative
tests on both the low-temperature and
Sonntag impact machines, and finally to
discuss limited low-temperature results
for AISI 4340 steel and a 6 per cent
aluminum, 4 per cent vanadium alloy.
1
Mechanical Engineer, Watertown Arsenal
Laboratory,
Watertown, Mass.
2
M. G. Fontana, S. M. Bishop, and J. W.
Spretnak, "Investigation of Mechanical Properties and Physical Metallurgy of Aircraft Alloy
at Very Low Temperatures," Air Force Technical
Report No. 5662, Part 5, The Ohio State University Research Foundation, December, 1953.
76
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DESISTO ON AUTOMATIC TESTING

LOW-TEMPERATURE IMPACT MACHINE
The machine (Fig. 1) consists of a
container which houses within a vacuum
a complete Charpy machine with storage
space for 105 Charpy V-notch specimens.
77
groups are tested in a clockwise position,

and testing within each group is from the
outside to the inside.
Upon loading the specimens (Fig. 2),
the first five drop out of sight into the
FIG. 1.101 ft-lb Low-Temperature Charpy Impact Machine.
A single-purpose type pendulum with a

capacity of 101 ft-lb is used. The bob of
the pendulum is armor plate and the arm
is aluminum.
Storage Drum and Cold Box:
The storage drum is an aluminum disk
which has 20 rows of slots, 5 slots in each.
To insure that the notch is in its proper
place when impact occurs, the specimens
are loaded with the notched faces toward
the outside of the drum. The specimen
first layer of the cold box. After the drum

is loaded, depression of the "feed jog"
button will drop the five specimens from
the storage end of the cold box to the
refrigerated level and advance the
storage drum to replace the five specimens in the upper level.
When loading is completed, all covers
and ports are secured, and the vacuum
equipment is set in operation. The
vacuum equipment consists of a Kinney
78

single stage high-vacuum pump (13 cu ft
per min displacement), an MC500 diffusion pump, and a Philips vacuum gage.
FIG. 2.Storage Drum, Cold Box, Chute,

Centering Device, and Anvil of the LowTemperature Charpy Impact Machine.
Cooling Mechanism:
The specimens are cooled by conduction, as convection and radiation would
be ineffective. In a high vacuum such
as that employed, 0.1 /*, there is no air
present to convey heat. Since radiation
varies as the fourth power of the absolute temperatures, and we are concerned with temperatures as low as 37 K,
radiation is small and is not a significant
factor. To be effective the surfaces
through which the heat must flow must
be in intimate contact. A cooling mechanism was designed to clamp each specimen between jaws, each jaw being cooled
with liquid helium. When a vacuum of
0.1 /* is obtained, the specimens are
ready to be cooled. The refrigerator
jaws are precooled by forcing liquid
nitrogen through a separate coil and
venting it to the air.
FIG. 3.Comparative Charpy Transition Curves of AISI 4040 Steel Specimens (45 Rockwell C
Hardness) Tested in Both the Sonntag and Low-Temperature Impact Machines.
FIG. 4.Fractured Surfaces of Charpy Specimens of AISI4340 Steel (27 Rockwell C Hardness).
80
Liquid helium, which is stored in the

Collins cryostat, is conveyed from the
cryostat though a U-shapedi vacuumjacketed tube (to avoid helium leaks)
which is assembled on the cryostat drawoff tube and the impact tester inlet tube.
Liquid helium may be metered into the
cold box by manual control of two bleed
valves, which can either vent the return
helium gas to the atmosphere or return
the gas directly to the low-pressure
storage container. As the refrigerating
cooler was polished to reflect radiation

falling upon it.
At present, with the full storage capacity of 18 liters, 15 specimens can be
tested at 236 C. However, above
220 C the full load of the machine,
105 specimens, may be tested without
exhausting the supply of liquid helium.
Temperatures are measured by Foxboro helium bulb thermometers which
are inserted into the refrigerating jaws.
Actual specimen temperatures were
FIG. 5.Charpy Transition Curve of AISI 4340 Steel (45 Rockwell C Hardness).
effect of the cryostat is limited in capacity and the cooling effect is at the rate
of only a few watts, the following steps
were taken to conserve as much helium
as possible:
1. The storage area of the cryostat
was enlarged from 5-liters to 18-liters
capacity.
2. The cryostat draw-off tube was
enlarged from T&-in. inside diameter to
TS in.
3. The cold helium gas leaving the
cooler was made to pass through the
\cooler supports, thereby minimizing the
heat flow through these supports.
4. The inside walls of the vacuum
chamber were coated with aluminum foil
to reduce radiation to the cooler, and the
measured by inserting copper-constantan

thermocouples into the specimens.
A utomatic Test Cycle:
When the specimens are sufficiently
cooled, depression of the starter button
will automatically start the test cycle.
All test functions are controlled by
mechanical linkages or electrical switches
actuated by two banks of cams inside
the console. The primary cam bank
makes one revolution for each test. The
secondary cam bank makes one revolution during five tests.
As the cycle starts, the 50-lb thruster
is cut off, releasing the pressure of the
jaws clamping the specimens, a movable
chute bridges the gap between the anvil
FIG. 6.Fractured Surfaces of Charpy Specimens of AISI4340 Steel (45 Rockwell C Hardness).
82
side supports, preventing the specimens

from falling through, and the angular
indicator returns to zero.
As the chute reaches its final position,
the specimen bar drop clears the number
one slot and the specimen is dropped. As
the specimen reaches the far end of the
anvil side supports, the movable bridge
begins to withdraw, guiding the specimen ^
to its approximate position. In the meantime, the pendulum begins to fall. While
the pendulum is falling, two sets of
fingers begin centering the specimen
hardness of 27, were tested at liquid

nitrogen temperatures in both a Sonntag
and the low-temperature impact machine. Two specimens were tested at each
temperature level. Average energy readings are plotted in Fig. 3. The two curves
are practically coincident, except at
100 C. The reason for this spread can
be attributed to the temperature range.
Both specimens broken in the Sonntag
machine show fibrous fracture readings
of 65 per cent, whereas the two speciments broken in the low-temperature
FIG. 7.Charpy Transition Curve of Al 4 V Titanium Alloy.
with respect to its ends and force the

specimen to the anvil rear supports. The
fingers are withdrawn before impact.
After the specimen is broken, the
pendulum lifter is lowered to catch the
pendulum on a back swing. While the
pendulum is being raised, the cam-bank
motor is shut off and the jaw pressure on
the remaining specimens is reapplied,
After the angular reading has been recorded, another specimen is ready for
êst.
DISCUSSION
To determine the reproducibility of the
low-temperature
impact
machine,
Charpy V-notch specimens of AISI
4340 steel, heat treated to a Rockwell C
impact machine show fibrous fracture

readings of 50 percent and 60 per cent.
Examination of the fractured surfaces
(Fig. 4) shows that the specimens broken
at 236 and -269 C (broken in the
working chamber of the cryostat) contain approximately 5 per cent fibrous
fracture and look identical.
Specimens of AISI 4340 steel, heat
treated to a Rockwell C hardness of 45,
were tested from +180 to -236 C. Testing above room temperature was conducted in a Sonntag impact machine.
The curve (Fig. 5) shows that there is a
gradual decrease in energy with respect
to temperature decrease. Examination
of the fractured surfaces (Fig. 6) shows
DESISTO ON AUTOMATIC TESTING

that there is very little evidence of any
appreciable change in fracture appearance from 93 to 236 C. The fracture
appearances in this range appear to
measure approximately 5 per cent fibrous
fracture.
Specimens of a 6 Al 4 V titanium alloy,
in the as forged condition, were tested
from +400 to -236 C (Fig. 7). The results obtained above room temperature,
tested in a Sonntag impact machine,
blend in very well with the results for
specimens tested in the low-temperature
impact machine and add further proof
to the reproducibility of the machine.
83
CONCLUSIONS
1. The low-temperature machine is a
device which is capable of producing
accurate test results from room temperature to 236 C.
2. The 6 Al 4 V titanium alloy exhibits
remarkable toughness at 236 C.
Future Work:
Attempts to obtain testing temperatures below 236 C will be continued
in the future. It is anticipated that a redesign of the cold box and the cooling
coils will result in lower temperatures.
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
THE INFLUENCE OF PENDULUM FLEXIBILITIES ON IMPACT

ENERGY MEASUREMENTS
BY JOSEPH I. BLUHM1
SYNOPSIS
It is hypothesized that the flexibilities of impact machines give rise to a
potentially significant error in the usual impact test. An overly simplified
and idealized model of an impact machine is analyzed in some detail. In
particular, the relation between the stiffness of the machine, the effective
stiffness of the specimen, and the maximum load developed is explored.
The nature of the impact test as exemplified by the Charpy test is such that
meticulous care must be exercised in its
execution if reproducible results are to be
achieved. Contrary to the apparent experience of several testing facilities,
Driscoll2 has definitely established that
reproducibility is indeed possible and,
in fact, to be expected, provided certain
minimum safeguards that he describes are
maintained.
There have been instances, however,
where, in spite of all the suggested precautionary measures, tests have failed
to provide reproducible results from
machine to machine; the present investigation has been aimed at uncovering
the source of this apparent discrepancy.
In tests at Watertown Arsenal Laboratory, it was noted, for example, that
certain classes of specimens of controlled
strength and toughness levels would fail
with remarkable and unfailing repro1
Chief, Applied Mechanics Branch, Watertown Arsenal Laboratory, Watertown Arsenal,
Watertown,
Mass.
2
D. E. Driscoll, "The Charpy Impact Machine and Procedure for Inspection and Testing
Charpy 'V Notch Impact Specimens," ASTM
BTTLLETIW, No. 191, July, 1953, p. 60 (TP104).
ducibility in one pendulum-type machine

having a capacity of 217 ft-lb, registering
an energy absorption of 13 ft-lb; yet,
with the same remarkable reproducibility, these specimens would fail to break
in a second machine having a capacity
of 16 ft-lb. Secondary influences, such
as the effect of differences of strain rate,
have been ruled out, by simple tests, as
significant factors in the disproportionate behavior. It is significant, however,
to note that the above phenomenon was
more prevalent with high-strength metals
(for a given toughness) than with lowstrength metals.
On the basis of these observed phenomena, one is naturally led to suspect
the basic design of the impact machine.
As contrasted with the customary design
problem of properly locating the center
of percussion, it is considered that the
current difficulty is associated with the
flexibility of the machine. The author
advances this hypothesis by presenting a
detailed analysis of the effects of such
flexibilities on the subsequent response
of the machine. A simple, idealized model
is intentionally used to avoid mathe-
84
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BLUHM ON IMPACT ENERGY MEASUREMENTS
FIG. 1.Typical Impact Machines (Machine A in Background).
matical distractions, and, since the

results of such a simple model are applicable to the general case, they are particularly helpful in visualizing the general
behavior.
It is hoped that this cursory study of
the significance of machine stiffness will
arouse sufficient interest to effect more
adequate designs of future impact machines.
PRELIMINARY TESTS
Initial observation of the phenomenon
gave rise to considerable speculation
regarding its causes. Several hypotheses
were initially advanced, based on the
assumption of peculiar material behavior
or peculiar behavior of the impact machine when operating near its rated
capacity. In order to evaluate these
factors, it was sufficient to conduct a
few simple tests, which are described to
provide background material.
FIG. 2.View of Impact Machine B.
85
86
Several machines, shown in Figs. 1, 2,

and 3, were utilized in the course of
these preliminary tests. To facilitate
energy absorption of 12.7 1.23 ft-lb

was tested in machine A at various
initial pendulum positions to obtain a
FIG. 3.View of Setup of Machine, C A , and CB .

TABLE ITESTING MACHINE CHARACTERISTICS.
Code
B
CA
CB
Type
Design
Capacity,
ft-lbs
Impact Velocity
at Design Capacity, ft per sec
Mass of
Pendulum,
slugs
Distance from
Center Rotation
to center of
gravity, in.
Pendulum
Pendulum
Drop weight
Drop weight
217
16
16
16
16.8
11.0
4.0
11.0
1.56
0.277
1.56
0.277
27.3
11.9
6
6
0 This test machine was a conventional drop weight tester for which two weights were designed
to correspond to the weights of machines A and B, respectively. These weights were then released
in machine C from heights corresponding to 16.0 ft-lb to simulate the capacity of machine B. The
associated velocities are tabulated.
6
Not applicable.
identification, code letters were assigned.

Pertinent characteristics are shown in
Table I.
To demonstrate the absence of a significant strain rate influence, a series of
specimens having a "rigid machine"
variation of striking velocity. Table II

and Fig. 4 show the results of these tests.
It will be noted that, although the striking velocity ranged from 16.8 to 4.54
ft per sec, straddling the 11.0 ft per sec
velocity of machine B, the energy ab-

TABLE II.INFLUENCE OF IMPACT
VELOCITY ON ENERGY ABSORPTION.0
Initial Pendulum
Angle, Bo , deg6
155
60
45
40
35
30.67
(100)
(3)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Impact Velocity,
ft per sec
16.8
8.59
6.57
5.88
5.19
4.54
Energy Absorbed, ft-lb
12.7
13.0
13.1
12.8
13.6
13.9
" All specimens tested at 27 C in machine A

at various initial (adjusted) angles of the pendulum6 Bo , as indicated.
The number in parentheses indicates the
number of specimens per datum point.
87
are tabulated in Table III and plotted

in Fig. 5 in dimensionless form. It will
be noted that, although the ordinate
scale has been exaggerated, there is little
variation in the energy absorption over
the wide range of adjusted capacities of
the impact machine.
As final demonstration that a design
factor rather than a materials factor was
responsible for this apparently anomalous behavior, a series of impact tests
was conducted using a drop-weight-type
machine. Two rigid masses were ma-
FIG. 4.Influence of Impact Velocity on Energy Absorption.
sorption remained essentially constant.

Specimens of the same group, when
tested in machine B, did not fail though
the capacity was 16 ft-lb and the striking velocity 11.0 ft per sec. It was presumed, therefore, that the behavior in
question was not a materials response
effect, that is, strain rate per se.
As further demonstration that no observable effect occurred even at higher
energy absorption levels, the same type
tests were conducted on standard specimens having a "rigid machine" energy
absorption of 56.43 ft-lb. The results of
these tests, conducted on machine A,
chined to weights corresponding to those

of the pendulum of machines A and B,
respectively, and then these weights
were dropped from various heights and
impacted against standard Charpy bars.
To each machine, A or B, there corresponded a height to which the appropriate mass in the drop weight machine
had to be raised to yield equal energy
and impact velocity levels. Hence, this
machine simulated identically the rigid
body models of machines A or B, depending upon which mass was used.
Specimens used in this series of tests
88
TABLE III.INFLUENCE OF "ADJUSTED CAPACITY" OF IMPACT MACHINE A ON ENERGY ABSORPTION.0

Adjusted Energy
Initial
Capacity, Absorbed, C/c
Pendulum
E, ft-lb
Angle, 0o, deg* C, ft-lb
/Eo
3.84
3.17
2.36
1.49
1.16
1.07
1.04
1.01
1.00
0.98
1.01
1.04
0.99
1.00
0.99
1.00
155 (4)
125
100
75
65
62
61
60
^
(3)
(3)
(3)
(4)
(3)
(5)
(2)
\ /
217.05
179.17
133.63
84.39
65.74
60.41
58.66
56.93
56.43
55.55
57.00
58.07
55.82
56.49
56.12
56.58
0
All specimens tested at 24 C in machine A
at various initial (adjusted) angles of the pendulum 80 , as indicated.
6
e
Eo is the rigid machine energy, that is, the
energy absorbed in a rigid machine at design
capacity; in the present case, Eo = 56.43 ft-lb.
break specimens when the elevation corresponded to 12 ft-lb. This is in agreement with the values obtained in earlier
tests (see Table II).
Furthermore, though machine CB responded in a similar fashion, its pendulum type counterpart having identical
masses and impact velocities was incapable of fracturing the specimens' in
spite of its 16 ft-lb capacity. Figure 7
shows the complete transition curve for
the lower impact energy material.
Although no attempt is made here to
imply that these tests are conclusive,
they appear to encourage and substantiate explanations other than those
based on materials response. Toward
this end the author proposes that flexi-
FIG. 5.Influence of "Adjusted Capacity" of Impact Machine A on Energy Absorption.
were of the 12.7 1.23 ft-lb category.

The results of these tests are shown in
Table IV and in Fig. 6. It will be noted
that machine CA (drop weight machine
with weight corresponding to machine
A) broke specimens when the elevation
of the weight was such as to provide
13 ft-lb of available energy, but did not
bilities and softness of the impact machine play a primary role in this anomalous effect, but it will be shown that the
characteristics of the stress-strain curve
of the specimens being tested are also
significant. Figure 8, which represents a
strain record actually made on an impact machine, definitely justifies the
89
FIG. 6.Impact Energy Required to Fracture Specimen.
TABLE IV.IMPACT ENERGY REQUIRED TO FRACTURE SPECIMENS.0

Adjusted Capacity of Impact
Machine, ft-lb*
Fraction of
Specimens Tested
Which Failed
MACHINE CA
15
14
13
12
(1)
(1).
(2)
(1)
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
FIG. 7.Energy Transition Curve.
MACHINE CB
18 (2) ...
17 (2)
16 (2)
15 (2)
14 (1)
13 (2) .
12 (3)
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
0 These tests, at room temperature, were

conducted onr a drop-weight tester using for machine CA a weight corresponding to machine A,
and for machine CB a weight corresponding to
machine B (see Table I).
6
hypothesis of the presence of vibrations. In the material that follows, a

simple and idealized illustrative case is
expanded in detail and is quantitatively
analyzed to show the potential effects to
be encountered because of such flexibility in a pendulum.
ANALYSIS
Idealized Model:
In the present idealized model, it is
90
FIG. 8.Bending and Torsional Strain Records on Typical Pendulum.
FIG. 9.Influence of Pendulum Stiffness on Amplitude of Impact Force.

assumed (a) that the pendulum has only
a single degree of freedom (above the
rigid body movement)that is, can be
represented by a single mass-spring
systemand (b) that the specimen mass
is negligible compared to the pendulum
mass but (c) that it remains essentially
elastic until failure and (d) that its stiffness is constant.
In view of the above assumptions,
which assuredly oversimplify both the
physical and mathematical problems but
which nevertheless portray the essentials
of the mechanism in question, the impact machine and specimen combination
can be visualized as shown in Fig. 9.
Considering m and kp to be the lumped
mass and stiffness of the pendulum, and
ks the lumped stiffness of the specimen,
the differential equation of motion is:
where:
y = displacement, and
g = gravitational constant
Allowing for an initial condition of
free fall (swing) of the pendulum before
impact giving rise to an impact velocity
V0, and assuming that the displacement
of the pendulum is zero at time zero,
the solution of this is given by:
or, equivalently:
91
where:
The maximum value of y (negative)

is then:
and the corresponding maximum force

generated in the "specimen," normalized
with respect to the static weight of the
pendulum, is given by:
A plot of this equation is shown in

Fig. 9 for various values of the pertinent
parameters. It is clear that, as the stiffness of the pendulum, kp, is decreased,
the peak force developed on the specimen
decreases. This is particularly significant
in explaining the observations noted
earlier. Assume, for example, a machine
of stiffness kp = a and a specimen stiffness ks b such that the peak force
developed is lOwg. If the specimen is of
low-strength materialthat is, requiring,
let us say, lOwg Ib for rupturefailure
will develop, and in the usual test machine an energy absorption can be recorded; if, however, the specimen is of
high strength but of the same toughness3requiring more than lOwg Ib for
rupturethen, obviously, the specimen
will not fail. Hence, one observes that a
change in the stiffness of the pendulum
does give rise to fallacious energy absorption values.
Even in the event that failure of the
specimen does occur, the apparent en3 Toughness, as used here, refers to the energy
absorption capacity as reflected in the Charpy
V-notch test at a given temperature.
92
ergy absorption will be too great by an

amount equal to the vibrational energy
in the pendulum. For a theoretically stiff
pendulum, this error is zero.
GENERALIZATION
The foregoing analysis, as applied to
the single degree of freedom system
admittedly does not apply superficially
to a conventional impact machine. However, any more complicated system can
be described. in terms of generalized
coordinates and, when so described, each
such coordinate is governed by the same
form equation as was y in the single
mass-spring system. If, for example, a
system having n degrees of freedom is
described in generalized coordinates such
then one may immediately write:
where an is the stiffness-mass ratio for
the mode of vibration considered and

6n is the generalized force function. Each
of these equations may be solved for
its force contribution Fi/mg and the
total force on the specimen obtained by
the summation:
Hence, although the detailed values

and shape of the response curve as indicated in Fig. 9 may change, the general
conclusion will remain in effect.
CONCLUSIONS
It has been shown that the discrepancies noted in the measurement of
energy absorption from one machine to
another may be attributable, in part at
least, to the flexibility of the impact
machine and that such flexibilities can
give rise to the differential behavior of
high- and low-strength specimens having
the same toughness.
To ensure adequate design, the pendulum should be sufficiently stiff so that,
under the most severe impact forces, the
elastic energy stored in the pendulum
is less than a predetermined allowable
value.
DISCUSSION
MR. H. M. QuACKENBOS1 (presented
in written form).Mr. Bluhm has presented some convincing facts concerning
the effect of the "stiffness" of the impact
machine on the energy needed to fracture a sample. With the lighter of the
two machines, less of the applied energy
is transmitted to the specimen and more
is taken in deforming the pendulum.
The converse of this situation lies in a
fixed machine and specimens of varying
stiffness; we encountered this in examining impact machines for plastics.2 3 We
were using electric strain gages on the
specimen to measure the energy absorbed
during impact. In the standard Izod
machine, only 10 to 20 per cent of the
energy applied by the pendulum was
transmitted to the specimen; the rest
was lost in the machine. (The so-called

"broken end" effect is neglected here.)
The absorption by the specimen depended on its stiffnessthe stiffer the
specimen, the lower the absorption. This
relationship held in a general way over a
wide range of stiffness, achieved by
variations in the modulus of elasticity
of the material and in cross-sectional
area. L. E. Welch conceived the analogy
of the two springs, similar to Mr.
Bluhm's analogy, except that it was
called the one spring "machine" rather
than "pendulum." This model explained
qualitatively the effect of the stiffness
of the specimen on energy distribution.
We also studied a Charpy machine of
similar capacity, in which the specimen
is a simple beam having a span of 4 in.,
rather than a cantilever with a span of
1
Development Department, Bakelite Co., A 0.866 in. as in the Izod test. The Charpy
Division of Union Carbide and Carbon Corp.,
specimen has a much lower stiffness than
Bound
Brook, N. J.
2
L. E. Welch and H. M. Quackenbos, Trans- the Izod, and, as expected, it absorbed
actions, Am. Soc. Mechanical Engrs., Vol. 68, a considerably higher proportion of the
p. 547-56
(1946).
3
H. M. Quackenbos, J. M. Hill, Jr., and C. E. energy. Where the stiffness of the speciStaff, "The Significance of the Charpy and men was varied, the two-spring analogy
Flexure Tests hi Evaluating the Impact Resist- explained the changes in absorption of
ance of Plastics," ASTM BULLETIN, No. 159,
energy, in a quantitative fashion.
July, 1949, p. 56 (TP116).
93
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
THL IMPACT TUBE: A NEW EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE FOR

APPLYING IMPULSE LOADS
BY GEORGE GERARD1
SYNOPSIS
This paper is concerned with the development of a new experimental technique for applying loads of an impulsive nature to diaphragms or plates of
various shapes. Briefly, this technique utilizes an adaptation of the shock
tube principle which has been used successfully in the investigation of various
supersonic aerodynamic problems. By rupturing a diaphragm which separates
a high- and a low-pressure chamber, an expansion wave is created which
travels toward the opposite wall of the high-pressure chamber containing
the specimen under investigation. Behind the specimen is another high-pressure
chamber. As the wave impinges on the specimen, a pressure differential between the second chamber and the pressure wave is applied to the specimen
in an impulsive manner.
This technique can be used to study the dynamic response of plates or the
strength characteristics of membranes. Considerations involved in the design
of the various components of the impact tube are discussed hi detail. The
results of an exploratory program on the dynamic pressure-strain relations
in the yield region are presented for aluminum alloy 2S-O, annealed type 302
stainless steel, and annealed low-carbon steel.
The various experimental methods of
applying loads of an impulsive nature
have as their objective the determination
of either certain strength characteristics of the specimen or the dynamic response of the specimen. A survey of the
techniques used indicates that many
methods are generally deficient in the
sense that experimental data for both
the impulse-loading and the specimen
response as functions of time cannot, be
measured independently during the test.
In other methods, the effects of plastic
wave propagation place serious limitations upon the usefulness of the data
from a fundamental standpoint.
1
Assistant Director, Research Division,
College of Engineering, New York University,
N. Y.
An understanding of the behavior of

materials under longitudinal tension or
compression loads of an impulsive nature
is based upon a knowledge of the dynamic
stress-strain relations for the materials
and the theory of plastic wave propagation. However, these factors are intimately interrelated so that it is generally
not possible to determine dynamic stressstrain relations without an appreciation
of the wave propagation aspects. Likewise, it is not generally possible to conduct plastic wave propagation analysis
without a knowledge of dynamic stressstrain data for lack of suitable dynamic,
relations. While results obtained from
static stress-strain relations lead to
reasonably good approximations for
certain materials, systematic discrepan-
94
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GERARD ON THE IMPACT TUBE

cies which may be due to the use of such
data are generally observed. Consequently, dynamic stress-strain relations
assume greater importance hi the attempt to refine wave propagation analy-
95
the construction of the various components are discussed. Finally, results are
presented of an exploratory investigation
on the dynamic pressure-strain relations
hi the yield region for several alloys.
FIG. 1.Impulse Load Test Techniques.
sis, as well as providing an insight into

the fundamental behavior of materials
under dynamic conditions.
In this paper, various test techniques
used to obtain data on the behavior of
materials under impact loads are reviewed. The measured data of the test
technique as well as its limitations from
a wave-propagation viewpoint are considered. A new technique for applying
impulse loads under a variety of loading
conditions is fully described. The aerodynamic theory of this device, which is
referred to as an "impact tube," is presented, and the design criteria used in
DYNAMIC LOADING TECHNIQUES

The fact that the strength of materials
under impact loads may be considerably
different from the strength under static
conditions led to the Charpy and Izod
type of notched-bar tests. As indicated
in Fig. 1(A), the measured data hi this
type of test comprises the energy required to fracture the notched bar under
a bending load produced by the impacting mass. Because of the limited information obtained from the test and the
relatively complex geometry and loading
system, it is apparent that this technique
is lacking in application to fundamental
96
impact problems, although it may be

satisfactory as an acceptance type of test.
Attempts at more fundamental considerations led to tension impact (1HI)2
and high strain-rate tension tests (5, 6),
which are schematically depicted in Figs.
1(B) and (C). In the tension-impact type
of test, apparatus similar to that used
for the Izod and Charpy test may be
employed. The impacting mass introduces at the end of the specimen a single
stress jump, which propagates along the
bar at velocities depending upon the
magnitude of the stress or plastic strain
level. Measured test data comprise
energy for fracture, otherwise force-time
records are obtained at the fixed end of
the bar from a suitable dynamometer.
Because of the variable propagational
velocity, the average strain rate varies
markedly from point to point along the
bar, and therefore limited value must
be placed upon the interpretation of
force-time records as stress-strain data
(7, 8).
Although the schematic test arrangement is similar for the tension-impact
and high-velocity tension tests, there is
a basic difference in the manner in which
the load is introduced into the specimen.
In the high-velocity tension test, the
loading head moves at a prescribed
velocity (5, 6), and therefore the stress
level is built up by successive reflections
of the velocity pulse from the fixed and
moving heads. Measured test data comprise the force as obtained from a
dynamometer and over-all deformation
of the specimen as obtained from a suitable strain recorder. In this type of test,
wave propagation effects are much less
severe than in the tension impact test,
although at high plastic strains, the
propagational velocity may be reduced
sufficiently to limit the usefulness of the
test (6).
2

see p. 108.
The recognition of the importance of

wave propagation effects hi dynamic
testing has led recently to the development of several new techniques in which
dynamic properties are derived from
plastic wave propagation theory. Figure
1(D) shows a test arrangement, used by
W. R. Campbell (9) in what is essentially
a tension impact test using a long specimen. From two sets of strain gages placed
a distance, L, apart, strain-time records
are obtained. The propagational velocity
varies as a function of plastic strain,
where:
c = propagational velocity,
= plastic strain,
L = distance, and
t = time.
Assuming that
where:
Et= tangent modulus
p = density
a dynamic stress-strain relation can be
obtained. If the distance, L, is sufficiently
small, the average strain rate may not
vary appreciably between stations.
A scheme used by J. D. Campbell
(10), shown in Fig. 1(E), is somewhat
similar to that described above. The
essential differences are that the specimen
is subject to compression impact and
the construction of the dynamic stressstrain relation is independent of wave
propagation. During each successive impact of the bar, the initial e0, maximum
em, and final e/ strains are recorded. Since
the bar unloads between em and e/, it is
assumed to follow an elastic path so
that during the impact,
where:
am = maximum stress and
E = modulus of elasticity.

By plotting successive <rm and em values,
a dynamic stress-strain relation can be
obtained.
Figure 1(F) illustrates the technique
used by Johnson, Wood, and Clark (11)
in which the test specimen is impinged
upon an elastic anvil bar to which strain
gages are bonded. The initial velocity
and force are measured during the test,
and the permanent strain of the specimen is measured after the test. By use
FIG. 2.Impact Tube Static and Dynamic

Chambers (Schematic).
of plastic wave propagation theory,

dynamic stress-strain relations are calculated.
An earlier test technique which is
relatively free from disturbing wave
propagation effects is shown in Fig. 1(G).
The arrangement used by Clark and
Duwez (12) consists of a thin-walled
tubular specimen filled with mercury. A
velocity is imparted to a plug at one end
of the tube which compresses the fluid
and subjects the walls of the specimen
to a tangential tension stress. Force-time
records are obtained from a dynamometer at the other end of the tube from
97
which the dynamic proportional limit

and fracture stresses are obtained. The
only strain measurements were obtained
in the fracture area after the test was
completed. With this technique, strain
rates as high as 200 in. per in. per sec were
reported.
IMPACT TUBE TECHNIQUE
In the impact tube technique for applying impulse loads to plate or membrane elements, the loading-time history
and specimen response are the measured
test data. The impulse load can be maintained at a speckled static level for an
indefinite period of time, if desired, and
the method of loading is not hampered by
wave propagation effects in the specimen
or load measuring device.
As shown in Fig. 2 (a) the impact tube
loading system consists of a static pressure chamber, 1, and a dynamic pressure
chamber, 2, with a suitable specimen
attached to a holder which is clamped between the two chambers to form a common wall. The dynamic chamber has on
the wall opposite the specimen a sealing
diaphragm which can be ruptured to
admit outside air. Initially, chambers 1
and 2 are either subject to pressure
or evacuated, thereby causing a pressure
differential relative to the outside air.
(fa pz, and p3 refer to the pressures in
the static chamber, in the dynamic
chamber and in the atmosphere, respectively.) Then the diaphragm is ruptured:
(a) If pz > PS, an expansion wave
travels toward the specimen. When it
impinges on the specimen, a pressure
differential is created across the specimen due to the pressure in chamber 1.
This pressure differential varies with
time until the pressure differential
(pi ps) is established (Fig. 2(6)).
(6) If pz < ps, then a shock wave impinges on the specimen followed by a
loading sequence similar to that described in paragraph (a).
98
By the proper selection of the pressures pi, p2, p$, and the length of the
dynamic chamber, the duration of the
pressure pulse can be varied from microseconds to milliseconds. Also, if pi ^ pz
before the sealing diaphragm is ruptured,
then the specimen is statically loaded by
the pressure differential (Pi p-^.
As an experimental device for applying loads of an impulsive nature, the im-
noteworthy that the test specimen can

be subject to a static preload upon which
the dynamic loading can be superimposed. The method of applying impulse
loads employs a distributed pressure and
therefore does not introduce a localized
failure of the specimen as could occur in
the case of a concentrated load.
(c) The impact tube is a dynamic loading device which can be used to study
FIG. 3.Over-all View of 18-in. Diameter Impact Tube.
pact tube appears to have several distinct advantages over test techniques
commonly employed:
(a) It permits testing materials to
obtain dynamic stress-strain and fracture
characteristics without the limitations
of the Charpy or Izod type of test or the
wave propagation effects associated with
the tension impact test. As such, the
impact tube constitutes an advancement
in dynamic testing techniques. In addition, the impulse loading is applied
directly to the specimen and is not transmitted through auxiliary devices such
as a specimen holder.
(6) The impact tube permits testing of
materials under various biaxial tensile
strain conditions. This type of test is
important in establishing the behavior
of structures composed of plate elements
under blast loading conditions. It is
various types of problems such as the

propagation of fracture in plates.
(d) The dynamic stress-strain data
obtained by use of diaphragm type specimens hi the impact tube are important
in the investigation of wave propagation
effects in structural elements. The prediction of plastic strain propagation depends upon a knowledge of the dynamic
stress-strain relationship for various
strain rates, and the impact tube affords
a means of obtaining such data.
DESIGN OF THE IMPACT TUBE

Considerations involved in the design
of the various components of the 18-in.
diameter impact tube shown in Fig. 3
are discussed in this section.
Dynamic Chamber:
The design of the dynamic chamber of

the impact tube is based upon the desired
time duration for the pressure to drop
from the static value to atmospheric
pressure. The time value is a function of
the initial static value and the length
of the dynamic chamber and can vary
depending upon these conditions. It
should be noted that in an impact tube
in which an expansion wave is used to
create the pressure pulse, the length
cannot influence the planarity of the
wave. If the wave is not plane initially, it
cannot be made plane simply by in-
FIG. 4.View of Specimen Installation

(Dynamic Chamber Removed).
creasing the length of the chamber, as

is done in a shock tube which employs
shock waves.
From the results of the expansion
wave investigation presented in the
Appendix, it appeared desirable to
incorporate two interchangeable dynamic
chambers in the prototype design so
that the pulse time could be varied in
the millisecond range. Should it be found
desirable, shorter or longer dynamic
chambers could be incorporated in the
impact tube.
In Fig. 4, the dynamic chamber has
been uncoupled from the static chamber
to illustrate the specimen holder and the
location of the pressure transducer with
relation to the specimen. A strain gage
bonded to the specimen at the center is
99
installed on the static chamber face and

therefore is not shown in Fig. 4.
Static Chamber:
Designing the static chamber of the
impact tube involves selection of the
maximum desired static pressure and the
proper length for this chamber as well
as the proper diameter of the entire
tube. The static pressure and diameter
are interrelated since the thickness of
the diaphragm of a particular material,
which would be investigated to ascertain the dynamic stress-strain relations
and strength characteristics, depends
upon the pressure available and the diameter of the tube.
For engineering studies of material
properties under impulsive load conditions, it was felt that the thickness of the
specimen used should be of the order of
magnitude of 0.020 in. Consequently, a
study of the available literature on
static hydraulic bulge tests of clamped
circular membranes was made to determine the relationships among the bursting pressure, diameter-thickness ratio,
and physical properties of the materials
used in these investigations. This led to
a simple relationship among the various
parameters involved in bursting of
membranes and thus permitted the selection of a maximum working pressure
and diameter for the impact tube.
On the basis of this study, a maximum
working pressure of 200 psi and a
specimen diameter of 12-in. were selected. With a specimen diameter of this
size, the impact tube diameter must be
approximately 18-in. to accommodate
the specimen holder, clamping mechanism for the specimens, and pressure
transducers. The selection of a 200-psi
maximum working pressure and a 12-in.
diameter specimen permits, for example,
testing of diaphragms up to 0.025 in.
thick for materials with an ultimate
tensile strength of 50,000 psi and 0.010in. thick diaphragms of 100,000-psi
tensile strength.
100
The desirability of maintaining a

nearly constant pressure in the static
chamber of the impact tube prior to1*
bursting of the test diaphragm necessitated a study of the volumetric changes
in this chamber resulting from deflection
of the loaded diaphragm. Consequently,
the test data on static bulging were
studied to arrive at a relationship between deflection of the diaphragm and
the significant variables. Based on the
criterion that the volumetric changes in
the static chamber be limited to 2 per
cent under the most unfavorable operat-
tional shock-tube aerodynamic studies.

However, the manner in which the sealing diaphragm is permitted to rupture
should induce conditions that are highly
suitable for establishing planar waves.
(c) To provide a system that will
absorb the energy of the supporting
mechanism without affecting the specimen loading rate.
The basic mechanism, which design
studies have indicated best meet the
above requirements, consists essentially
of a ported chamber containing a
straight through piston having two
FIG. 5.Firing Chamber (Schematic).
ing conditions, a length of 4.5 ft was

selected for the static chamber.
Firing Chamber:
The primary functions of the firing

chamber mechanism in the impact tube
are as follows:
(a) To support the sealing diaphragm
against rupture due to the pressure
present in the dynamic chamber before
the test is begun.
(6) To permit the sealing diaphragm
to rupture in order to provide a clean
b.f eak at the periphery when the chamber
is fired. It should be noted that although
it $ desirable to have the resulting expansion waves as plane as possible, the
investigations are primarily structural
studies and therefore slight lack of
planarity is not so critical as in conven-
piston heads; one external, the support

piston head, and the other internal, the
damping piston head. A design which
incorporates this feature is shown in
Fig. 5. To support the sealing diaphragm
against the piston, the diameter of the
damping piston head is designed to be
slightly larger than that of the support
piston head. Thus, when both the firing
and the dynamic chambers are pressurized from the same source, a net
positive locking force will exist. This
feature satisfies requirement (a).
Furthermore, this method of support
and release provides the requirements
for producing plane waves such as
outlined in (6). The distance through
which the piston is allowed to move
freely depends upon the desired pressure pulse resulting from the rupture of

the sealing diaphragm. The influence of
any undesirable aerodynamic effects reflecting from the support piston upon
the expansion waves reaching the specimen can be minimized by allowing the
piston to move freely for a distance
approximately equal to the developed
area of the sealing diaphragm.
The air mass in the firing chamber
must be dumped as rapidly as possible
to avoid any back pressure on the damping piston head which would act as an
101
piston position with respect to time.

The change in pressure, however, which
is a nonsteady state problem, is a function of adiabatic expansion of the air
mass through the exhaust port area, and
is itself related to the piston position.
After considerable study of methods
of obtaining the desired high rate of
exhaust port movement, a system was
selected which employs the use of an
external sealing band shown in Fig. 6
in closed and open positions. The design
FIG. 6.Views of Sealing Band and Toggle Mechanism.
effective increase in piston inertia. The

dump rate is a function of both the
exhaust port area and the rate at which
the entire exhaust port area is realised.
Furthermore, the operation of the firing
chamber requires that the air mass be
dumped radially.
The actual conditions existing in this
system are difficult to evaluate; the
position of the piston, which is a function of the net force due to the pressure
differential existing, results in an acceleration, which is a function of the
of this sealing device is based on the

use of a toggle-hoop link which has the
large load-carrying capacities of a
circular band under hoop tension and
provides a means of resisting the pressure loading acting at the port area.
The toggle mechanism has an expansion
link providing a means of regulating
the gasket preload pressure uniformly
and ensuring excellent sealing cofklitions. When the toggle mechanism itself is released through a solenoid
actuating mechanism, it responds to the
102
high-pressure loading, resulting in extremely rapid movement of the light

mass of the hoop.
After the tube has been fired, the
energy delivered to the piston is transferred to the remaining air mass in the
firing chamber which now acts as a
damping chamber, satisfying requirement (c). Thus, the length of the firing
chamber was increased 10 in. beyond
the exhaust port region to accommodate
this additional air mass. This method
of supporting the sealing diaphragm and
firing the impact tube has operated
use of strain gages limits measurements

to the yield region of the stress-strain
curve, and, therefore, the pressure used
in the tests was suitably adjusted.
The materials selected for the exploratory program were thin sheet
stock of nominal 0.012-in. aluminum
alloy 2S-O, annealed type 302 stainless
steel of 0.005-in. nominal thickness, and
annealed 1010 low-carbon steel of
0.008-in. nominal thickness. These materials under high strain-rate tension
tests have indicated, respectively, small,
intermediate, and large strain-rate ef-
TABLE I.CHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND PROCESSING DATA.

Aluminum Alloy 2S-O
Aluminum99.00%
Iron Silicon1 00%
Sulfur
Manganese
Zinc
Others each
Others total0.15%
99.00% Minlron
1.00% Max Chromium .17.50%
0 05% Max Nickel
0 10*% Max Manganese
0.05% Max Carbon
0.05% Max Phosphorus.0.028%
0.15% Max Sulfur 0.007%
Max Silicon
Standard processing procedures used
Mild Steel SAE 1010
Stainless Steel Type 302
71.12%
17.50%
9 82%
1 27%>
0.09%
0.028%
0.007%
0. 160%
Cold rolled to 0.095 in.

Cold mill to 0.005 in.
Bright anneal at 1950 F.
Sheets rolled flat from coil stock.
with considerable success in the 18-in.

diameter model.
EXPLORATORY TEST RESULTS
Dynamic pressure-strain results on
circular diaphragms in the yield region
were obtained in an exploratory program
designed to evaluate some of the capabilities of the new technique. The impulse loading was measured directly by
high frequency response pressure transducers installed hi the specimen
mounting ring as shown in Fig. 4. The
specimen response can be measured in a
variety of ways: for simplicity in this
exploratory program, electrical resistance strain gages were cemented to the
center of the circular diaphragms. The
Iron
Carbon
Manganese
Phosphorus0 009%
Sulfur
99.491%
0.080%
0 380%
0.009%
0.040%
Cold mill from 0.100 to 0.0083

in.
Box anneal at 1325 F.
Sheets rolled flat from coil
stock.
fects. The chemical analysis and processing data for each of the materials are
given in Table I.
Test Instrumentation:
Pressure in the dynamic chamber at
the specimen position and strain at the
center of the specimen were determined
as functions of tune in the dynamic
tests. A wire resistance strain gage,
Baldwin type A-5, was cemented to the
center of each circular specimen with
the- gage axis coinciding with the rolling axis of the specimen. The strain
gage was connected into a bridge circuit which also contained a temperature
compensating strain gage mounted on a
strain-free member on the specimen

mounting ring. The pressure transducer
used is of the type described in the
Appendix and was used in the calibration of the dynamic chamber. A timing
signal was provided by a calibrated
Hewlett Packard Model 200 D audio
oscillator.
The pressure, strain, and tuning
signals were applied to separate channels of an Electronic Tube Corp. HP
42-A Strainalyzer which contains a four
channel cathode ray oscilloscope with
FIG. 7.Typical Dynamic RecordAluminum

Alloy 2S-O.
associated bridge balance and amplifier

components. Rupture of the sealing
diaphragm of the impact tube to upset
the pressure balance on the specimen
caused the initiation of a single sweep
of the oscilloscope. Pressure, strain, and
tuning traces were displayed on the
cathode ray tube face which was photographed by an open shutter, 4 by 5-in.
Speed Graphic camera.
A typical test record for an aluminum
alloy 2S-O specimen is shown hi Fig. 7.
In this case the maximum pressure was
15 psi, and the record shows calibration
lines for 3-psi increments. The actual
sweep time was 21 milliseconds as determined from the timing trace, while the
steep pressure drop-off occurred hi approximately 15 milliseconds. The line
of zero strain, the condition prevailing
103
prior to firing, is also shown on the

record.
Pressure and strain calibrations were
made hi each dynamic' test. Pressure
calibration markers appear directly on
the film record of the test as shown in
Fig. 7. These markers represent manually triggered traces of the pressure
transducer output as it is calibrated
against an Ashcrof t Test Gage mounted
on the dynamic chamber. The gage
used as a calibration standard has a
stated accuracy of 0.5 per cent.
A separate strain calibration film was
made using the Strainalyzer strain
calibration circuits. The record consists
of a series of horizontal lines on the film
representing step increments of resistance. The signals for these calibration values originated in the strain
calibration circuit of the Strainalyzer.
For comparative purposes, static tests
were conducted on circular diaphragms.
Pressure in the static chamber loaded
the specimen and was measured by an
Ashcroft Test Gage with a stated accuracy of 0.5 per cent.
The strain gage circuit, which contained a temperature compensating
gage, was connected to a Baldwin SR4,
Model M strain indicator to obtain the
center strains.
Accuracy of Results:
Autocalibration of pressure in the
dynamic test assured that the accuracy of the pressure transducer was
only limited by the 0.5 per cent error of
the Bourdon type gage used as a standard. The accuracy of the strain measurement is fixed by the stated accuracy of
the wire resistance strain gages and the
calibration accuracy of the Strainalyzer,
both of which were accurate to within
1 per cent. The timing oscillator was
calibrated against a frequency standard
to an accuracy of within 0.2 per cent.
It was estimated that the data could be
FIG. 8.Pressure and Strain Data for Dynamic and Static TestsAluminum
Alloy 2S-0.
FIG. 9.Pressure and Strain Data for Dynamic and Static TestsStainless
Steel Type 302.

reduced from the film record with an
accuracy of within 2 per cent.
A valid comparison can be made between the results of the dynamic bulge
test and these of the static bulge test
since closely identical experimental conditions were maintained. The Bourdon
type pressure gage used as a calibration
standard in the dynamic tests was
employed as the indicating instrument
in the static test, while strains in both
tests were determined with wire resistance strain gages mounted on the
specimens in a similar fashion.
105
specimen is radial, while the pattern for

the static tests is essentially circumferential.
There is considerable variation of
pressure-strain test results of both the
dynamic and static tests among different specimens of the same material, as
shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Comparisons of
the results of simple tension tests on the
(a) Dynamic Loading.
TABLE II.STRAIN RATES AND

LOADING RATES.
*
Specimen
No. 2 SO-1
No. 2 SO-2
No. 2 SO-3
No.
No.
No.
No.
SS-1
SS-2
SS-3
SS-4
Strain Rate, Loading

in. per in. Rate, psi
per sec
per sec
1.38
1.95
1.81
2240
2055
2000
1.92
1.16
1.21
1.78
1725
2810
2690
2660
DISCUSSION OF TEST
RESULTS
The results of the exploratory tests
made on aluminum alloy and stainless
steel specimens indicate no significant
differences in pressure-strain data between the strain rate dynamic test and
the static test. This is shown in Figs. 8
and 9 where pressure strain data for
dynamic and static tests are compared.
The strain and loading rates in the
dynamic tests were of the order of 2
in. per in. per sec and 2000 psi per sec,
respectively, as shown in Table II.
Qualitative results of tests on SAE
1010 steel are shown in the photographs
in Fig. 10. The presence of Liieder's
lines on both dynamically and statically
tested specimens indicate nonuniform
straining. It should be noted that the
pattern of the lines in the dynamic test
FIG. 10.Liieder's Lines in SAE 1010 Steel

with Dynamic and Static Loading.
specimen materials indicate a difference

of material properties among several
specimens, which may be responsible
for the observed variations among
similar specimens.
It is not known at this time whether
the lack of a significant strain-rate
effect in the exploratory tests in the
impact tube, which has been observed in
tension impact tests on 2S-O, aluminum
alloy and stainless steel, is a real effect
106
or a deficiency of the test technique. It

is entirely possible that the wave
propagation effects normally present in
uniaxial tension impact tests are responsible for the observed strain-rate
effect in this type of test. The impact
tube tests, hi which wave propagation
effects are minimized, utilize biaxial
tension loading of diaphragms. These
effects are now being studied and future
results will be reported.
Acknowledgement:
The inf ormation reported herein results
from contracts sponsored by the Office
of Ordnance Research, Dept. of the
Army. Engaged on this project was
Harry Slater who contributed significantly to the design and construction of
the impact tube. In addition to Mr.
Slater, Ralph Papirno participated in
the test program. Then* contributions
are gratefully acknowledged.
APPENDIX
AERODYNAMICS OF THE IMPACT TUBE
The impact tube, as commonly employed
for testing, uses a balanced pressure in
the static and dynamic chambers which is
greater than atmospheric pressure. Thus,
upon rupture of the sealing diaphragm at the
end of the dynamic chamber, an expansion
wave is created which travels down the
dynamic chamber toward the test specimen.
Since the application of the impulse loading
to the specimen depends directly upon the
character of the expansion wave, the aerodynamics of this phenomenon have been
studied in some detail. For the purposes of
this paper, a brief description of the analysis
and test results are presented.
Aerodynamic Theory:
The problem of determining the pressure
drop-off in the dynamic chamber is treated
as the interaction of a pair of centered rarefactions. The governing partial differential
equation and a general solution are given
by Courant and Friedrichs (13). An explicit solution was obtained by Filler (14)
for the particular case where the ratio of
specific heats, 7, is 7 to 5.
The governing partial differential equation, which can be solved in terms of the
characteristics xt = u c, is
(1)
where:
c local velocity of sound,
u = velocity,
FIG. 11.Interaction of Centered Rarefaction Waves.
t = time coordinate,
x = position coordinate, and
<p = function <p(x, /).
Figure 11 represents the characteristics
in the x t plane, with the sealing diaphragm located at the coordinate x = L.
Under the assumption that the sealing diaphragm ruptures instantaneously at t = 0,
a centered rarefaction is created at this

location which travels toward the rigid
wall located at x = 0. The assumption of a
rigid wall at the specimen location is not
strictly correct due to the bulging of the
specimen under load. This problem is ex-
107
In Fig. 11, R and S are the rarefaction

waves centered at (0, L) and (0, L)
respectively, and It and S are the "reflected"
waves. The Riemann invariants r and 5
are constant along the characteristics (u + c)
and (u c), respectively. By use of the
Riemann invariants, Eq 1 can be transformed into
(2)
where:
FIG. 12.Trace RecordWave Timing Tube.
For the initial conditions of this problem,

u0 = 0 and the initial velocity of sound, is
c0; for the particular case where 7 = 7/5
FIG. 13.Pressure-Time Data for Impact Tube.
tremely complex involving the interaction

of the deflecting diaphragm with the expansion wave. As a first approximation,
therefore, the specimen is replaced by a
rigid wall. This assumption permits solution
of the problem by placing an "image" centered rarefaction at x = L and investigating the solution at a; = 0; a condition which
simulates the rigid wall.
and therefore ft = 3, the solution to Eq 2 is
(3)
By suitable substitutions, Eq 3 in terms
108
of the Riemann invariants r and 5 can be

reduced to an equation in terms of pressures.
(4)
where:
for 7
Calculations based on Eq (4), for 7 =

7/5 are presented in Fig. 13, together with
test data obtained as described below.
Test Program:
To substantiate Eq 4 and at the same
time develop some of the instrumentation
required for the impact tube, a test program
was conducted to study the aerodynamic
phenomenon. In this series of experiments, a
high frequency pressure transducer was
mounted in a rigid wall which formed the
closed end of a circular tube. The other end
was sealed by a paper diaphragm. This setup
simulated the dynamic chamber of the impact tube and also provided the rigid
boundary assumed hi the theory. Tests
were conducted on 1.135 ft and 5.52 ft
long tubes of 1-in. inner diameter in which
the paper diaphragm was burst by pressurization.
The pressure transducer used in this investigation was of the same type used in the
18-in. diameter impact tube. The sensitive
^ element of this transducer is a thin diaphragm to which has been bonded a wire
resistance strain gage (Baldwin type C-ll).
Strife in the diaphragm is a function of the
pressure. The gage is part of a conventional

bridge circuit, which also includes a second
strain gage mounted on the transducer body
to compensate for temperature effects.
Pressure in the dynamic chamber acts
upon the thin walled diaphragm, while the
opposite end of the transducer is sealed by
a plastic plate bonded to the transducer
body. The strain gage leads are sealed into
the plastic plate.
The diaphragm of the pressure transducer
is less than 0.004 in. thick. Tests conducted
on such transducers simulating conditions
in the impact tube indicate that a frequency
in excess of 12,000 cps is achieved. This
value is sufficiently high to have only a
negligible effect on the test record since it is
considerably in excess of the frequency of
the phenomena measured.
The response of thin diaphragms at high
pressures is essentially linear, while at very
low pressures the response becomes somewhat nonlinear. To achieve linearity of
response over most of the range of the test,
the transducer was sealed to a reference
pressure of 1 atmos. At the start of the
dynamic test, therefore, the diaphragm was
subject to a pressure higher than 1 atmos
so that unloading occurred linearly.
The pressure signal was channeled to the
Strainalyzer as described in the section on
test instrumentation. Rupture of the sealing
diaphragm initiated a sweep of the signals
across the scope face which was photographed by an open shutter still camera.
This technique was employed in the investigation of the aerodynamic behavior of
the different length tubes. A typical pressure-time record using the sweep technique
is shown in Fig. 12. A summary of the test
results as compared to the theory is shown
in Fig. 13. It can be observed that relatively
good agreement was obtained.
REFERENCES
(1) H. C.- Mann, "The Relation Between the
Tension Static and Dynamic Tests," Proceedings, Am, Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 35,
\ Part II, p. 323 (1935).
(2) H. C. Mann, "High Velocity Tension Impact Tests," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol. 36, Part II, p. 85 (1936).
(3) ,D. S. Clark and G. Datwyler, "StressStrain Relations under Tension Impact
Loading," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol. 38, Part II, p. 98 (1938).
(4) A. Nadai and M. J. Manjoine, "High Speed
Tension Tests at Elevated Temperatures
Part I," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
. Mats., Vol. 40, p. 822 (1940).

(5) A. Nadai and M. J. Manjoine, "High Speed
Tension Tests at Elevated Temperatures
Parts II and III," Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Vol. 8, No. 2, June, 1941,
pp. A-77 to A-91.
(6) D. S. Clark and D. S. Wood, "The Time
Delay for the Initiation of Plastic Deformation at Rapidly Applied Constant
Stress," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol. 49, p. 717 (1949).
(7) P. E. Duwez and D. S. Clark, "An Experimental Study of the Propagation of Plastic
Deformation under Conditions of Longitudinal Impact," Proceedings, Am. Soc.
(8) D. S. Clark and P. E. Duwez, "Discussion
of the Forces Acting in Tension Impact
Tests of Materials," Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Vol. 15, No. 3, September,
1948, pp. 243-247.
(9) W. R. Campbell, "Determination of
Dynamic Stress-Strain Curves from Strain
Waves in Long Bars," Proceedings, Soc. for
Experimental Stress Analysis, Vol. X,
No. 1, pp. 113-124 (1952).
109
(10) J. D. Campbell, "An Investigation of the

Plastic Behavior of Metal Rods Subjected
to Longitudinal Impact," Journal of
Mechanics and Physics of Solids, Vol. 1,
No. 2, January, 1953, pp. 113-123.
(11) J. E. Johnson, D. S. Wood, and D. S.
Clark, "Dynamic Stress-Strain Relations
for Annealed 2S Aluminum under Compression Impact," Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Vol. 20, No. 4, December,
1953, pp. 523-529.
(12) D. S. Clark and P. E. Duwez, "The Influence of Strain Rate on Some Tensile
Properties of Steel," Proceedings, Am. Soc.
(13) R. Courant and K. O. Friedrichs, Supersonic Flow and Shock Waves, Interscience
Publishers, New York, N. Y., pp. 191197 (1948).
(14) L. Filler, "Pressure-Time History at a
Fixed Boundary Following a Rapid Expansion," Master's Thesis, College of
Engineering, New York University, N. Y.,
October 1953.
DISCUSSION
MR. W. RAMBERG.1Some 15 yr ago,
my former associate, Mr. A. E. McPherson, and I made lateral pressure tests on
circular plates2. At the time we experienced a great deal of difficulty, due to
variation in the initial membrane tension
of the circular plate, so that a large portion of our data was rendered worthless.
I would like to inquire whether that was
a difficulty in the present tests.
MR. A. G. H. DiETZ3 (written)Mr.
Gerard has performed a valuable service
in first reviewing the characteristics of
the various types of high-velocity or impact tests customarily employed, and
then proceeding to the discussion of the
impact tube. His analysis of tests B, C,
and D of his Fig. 1 is especially pertinent
because B and C in particular are being
used increasingly in place of the Izod
and Charpy tests. Anyone who has
worked with tension (or compression)
impact or high-velocity testing has been
confronted with the problem of wave
propagation and its effects.
The impact tube described seems to
be especially useful in the evaluation of
plates, sheets, and diaphragms under
high-velocity loading. Although the results on metal specimens seemed to show
little difference between the dynamic
tests and static tests, the differences in

Liiders lines may be significant. It is
suggested also that more time-sensitive
materials like plastics may show much
more significant differences than metals.
It is hoped that plastics may be included
in the tests to help determine the relative effects of viscous and elastic behavior in these materials at high rate
loading compared with static rates.
MR. GEORGE GERARD (author's closure).The point raised by Mr. Ramberg concerning the initial tension in the
specimen is of considerable importance
and particularly so since the specimens
which we have used are very thin.
We have attempted to use an unloading technique to obtain some indication
of the initial load on the specimen. In
our case, however, the initial load is compression rather than tension, which tends
to buckle the specimen slightly and introduce a certain amount of slackness
in the test prior to loading.
With the technique that we are using
now, deflections and strains are measured
and thus we have some idea of what the
departure from the perfectly plane specimen is in that case. In using the strain
gage alone, after loading we unload the
specimen and record the strain. Since
the unloading path is elastic we can ob1
National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
tain an estimate of the initial tension or
D. 2C.
Albert E. McPherson, Walter Ramberg. and compression in the specimen.
Sam Levy, "Normal-Pressure Tests of Circular
Mr. Dietz's comments are appreciated.
Plates with Clamped Edges," NACA Report 744
In the near future we plan to follow his
(1942).
3
Professor of Building Engineering and Con- suggestion of investigating more rate
struction, Dept. of Civil and Sanitary Engineering, Massachusetts' Inst. Technology, Cam- sensitive materials such as plastics in
the impact tube.
bridge, Mass.
110
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
LONGITUDINAL IMPACT TESTS OF LONG BARS WITH A

SLINGSHOT MACHINE
BY W. RAMBERG1 AND L. K. IRWIN1
SYNOPSIS
The history of the longitudinal impact test from Thomas Young (1807) to
the present is reviewed briefly to show its importance for a study of the dynamic strength of materials and to bring out some of the difficulties in the
interpretation of the results of impact tests. These difficulties call for further
tests under controlled conditions. A slingshot machine for making impact tests
at the National Bureau of Standards is described, arid results obtained from
these tests on bars of steel and of copper are given. These show that the
strain pulses were attenuated in the steel with much less change in shape
than that represented by the simple von Karman theory of plastic strain waves.
The high-strength steel exhibited a time delay between the sudden application
of a high stress and the initiation of yielding, which decreased with increasing
stress in accord with the dislocation locking theory of Cottrell as developed
by Yokobori. The need for further work in this field is emphasized.
While the longitudinal impact test is
not so popular as the transverse impact
or Charpy test, it is gaming in importance because it has certain basic advantages as a "standard", which are
similar to the advantages enjoyed by
the static tension test of a long specimen
for determining the static properties of
a material. In both cases the stresses
and the strains can be determined from
the external loads and relative displacements with less uncertainty than for
other types of tests. In both cases the
stresses are, or at least should be, uniaxial and constant on a given crosssection and the strains are correspondingly uniform with one important
difference: time is a controlling variable
in the impact test.
1
Chief, Division of Mechanics and Mechanical
Engineer, respectively, Engineering Mechanics
Section, National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D. Int'l
C. (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06 EDT 2016
Copyright
by ASTM
The analysis of the longitudinal impact test goes back nearly 150 years,
when Thomas Young (i)2 called attention
to the importance of strain waves for
impact as contrasted with static load.
Young derived the equation
.(1)
connecting the velocity of impact v\
with the intensity e of the strain wave
travelling down the bar with the velocity
of sound c0 in the material (Fig. 1).
From these he concluded that the impact would cease to be elastic for velocities -DI sufficient to produce strains e
beyond the elastic range.
In 1883 St. Venant (2) published his
classical theory for the propagation of
2
see p. 123.
Ill
www.astm.org
112
the elastic strain waves due to the

longitudinal impact of a long bar (2).
About thirty years later, B. Hopkinson
(3) made practical use of the longitudinal
waves analyzed by St. Venant in his
"Hopkinson bar" for determining the
tune integral of the trapped portion of

the pressure wave p(f):
(2)
where A is the cross-sectional area of the

bar. The momentum is measured by
catching the time piece in a box filled
with cotton waste which forms the bob
of a ballistic pendulum. The method is
ingenious in making possible the meas-
FIG. 2.Hopkinson Bar.

(The momentum trapped in the short bar
corresponds to a section of pulse twice the
length of the shoit bar.)
FIG. 1.Young's Formula e = Vi/c0 Connecting the Velocity of Impact v\ with Strain e
of the Wave Traveling Down the Bar with the
Velocity of Sound c0 in the Material.
maximum impact force applied to one

end of the bar by explosives or by a
bullet fired against it (Fig. 2). The pressure due to the impact from the bullet
or explosive is applied to the left end of
the bar. It travels down the bar as a
stress wave; it continues out into the
"time piece," is reflected as a tensile
stress, and causes the time piece to fly
off with a momentum M given by the
urement of transient phenomena taking

place in microseconds without the
benefit of electronics, by simple mechanical means only. It has its limitations in
giving average values of the pressure
over a period of time ti t0 equal to
the travel time of the pulse in the time
piece.
The problem becomes more difficult
if the impact strains produce permanent
plastic deformations. The analysis of
plastic waves seems to have been started
at the beginning of World War II by
von Karman (4) in the United States,
Rakhmatulin (5) in Russia and G. I.
Taylor (6) in Great Britain. These three
investigators found independently of
each other that plastic waves would be
propagated with a phase velocity
depending on the strain e and given by
(3)
RAMBERG AND IRWIN ON LONGITUDINAL TESTS ON SLINGSHOT MACHINE

where Et is the tangent modulus or
slope of the stress-strain curve corresponding to the strain e, and p is the
density of the material. Two important
assumptions are made in deriving Eq 3.
First, it is assumed that the effect of
transverse or radial displacements in
the bar can be neglected; this is permissible so long as there is no abrupt
change in the strain wave over distances
comparable to the diameter of the bar.
Secondly, it is assumed that the stress
is a function of the strain only; this
rules out any strain rate, hysteresis, or
viscosity effects.
Strain rate effects were observed by
von Karman and his associates at the
California Institute of Technology (4,
7) and by others elsewhere (6, 8). They
were taken into account in more elaborate analyses of the problem by Riparbelli (9) and by Rubin (10).
Riparbelli's analysis was carried out
to explain measurements of pulse
propagation made by his associates,
E. J. Sternglass and D. A. Stuart, at
Cornell University. Sternglass and Stuart
(11) subjected 120-in. strips of coldrolled copper, held under static tension
in a testing machine, to an axial impact
pulse applied with a dropping weight
falling on a platform in the free length
of the strip. They recorded the strain
wave on three synchronized cathode
ray tubes as it passed three stations 2
to 48 in. from the point of impact. They
found that elastic strain pulses were
propagated unchanged, while plastic
strain pulses were greatly attenuated
and broadened in their travel along the
strip. Even of greater interest was the
finding that the top of the strain-time
wave, well beyond the elastic range,
was propagated with velocities much
greater than those given by von Karman's formula.
Riparbelli attacked the problem of
pulse propagation by considering the
113
particle displacement u due to the pulse

as the sum
.(4)
of an elastic component, ue and a plastic

component up. He assumed that the
stress depended only on the elastic
strain e = due/dx and on the plastic
strain rate dep/dt - d2up/dxdt. With
this assumption and with von Karman's
assumption that the radial displacement
is negligible, Riparbelli found that the
elastic displacement ue is propagated
with the velocity of sound, regardless
of the magnitude of the stress, while
the plastic displacement follows the
law of propagation of heat in a long rod.
He was able to obtain agreement with
measured impact displacements of copper wires by assuming the function
<r(ep), as
.(5)
where:
K = constant,
<r = dynamic stress, and
<rg< = static stress corresponding
strain e = du/dx.
to
Riparbelli recognized that Eq 5 has a

limited application. It fails for very high
strain rates for which the increase in
stress seems to approach an asymptotic
value. It is entirely inadequate for mild
steel with its delay time, to be discussed
below.
Rubin considered the equation of
motion for a stress pulse of small amplitude in a long bar under initial stress,
for example, initial tension. If the
amplitude of the stress pulse is sufficiently small, the equation of motion
can be linearized to
(6)
114
where k is a constant describing the by R. M. Davies (14) who obtained

strain-rate effect. Rubin obtained gen- continuous records of pressure as a
eral solutions of these two equations for function of time by means of elecany type of stress 0-(0, f) applied at the trical condensers responding to the
end of a semi-infinite bar as well as for lateral expansion and to the end dissubjecting the end to a constant veloc- placements of the bar. Using Davies'
ity. The solutions for a material with technique, Kolsky (15) was able to dework-hardening (Et > 0) show that termine the stress-strain properties of
the stress wave progresses in three stages numerous materials by applying a
in portions of the bar far removed from reproducible pressure pulse of known
the impact end. The front moves as shape to a composite bar consisting of a
an elastic wave. This is followed by a long anvil bar, a short specimen bar,
transition region which moves with the and a long extension bar. He recorded
von Karman velocity, Eq 3, and behind the lateral expansion and end displacethis transition region lies the region of ment as a function of time with and
large strain. According to Rubin, the without the specimen bar and derived,
von Karman velocity can be regarded, from these and the theory for elastic
therefore, as an asymptotic solution for waves, average stresses and average
the rate of propagation of the wave strains in the specimen bar as a function
of time. Anelastic effects hi the specimen
front of large strain.
W. R. Campbell (12, 13) used von bar could be studied by making the
Karman's formula to construct the anvil bar and the extension bar of much
stress-strain curve of copper and of stronger material than the material in
mild steel from measurements of strain the specimen bar and by shortening the
pulses of high intensity applied to one specimen bar into a thin disk. The tests
end of a bar of this material. For this showed that the materials studied by
purpose, Campbell recorded the strain Kolsky could be segregated into two
signals from a tension impact wave at principal classes, each one with a charactwo adjacent stations along the bar. He teristic response to impact. The first
compared the two signals and obtained class includes metals such as copper,
from them the velocities of propagation which shows immediate anelastic deforof marked features of the wave occurring mation when the stress exceeds the elastic
at various strain intensities. He sub- range; there is no recovery. The second
stituted these velocities of propagation class includes organic compounds such as
for various strains in von Karman's lucite, which shows a slight delay in the
formula and obtained the slope of the anelastic deformation followed by gradstress-strain curve. By starting with ual and complete recovery, and rubber,
points at low strains, within the elastic which shows a pronounced delay in
range, Campbell was able to reconstruct anelastic deformation, again followed
the stress-strain curve well beyond the by a gradual and complete recovery.
static elastic limit of the material. The Kolsky was able to account quantitatests showed relatively little effect of tively for the hysteresis found in the
impact on the stress-strain relation for lucite and the rubber by means of a
the copper (12) but a very large effect Boltzmann "memory" or delayed recovery function.
in the case of mild steel (13).
A third type of behavior is characAt the same time, the Hopkinson bar
technique was being perfected in England teristic of materials with definite yield

points, particularly mild steel. Clark
and Wood (16) created a sensation when
they showed in 1949 that there is a
pronounced delay between the applica-
115
Yokobori (17) in terms of the dislocation

locking theory of Cottrell (18). This led
him to the following expression for the
relation between delay time r, stress a-,
and absolute temperature T:
.(7)
where:
TO, <r0, 0", n = constants characteristic of
the material, and
k = Boltzmann constant.
Yokobori was able to fit this formula
closely to the test results which Clark
and Wood (19) had obtained at three
different temperatures, 60, 23, and
66 C.
It is apparent from this brief and
sketchy account that several mechanisms
must be invoked to describe the response
of materials to impact and that much
further work under controlled laboratory
conditions needs be done to determine
which one of these mechanisms predominates in a given material under
given conditions. It is believed that at
the same time this would clear up the
apparent contradictions between the
predictions of the various theories so
far proposed. The tests to be described
in this paper were conducted at the
National Bureau of Standards with the
support of the Office of Naval Research
to throw further light on the situation.
FIG. 3.Tension and Compression Impact
Specimens for the Slingshot Machine.
tion of a high stress to mild steel and

the permanent yielding of the steel.
They and many others after them
showed that this delay varied with the
intensity of the stress applied in a
manner characteristic of the material
and dependent on the temperature of
the test.
The delay time was explained by
TESTING TECHNIQUES
The specimen in the form of a long
bar of constant cross-section was cradled
loosely in a horizontal position on rubber
bands. A weight was propelled at the bar
with a slingshot machine to strike the
bar axially, at the near end for compression impact and at the far end for
tension impact. The impact pulse
travelling up the bar was picked up by
pairs of wire strain gages and was
116
amplified and thrown on the screen of a

cathode ray oscillograph for recording
by a photographic camera.
The specimen was carefully checked
for straightness, and it was accurately
aligned with the guide rail for the striking weight. For compression impact, the
near end of the hardened anvil bar was
bevelled slightly to make contact at the
center of the bar. For tension impact
the far end was threaded to screw on a
tup that was fastened to make the
plane of impact normal to the guide
Table I. Most of the tests were made

on high-strength steels and were procured from three sources which were
intended to have similar mechanical
properties. Two lots of high-strength
TABLE I.MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

OF IMPACT TEST MATERIALS.
Upper Lower Tensile
Yield Yield
Point,0 Stress,6 Strength,
psi
psi
psi
Material
High-strength
1-in. plate
steel,
High-strength steel,
*^f g-in. plate
47 800 46 100 71 400

to
to
to
57 200 51 000 74 900
51 800 50 900 71 000

to
to
to
57 800 54 700 74 000
Mild steel .
. . . . 34 000 33 700 63 400
44 800
Copper, ^-hard temper.
0
6
Maximum stress attained before yielding.

Constant stress for sustained yielding.
rail. Even with these precautions it was

found, by comparing signals from the
two wire strain gages of a pair at a
given section, that the impacts were
accompanied by extreme fiber bending
strains from 2 to 20 per cent of the
average axial strain.
Specimens:
Typical specimens for tension and
for compression impact are shown in
Fig. 3. Most of the specimens were
approximately 0.5 in. in diameter and
from 2 to 11 ft in length. A few specimens were machined to a rectangular
cross-section from a steel plate ^ min thickness.
Some of the mechanical properties
of the specimen materials are given in
FIG. 4.Photograph of Slingshot Machine

in Partially Extended Position Preparatory for
Tension Impact of a Steel Bar.
steel were rolled to 1-in. thickness and

one lot to j^-in. thickness.
The static tension tests on longitudinal
and transverse specimens of the highstrength, steel from the 1-in. plate gave
lower yield stresses from 46,100 to
51,000 psi with an average value of
48,500 psi. For the i^-in. plate, tension
tests gave lower yield stresses from
50,900 to 54,700 psi with an average

value of 53,000 psi. It appeared that the
rolling of the high-strength steel to
3^-in. thickness and the normalizing
heat treatment caused a change in the
static tensile properties as given in
Table I. Some tests were made on mild
117
eelerating the striking weight. With

this machine a 20-lb striker could be
brought up to a speed of 67 ft per sec
corresponding to an energy of approximately 1400 ft-lb. This machine has
been modified (Fig. 4) by employing
FIG. 5.Ekstic Strain Waves at Stations 1, 30, and 40 in. From Point of Impact in 61ST-6 Aluminum Alloy.
steel and copper bars of |-hard temper.

Impact tests on specimens of aluminum
alloys 61ST-6 and 75ST-6 were made
to check the response of the electronic
circuits and recording equipment.
Slingshot Machine:
The slingshot machine as designed
by W. R. Campbell and the junior
author, employed pairs of steel coil
springs about 50 in. in length for ac-
rubber bands for accelerating the striker

to provide impact velocities approaching
100 ft per sec.
The striker was given a U shape for
tension impact tests to permit clearing
the specimen with the open end of the
U before striking the tup at the far
end. A solid weight was used in place
of the U-shaped weight for the compression impact tests.
118
The duration of the impact on the

bar may be controlled by changing the
cushioning between the striker and the
impact end of the specimen and by
changing the velocity of the striker.
time pulses were introduced. The timestrain signals were compared with stepwise strain calibrations and photographed. The records were enlarged for
subsequent analysis.
FIG. 6.'Strain-Time Curves for Inelastic Impacts at Stations 1-in. Apart.
By this means the rise time from zero

to maximum load could be varied from
20 to 180 microseconds.
Attenuation of Strain Pulse:
Strain Measurement:
The strains propagated in the bars
were measured with resistance wire
strain gages (SR-4' types A-3 and A 5-1)
cemented to the bars. The strain signals
were amplified and fed into cathode ray
oscilloscopes. Simultaneously, calibrated
The attenuation of a strain pulse

was studied by recording a given compression input pulse at stations 1 in.
apart for impacts applied to long bars
of mild steel and of copper in the ^-hard
temper. The pulses were measured with
pairs of wire strain gages mounted opposite each other at stations 1 in. apart
TEST RESULTS
RAMBERG AND IRWIN ON LONGITUDINAL TESTS ON SLINGSHOT MACHINE 119

and with the first pair at a distance apart, as had been hoped when planning
ranging from \ to 4| in. from the impactthe tests. However, the adjacent solid
end. A throw off bar approximately 3 in. and dotted curves for strains due to the
long was attached with petroleum jelly same impact at stations 1 in. apart do
to the far end of the specimen in order indicate a marked attenuation. Surto reduce the energy reflected from that prisingly, this attenuation continues
end.
unabated down the bar. It does not
A few impacts were made within the seem to be concentrated near the imelastic range of 61ST-6 aluminum alloy pact end where one might expect the
to check on the technique. Typical greatest plastic deformation and, thereresults are shown in Fig. 5. They show fore, the greatest loss of energy. The
type of attenuation is different from
that expected from von Karman's
formula (Eq 3). According to this formula
the ascending portion of the wave
up to its crest peak should travel
more slowly than the subsequent
descending portion, which catches up
with it with the velocity of sound. As a
result the crests should be wiped off
leaving ultimately a wave with a uniform flat top. The measurements show
no such smoothing of irregularities in
the crest of the waves. The waves in the
steel bars, particularly, seem to attenuate without losing their characteristic shape, more like damped waves
in a viscous medium.
The amplitude of the reflected wave
for the mild steel (R, Fig. 6) is interesting
in that it is of the order of 0.2 per cent,
FIG. 7.Typical Strain-Time Record for De- which is nearly twice the static yield
termination of Delay Time.
strain for this steel. This indicates elastic
behavior at the free end up to nearly
little change in shape or amplitude in twice the static lower yield stress.
travelling between two stations 30 and
40 in. apart. The wave is propagated Delayed Yielding in High-Strength Steel:
The delay tunes for yielding in long
without appreciable distortion as predicted by the classical theory for the rods cut from high-strength steel plate
propagation of plane elastic waves in were measured by two different techlong thin bars of constant cross-section. niques.
Delay times from 10 X 10~6 to 500
The results for the inelastic impacts
are shown in Fig. 6. The strain pulses X 10~6 sec were measured for impacts
had a variety of shapes. They were applied with the slingshot machine.
duplicated closely in tests of different The beginning of yielding was debars only two or three times. For this termined from strain-time records such
reason they cannot be used to indicate as that shown in Fig. 7. In this case the
the attentuation of a pulse of given stress reached a maximum at A, but
shape past a number of stations 1 in. plastic yielding was not apparent until
120
B; the delay time T is taken as the

time interval between A and B. The
yield stress was taken as the elastic
strain multiplied by Young's modulus
for the material.
Delay times from 0.01 to 1.2 sec were
measured by applying stresses slightly
in excess of the static yield point by
dead weights. The weights were lifted
tion. Compression tests were made on

seventeen specimens to indicate any
difference in delay time between tension
and compression impacts.
The dynamic yield stresses for the 1in. plate material are plotted against the
logarithm of the delay times in Fig. 8.
The points scatter about a common
curve with an average deviation along
FIG. 8.Dynamical Yield Stress versus Delay Time For Specimens From 1-in. Plate of High
Strength Steel.
by the specimen. Strain measurements

indicated that the tune from zero stress
to full load was from 0.06 to 0.09 sec.
The dead weights and cross-sectional
areas of the specimens were matched to
produce the desired stresses.
Nineteen of the fifty-six tests represented here were made in tension on
specimens cut from the steel plate in a
longitudinal direction. Eighteen of the
tension tests were on specimens cut
transverse to the direction of rolling,
and two tension tests were on specimens
taken 45 deg to the longitudinal direc-
the stress axis of about 3.5 per cent.

The delay times become large as the
dynamic yield strength approaches the
static yield point. There is no apparent
systematic difference between delay
times in tension as compared to compression. This is in agreement with the
trend indicated by the delay times for
mild steel obtained by Johnson, Wood
and Clark (20) in their impact compression and rapid load tension tests.
There is no pronounced systematic
variation of delay time with direction

of loading relative to direction of rolling
in the plate.
It was decided to check these data
against Yokobori's formula for delay
121
yield stress since this shows less scatter

(see Table I) than the upper yield
point. An average <TJ = 48,500 psi was
used for the 1-in. plate material and an
FIG. 9.Logarithmic Plot of (<r/tri 1) versus Delay Time According to Yokobori's Formula
for Specimens from 1-in. and TVin. Material, Where r/<r,- is the Ratio of the Dynamical Yield
Stress to the Average Static Lower Yield Strength.
time, Eq 7. For this purpose, it is convenient to rewrite Eq 7 in the form:
average <r, = 53,000 psi for the iVin.

plate material. The resulting plot, using
logiolOO(o-/<rt 1) rather than Inl
where:
The constant <r must be equal to the

static yield strength in order to satisfy
the condition that r becomes infinite as
o- approaches the static yield strength
of the material. According to Eq 8 the
logarithm of the delay tune should be a
linear function of the logarithm of
a/Oi 1.
There is still some question about
which static yield stress to use for <TI,
the upper yield point or the lower yield
stress. In making the comparison it was
decided to use an average of the lower
for convenience only, is shown in Fig. 9.

It is seen that the points for the 1-in.
plate scatter uniformly about a single
straight line as required by Yokobori's
formula. The points for the Ts-in. plate
lie to one side of this line, as indicated
by the dashed line in Fig. 9. This may
be taken as another indication of difference in properties between the 1-inch
and Ts-in. plate material.
Permanent Deformation:
An attempt was made to determine
permanent deformation in some of the
bars by measuring diameters and distances between scribed marks 0.25 in.
apart before and after impact.
It was found that the measurements
of diameters were too inaccurate to
indicate the permanent set. The measurements of change in distance between
scribed marks were somewhat more
122
accurate. Typical results for compression

impact .tests of mild steel and copper are
shown in Fig. 10. The impact velocity
was approximately 60 ft per sec. The
permanent compressive strain for the
steel decreases continuously from the
impact end for a distance of at least 12
diameters. The permanent compressive
strain for the copper appeared to decrease for about 6 diameters, then re-
with his detonator within 1 or 2 per

cent. The measurements should be made
with pulses of various rise times corresponding to a wide range of strain
rates on materials with and without
delay effects and perhaps even on plastics
with delayed recovery or "memory"
effects. A comparison of measured strain
pulses as a function of time with those
computed according to different theories
FIG. 10.Permanent Axial Strain After Compressive Impact in Mild Steel and | Hard-Temper
Copper Bars 0.5 in. in Diameter.
mained constant
measured.
over the
distance
DISCUSSION
The above results must be regarded
as preliminary only. However, they do
point the way to further research in
certain directions.
Measurements of attenuation of pulses
should provide a useful check on theories
of plastic wave propagation. For this
purpose the technique should be refined
by measuring the attenuation of the
pulse at more than two stations along
the bar. This would require either
simultaneous recording at more than
two stations or precise reproduction of
pulses in successive tests on practically
identical bars. It is interesting to note
in this connection that Kolsky (15) was
able to reproduce impact pressure pulses
of plastic wave propagation would then

indicate the validity of the theories as
applied to the material of the bar.
The measurements of delay tune for
the high-strength steel indicate, in
agreement with the dislocation locking
theory, that this is a characteristic of
the material dependent on only the
stress and presumably, on the temperature. There is no systematic difference
between the delay time for tensile and
compressive impact. This suggests that
the delay time is controlled by a factor
common to both tests, such as the
shearing stress, which is the same for a
given axial tension and compression
test. The experimental data on the steel
are sparse in the particularly important
"intermediate range" of delay times,
between 0.001 and 0.010 sec. It is
desirable that tests should be made in

this range either with a rapid load
testing machine, such as that developed
by Wood and Clark (21) at the California
Institute of Technology, or with a
vibration technique, such as that developed by Belsheim (8) at the Naval
Research Laboratory. Impact tests at
high temperatures and under other
types of loading such as torsional impact
are desirable also to study the effects of
temperature and state of stress on delay
time. It is to be expected that the experimental data obtained will stimulate
further theoretical work on the application of the dislocation theory to
dynamic yielding.
The observations of permanent set in
the mild steel were inadequate. It is
hoped that they may be improved in
the future by observing the permanent
distortion of photogrids on the specimen
and by metallographic examination of
sections that have yielded under the
impact. Comparison of the structure of
metal that is about to yield or has yielded
with various delay times may throw
further light on the mechanism by which
yielding spreads over the entire section
and becomes sufficient to be detected by
the wire strain gages.
CONCLUSIONS
The longitudinal impact tests of mild
steel and of copper bars in the slingshot
impact machine showed that the plastic
strain pulses are attenuated, particularly
in the steel bars, with much less change
in shape than that represented by von
Karman's formula for the velocity of
propagation of plastic waves.
The high-strength steel exhibited
delay times, which are the same under a
123
given tension and compression pulse and

which depend on only the stress and,
presumably, on the temperature. The
variation of delay time with stress is in
accord with the dislocation locking
theory of Cottrell as elaborated by
Yokobori. The observed relation depended on the material; it differed for
the inj-in. plate and the 1-in. plate.
The tests suggest the need for refining
the techniques for producing a reproducible pulse, or at least for measuring
this pulse at more than two stations
either simultaneously or in successive
tests, for including pulses of various rise
times, and for extending the tests to
other materials, other states of stress,
and to temperatures other than room
temperature. Measurements of strain
distribution with photogrids and of
metallurgical structure in sections that
are about to yield or have yielded with
various delay times are suggested to
throw further light on the mechanism of
dynamic yielding. Examinations of the
results in terms of the dislocation locking
theory and other theories would be
fruitful in leading toward a more adequate theory for flow in metals under
impact.
Acknowledgment:
The authors wish to acknowledge the
assistance in this work of their associates,
J. L. Michalak and H. P. Waters, and
of their sponsors, the Office of Naval
Research, the Armed Forces Special
Weapons Project, and the Bureau of
Ships. The sponsors provided financial
support for the work and their representatives advanced progress by frequent
discussions of the technical problems
involved.
REFERENCES
(1) Thomas Young, "A Course of Lectures on
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical
Arts," (London) Vol. 1, p. 144 (1807).
(2) Barre de St. Venant, Translation of "Theo-
rie der Elastizitaet fester Koerper," by

Alfred Clebsch, Paris, p. 480, final note
to paragraph 60 (1883).
(3) B. Hopkinson, "A Method for Measuring
124
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)

the Pressure Produced in the Detonation
of High Explosives or by the Impact of
Bullets,". Philosophical Transactions, A213,
p. 437-456 (1914).
Theodore von Karman and P. E. Duwez,
"The Propagation of Plastic Deformation
in Solids, Journal of Applied Physics,
Vol. 21, No. 10, Oct., 1950, p. 987-994.
K. A. Rakhmatulin, "Propagation of a
Wave of Unloading, Applied Mathematics
and Mechanics, Vol. 9, p. 1. (Brown
University Translation 2, Nov., 1948,
15 pp.)
G. I. Taylor, "The Testing of Materials
at High Rates of Loading," Journal, Inst.
of Civil Engrs. (Great Britain), Vol. 26,
p. 486-519 (1945-1946).
D. S. Clark and P. E. Duwez, "The Influence of Strain Rate on Some Tensile
Properties of Steel, Proceedings, Am. Soc.
Testing Mats., Vol. 50, p. 560-576 (1950).
R. O. Belsheim, "Delayed-Yield Time
Effect in Mild Steel Under Oscillatory
Axial Loads," Naval Research Laboratories, Report No. 4312, 1954, 37 pp.
C. Riparbelli, "On the Time Lag of Plastic
Deformation," Proceedings, First Midwestern Conference on Solid Mechanics,
April, 1953, p. 148-157.
Robert J. Rubin, "Propagation of Longitudinal Deformation Waves in a Prestressed Rod of Material Exhibiting a
Strain Rate Effect," Journal of Applied
Physics, Vol. 25, No. 4, Apr., 1954, p.
528-536.
E. J. Sternglass and D. A. Stuart, "An
Experimental Study of the Propagation of
Transient Longitudinal Deformation in
Elasto-Plastic Media," Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Vol. 20, No. 3, Sept., 1953,
p. 427-434.
W. R. Campbell, "Determination of
Dynamic Stress Strain Curves From
Strain Waves in Long Bars," Proceedings,
Soc. Experimental Stress Analysis, Vol.
10, p. 113-124 (1952).
(13) W. R. Campbell, "Dynamic Stress Strain

Curves for Mild Steel Using the Tangent
Modulus Procedure," Journal, Washington Academy of Science, Vol. 43, No. 4,
Apr., 1953, p. 102-103.
(14) R. M. Davies, "A Critical Study of the
Hopkinson Pressure Bar," Philosophical
Transactions, A240, p. 375-457 (1948).
(15) H. Kolsky, "An Investigation of the
Mechanical Properties of Materials at
Very High Rates of Loading," Proceedings,
Physical Soc., B (London), Vol. 62, p.
676-700 (1949).
(16) D. S. Clark and D. S. Wood, "The Time
Delay for the Initiation of Plastic Deformation at Rapidly Applied Constant Stress,"
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol.
49, p. 717 (1949).
(17) T. Yokobori, "Delayed Yield and Strain
Rate and Temperature Dependence of
Yield Point in Iron," Journal of Applied
Physics, Vol. 25, No. 5, May, 1954, p.
593-594.
(18) A. H. Cottrell and B. A. Bilby, "Dislocation Theory of Yielding and Strain Ageing
of Iron," Proceedings, Physical Soc., A
(London) Vol. 62, p. 49 (1949).
(19) D. S. Wood and D. S. Clark, "The Influence of Temperature Upon the Time
Delay for Yielding in Annealed Mild
Steel," Transactions, Am. Soc. Metals,
Vol. 43, p. 571-586 (1951).
(20) J. E. Johnson, D. S. Wood, and D. S.
Clark, "Delayed Yielding in Annealed
Low-Carbon Steel Under Compression
Impact," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol. 53, p. 755 (1953).
(21) D. S. Wood and D. S. Clark, "Rapid
Loading Properties of Aircraft Structural
Metals. I.Design and Construction of
Hydro-Pneumatic Machine for Rapid
Load Tensile Testing, American Air Force,"
Technical Report No. 5742, Dec., 1948,
217 pp.
DISCUSSION
MR. D. E. DRiscoLL.1Mr. Ramberg
stated that he hoped more of us would
become interested in the longitudinal
impact test. The test method and results
obtained are very interesting. However,
I hope that Mr. Ramberg is aware of the
fact that before many of us become interested in experimenting with this type
test, he is going to have to make it a
little easier to interpret the results.
The size of the specimen will also
limit the field in which this test can be
used. Naturally, I am interested in Ord1
Chief, Mechanical Metallurgy Branch,
Watertown Arsenal, Watertown, Mass.
nance components, and I can imagine

the reaction of the Ordance Department
and the private producers if we requested
that gun tubes be made long enough to
enable us to conduct this type test.
MR. W. RAMBERG (author).I agree
with Mr. Driscoll. It will be a long time
before the longitudinal impact test will
supplant the transverse impact test as a
way of evaluating impact properties of
practical materials.
However, I do think that it has basic
advantages for studying stress strain
relations under impact conditions and
that we ought to study it from a long
range point of view.
125
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS IN YARNS SUBJECTED TO RAPID

IMPACT LOADING
BY HERBERT F. SCHIEPER/ JACK C. Surra,1 FRANK L. MCCRACKIN/
AND WALTER K. STONE1
SYNOPSIS
Equipment is described for impact testing of yarns longitudinally and also
transversely. The impact velocities range from 1000 to 10,000 ft per min. The corresponding rates of straining at impact range from 50,000 to 500,000 per cent
per min for textile yarns. The impact events are recorded with a high-speed
motion picture camera. Procedures are discussed for obtaining load-elongation
curves for loading and for unloading of the specimen and for loading to rupture
in a time interval of only a few milliseconds. Results are presented for a hightenacity nylon yarn and for two high-tenacity regenerated cellulose yarns,
Fortisan and X-36, when tested at rates of straining ranging from 1 to 400,000
per cent per min. The effects of rate of straining on the results are discussed.
Textile materials in processing and in

use are subjected ever more frequently to
higher rates of straining. For example, in
high-speed industrial sewing, the thread
is subjected to impact velocities ranging
from 200 to 2000 ft per min as often as
5000 times per min. This results in highfrequency cyclic accelerations of the
thread which may approach 100,000 ft
per sec per sec. The corresponding forces
produced in the thread approach, and
may even exceed, the breaking strength
of the thread. Similar conditions may be
attained in high-speed processing of
fibers, such as carding and combing or
the weaving and knitting of yarns in
fabrics; in the cord of an airplane tire
during landing; in the safety line when a
structural worker to whom it is attached
falls; and in the fabric, shroud lines, and
webbing during the opening of a parachute.

The stress-strain behavior of textile
and other materials has been thoroughly
investigated at rates of straining ordinarily referred to as "static" tension
testing. The velocity of the moving head
of the testing machine in static testing is
usually between about 0.1 and 10 in. per
min. The corresponding rates of straining
range from about 1 to 100 per cent per
min for textile materials.
In impact testing, usually made by
dropping a mass a known height or by
allowing a pendulum to swing freely
through 90 to 180 deg to break the specimen, the velocity at impact is usually
limited by, room dimensions to values
between 100 and 2000 ft per min. The
corresponding rates of straining range
1
Physicists, Textiles Section, National Bufrom about 10,000 to 200,000 per cent
reau
of
Standards,
Washington,
D.
C.
126
www.astm.org
SCHIEFER, ET AL, ON STRESS-STRAIN IN YARNS
127
per min. Although excellent work has

been published in this velocity range
(1-10, and others),2 the information concerning the stress-strain behavior of textile and other materials is not so complete as for static testing.
The information at higher impact
velocities, between 2000 to 1,000,000 ft
per min or rates of straining ranging from
equipment and methods (33,34,35) for

straining yarns and filaments at rates
between 100,000 and 1,000,000 per cent
per min. Even this maximum rate of
straining is considerably below the rates
of straining that prevail when textile materials are tested at their critical velocities.3 The rates of straining required in
FIG. 1.Load-Elongation Curves of High

Tenacity Nylon Yarn, Dry.
Curve AStatic, rate of straining 1 per cent
per min.
Curve BStatic, rate of straining 10-per cent
per min.
Curve CStatic, rate of straining 100 per
cent per min.
Curve DLongitudinal impact, initial rate
of straining, 328,000 per cent per min; final
rate of straining, 18,000 per cent per min.
Curve ETransverse impact, initial rate of
straining, 90,000 per cent per min; final rate of
straining, 400,000 per cent per min.
FIG. 2.Load-Elongation Curves of Fortisan

Yarn, Dry.
per min.
Curve BStatic, rate of straining 10 per cent
per min.
cent per min.
of straining, 300,000 per cent per min; final
rate of straining, 215,000 per cent per min.
Curve ETransverse impact, initial rate of
straining, 66,000 per cent per min; final rate of
Curve FTransverse impact, initial rate of
straining, 100,000 per cent per min; final rate
of straining, 300,000 per cent per min.
about 200,000 to 50,000,000 per cent per

min, is incomplete. Much of the published work in this velocity range is
theoretical or has been confined to very
small strains (ll-32, and others). Meredith (7) has recently published excellent
stress^strain data for viscose rayon,
acetate, silk, and nylon yarns for rates
of straining between 0.05 and 70,000 per
cent per min.
The authors have recently described
this case are estimated to be as high as

50,000,000 per cent per min. A method
for obtaining the critical velocities of
different yarns and an example of its
practical application to safety engineering have been described by the authors
(34).
The results discussed in this paper were
obtained at rates of straining ranging
2
see p. 139.
3
The concept of critical velocity was suggested by von Karman (31, 32) and has been
discussed by others (11, 24, 34, 35).
FIG. 3.Load-Elongation Curves of X-36 Yarn, Dry.

Curve AStatic, rate of straining 1 per cent per min.
Curve BStatic, rate of straining 10 per cent per min.
Curve CStatic, rate of straining 100 per cent per min.
FIG. 4.Load-Elongation Curves of High Tenacity Nylon Yarn, Wet.

Curve DLongitudinal impact, initial rate of straining, 320,000 per cent per min; final rate of
FIG. 5.Load-Elongation Curves of Fortisan Yarn, Wet.

Curve DLongitudinal impact, initial rate of straining, 195,000 per cent per min; final rate of
128
from 1 per cent per min using a commercial tester (Instron) to 500,000 per cent
per min in longitudinal impact tests
(33, 34). Transverse impact tests at intermediate rates of straining were made on
yarns with equipment described briefly
in this paper.
129
STATIC TENSION TESTS

The static load-elongation curves for
high-tenacity nylon and two high-tenacity regenerated cellulose yarns, Fortisan and X-36, were obtained on 10-in.
specimens using a class 3 machine (In-
FIG. 6.Load-Elongation Curves of X-36 Yarn, Wet.

FIG. 7.Load-Elongation Curves for Loading and Unloading of High Tenacity Nylon
Yarn, Dry.
per min.
per min.
cent per min.
of straining, 315,000 per cent per min to 0 per
cent per min at maximum load,
FIG. 8.Load-Elongation Curves for Loading and Unloading of Fortisan Yarn, Dry.
per min.
per min.
cent per min.
cent per min at maximum load.
130
FIG. 9.Load-Elongation Curves for Loading and Unloading of X-36 Yarn, Dry.
per min.
per min.
cent per min.
FIG. 10.Load-Elongation Curves for Loading and Unloading of High Tenacity Nylon
Yarn, Wet.
Curve AStatic, rate of elongation 1 per cent
per min.
Curve BStatic, rate of elongation 10 per
cent per min.
Curve CStatic, rate of elongation 100 per
cent per min.
of straining 310,000 per cent per min to 0 per
FIG. 11.Load-Elongation Curves for Loading and Unloading of Fortisan Yarn, Wet.
permin
per min.
cent per min.
FlG 12.Load-Elongation Curves for Load-
ing and Unloading of X-36 Yarn, Wet.

per min.
per min.
cent per min.
stron) (ASTM Specification: D 76) .4 The

tests were made with the crosshead
traveling at 0.1, 1, and 10 in. per min.
The corresponding rates of straining were
1, 10, and 100 per cent per min. The tests
131
curves were given by an electronic

integrator attached to the recorder. In
other tests the specimens were loaded to
approximately 75 per cent of the rupture
elongation and then unloaded at the
TABLE I.RESULTS OF STATIC TENSILE TESTS ON NYLON, FORTISAN, AND X-36

YARNS AT THREE RATES OF STRAINING.
Nylon (1066 Denier)
Rate of straining, per cent per
min
10
100
Fortisan (786 Denier)

1
10
100
6.0
5.1
X-36 (783 Denier)

1
10
100
6.4
4.9
6.2
5.5
6.6
5.4
6.9
5.2
11.4 11.2
13.9
14.5
11.9
LOADED TO RUPTURE, DBY

Rupture load, grams per denier.
6.5
Rupture elongation, per cent. . . 16.2
Energy to rupture, gram-centi45.8
meters per meter-denier
7.1
17.4
7.5
16.2
5.2
4.8
57.9
53.8
10.2
LOADED TO RUPTUKE, WET

Rupture load, grams per denier. 5.2
Rupture elongation, per cent . . . 16.7
5.7
17.8
6.2
17.4
5.1
5.9
5.2
6.0
5.4
5.9
5.1
6.3
5.0
6.2
5.1
6.0
41.3
41.1
9.6
10.4
9.3
9.1
10.0
8.3
LOADED TO 75 PER CENT OF RUPTURE ELONGATION AND UNLOADED, DRY

Maximum load, grams per denier
4.8
Maximum elongation, per cent. 12.0
Energy to max load, gram-centimeters per meter-denier . . . . 22.3
Energy recovered, gram-centimeters per meter-denier
12.6
56
Energy recovered, per cent
4.8
12.0
5.2
11.8
3.9
3.4
4.1
3.4
4.5
3.4
4.7
4.0
5.2
4.0
5.5
4.0
22.6
24.7
5.4
5.9
6.6
7.7
8.6
9.2
12.6
56
13.5
55
2.2
41
2.5
42
2.8
42
3.3
44
3.8
44
4.2
45
LOADED TO 75 PER CENT OF RUPTURE ELONGATION AND UNLOADED, WET

Maximum load, grams per den3.1
ier
Maximum elongation, per cent . . 12.0
Energy to max. load, gram-centimeters per meter-denier . . . . 13.0
Energy recovered, gram-centimeters per meter-denier
7.8
60
Energy recovered, per cent
3.2
12.0
3.5
12.0
2.5
3.5
2.6
3.5
2.8
3.5
2.7
4.0
2.9
4,1
3.0
4.0
14.3
15.6
2.9
3.0
3.5
3.3
3.6
4.0
8.6
60
9.5
61
1.6
55
2.0
66
1.7
50
2.0
60
2.2
61
2.1
52
were made on "dry" specimens in equilibrium with an atmosphere at 50 per

cent relative humidity and 70 F, and also
on "wet" specimens immersed in water
for 3 to 6 hr. The load-elongation curves
were automatically recorded to the rupture point, and the areas under the
4
Specifications for Textile Testing Machines
(D 76 - 53), 1953 Supplement to Book of ASTM
Standards, Part 7, p. 43.
same rate. The load-elongation curves

for loading and for unloading were
automatically recorded.
The load-elongation curves for these
tests are shown by curves A, B, and C
in Figs. 1 to 12, inclusive. The rupture
load in grams per denier, rupture elongation in per cent, energy to rupture in
gram-centimeters per meter-denier, load
at 75 per cent of the rupture elongation,
132
FIG. 13.Yarn Specimen Fastened to Head and Tail for an Impact Test.
FIG. 14.Assembly of Longitudinal Impact Testing Equipment. Variable speed motor at the
left with catch box above it; high-speed camera in the foreground; photoflood bulbs, scales, tube
containing head, specimen, and tail mass in the background; mirror system in the center. Broken
lines indicate paths of light beams from the head and tail.
energy to this elongation, and energy

recovered upon unloading are summarized in Table I.
LONGITUDINAL IMPACT TESTS
The longitudinal impact tests were
made on specimens of the nylon and
Fortisan yarns using equipment and
133
The head is struck at velocities between 20 and 200 ft per sec. The corresponding rates of straining at impact
are 50,000 to 500,000 per cent per min.
Pictures are taken at rates between 2500
and 7500 frames per sec. The impact
event is usually completed in a few milliseconds.
TABLE II.RESULTS OF LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE IMPACT TESTS ON

NYLON AND FORTISAN YARNS AT DIFFERENT RATES OF STRAINING.
Transverse Impact
Longitudinal Impact
Nylon
Dry
Fortisan
Wet
Dry
Wet
Nylon
Fortisan
Dry
Dry
LOADED TO RUPTURE
Rate of straining at impact,
per cent per rnin
328 000 320 000 300 000 195 000 90 000 66 000 100 000
Rate of straining at rupture,
per cent per min
18 000 135 000 215 000 55 000 400 000 234 000 300 000
5.8
13.0
5.0
7.0
7.5
9.0
6.4
Rupture load, grams per denier.
6.1
3.8
3.3
4.7
15.8
15.0
Rupture elongation, per cent. . . 13.0
32.1
16.5
51.2
14.1
19.0
meters per meter-denier . . . . 36.5
LOADED AND UNLOADED

Rate of straining at impact,
per cent per rnin
315 000 310 000 198 000 180 000
Rate of straining at maximum
0
0
0
load, per cent per min
0
Maximum load, grams per den5.4
5.7
6.5
ier
5.9
4.2
6.1
12.2
16.0
Maximum elongation, per cent .
Energy to maximum load,
gram-centimeters per meter15.7
39.4
15.7
denier
33.0
Energy recovered, gram-centi5.4
16.3
6.3
13.4
34
41
40
Energy recovered, per cent . . . . 41
methods described elsewhere by the

authors (33, 34). In a typical test a specimen f m long is attached at one end to
a head mass and at the other end to a
small tail mass as shown in Fig. 13.
This assembly is then mounted in the
testing apparatus shown in Fig. 14. The
hejad mass is struck by hammers on a
rotating disk, and the positions of the
head and tail masses in free flight are
recorded by a high-speed camera.
From the photographic record a curve

of the average elongation of the specimen
versus tune is easily obtained. The load at
any time is given by the tail mass multiplied by its acceleration, which is determined graphically from the recorded
motion of the tail mass (33). The loadelongation curve to rupture is thus obtained. When the specimen is not ruptured in a test, the load-elongation curve
for loading to maximum elongation and
for unloading is obtained.
FIG. 15.Yarn Specimen, S, Mounted in Clamps, E, for Transverse Impact by Projectile, P

The springs, R, actuate the impact hammer, H.
FIG. 16.Assembly of Transverse Impact Testing Equipment. Housing below table for springs,
hammer, and release mechanism; high-speed camera on table; timer unit in foreground; framework
for photoflood bulbs and mirror at right for throwing image of specimen and grid lines into objective
of camera.
134
SCHIEFER, EX AL, ON STRESS-STRAIN IN YARNS
Typical load-elongation curves for

nylon and Fortisan yarns are shown by
curve D in Figs. 1, 2,4, 5, 7,8,10, and 11.
The rupture load in grams per denier,
rupture elongation in per cent, and
energy to rupture in gram-centimeters
per meter-denier are summarized in
Table II. For the loading and unloading
tests the maximum load and elongation,
135
E, and struck at its midpoint by a projectile, P. The projectile is given a freeflight velocity, V, by the impact hammer,
H. The hammer is actuated by stretched
springs, R, attached to its shaft.
The assembly of the transverse impact
equipment is shown in Fig. 16. The
springs, means fgr stretching the springs,
hammer shaft, and hammer release
FIG. 17.Camera Field of View Showing Deformed Specimen, Projectile, and Grid Lines Spaced
1 cm Apart.
the energy to the maximum load and

elongation, and the energy recovered
upon unloading are summarized in
Table II.
TRANSVERSE IMPACT TESTS
The transverse impact tests were made
on specimens of the nylon and Fortisan
yarns using equipment and methods developed by the authors (36). In a typical
test a specimen, S (see Fig. 15), usually
60 cm long, is clamped at its two ends,
mechanism are contained in the housing

shown below the table. The table supports a high-speed camera to photograph
the motions of the projectile and specimen. The control unit for the timers of
the camera and hammer release mechanism is shown in the foregound. The
framework for supporting the photoflood bulbs and a 45-deg mirror, to throw
an image of the specimen and grid lines
into the objective of the camera, is shown
at the right. The field of view of the
FIG. 18.-Film Strips Showing Motion of ft^tik^d Configurationsof
Transverse Impact Beginning at Lower Left and Ending at Upper Right.
136
camera, shown in Fig. 17, shows the deformed specimen, grid lines, and projectile. The shapes that the specimen assumes after impact, as recorded by the
camera, are shown in Fig. 18 for a nylon
yarn.
When a yarn is struck transversely by
a projectile traveling at velocity V, a
longitudinal strain wave is propagated
along the yarn with velocity C outwards
in each direction from the point of impact (see curve a, Fig. 19). In the region between these wave fronts, the ma-
137
wave always propagates more slowly

than the longitudinal strain wave.
When the yarn specimen is clamped at
two points equidistant from the point of
impact, reflections of the longitudinal
strain wave and also of the transverse
wave will alternately occur at the clamp
and at the projectile. At these reflections
the local strain increases by finite increments. In addition, interactions between
the transverse and longitudinal waves
will take place. This complex behavior of
the yarn specimen in transverse impact
FIG. 19.Schematic Representation of Successive Configurations of Specimen in a Transverse

Impact Test.
terial of the yarn is set in motion towards

the point of impact. This inward flowing
material shapes itself into a tent-shaped
wave with the impacting projectile at
the vertex. The base of the tent propagates outward as a transverse wave with
velocity U.
The velocity U is a function of the
tension T and strain e in the yarn in the
region of the transverse wave front, and
of the mass per unit length M of the unstrained varn. This relationship is given
where U is in
byU =
Lagrangian coordinates.5 The transverse
6
The Lagrangian system of coordinates is
fixed to the specimen, moving and extending
tests will be described elsewhere (36). It

has been discussed theoretically by
Craggs (18). The principal effects noted
in an experiment are the increase in the
velocity U as the strain increases and the
change in configuration of the specimen
as the transverse wave is reflected at the
clamps and at the projectile. Several of
these successive configurations are indiwith it. For example, in this work the lengths
LI and Z<2 in Fig. 19 are transformed to the
Lagrangian coordinate lengths i and z by
the expressions 1 = LiL/(Li + L2) and
2 = LzL/(Lt + L2). The velocity, U, is
given by U = di/dt = -d2/dt. The relationis derived in reference
ship U =
(38).
138
cated by a, b, c, and d in Fig. 19, and by

the series of pictures in Fig. 18.
By measuring the lengths L, LI, and
Z 2 , as denned in Fig. 19, on each frame
of the photographic record, the average
strain i in the specimen is easily obtained
for each frame, namely
e = (Li + Is - L)/L.
From these length measurements the

positions of the transverse wave front,
given byi in Lagrangian coordinates,5
are plotted against time. The velocity U
at any time is given by the slope of this
curve at the corresponding time. The
tension T can then be found from the
equation T = U*M(1 + e). 6 - 7
If T is expressed in terms of the more
familiar textile unit of grams per denier
and U is in meters per second, then the
equation for the tension is T = 1.134 X
10~6 t/2(l + e). Load-elongation data
obtained in this way are shown plotted
as curve E of Fig. 1 for nylon yarn and
as curves E and F of Fig. 2 for Fortisan
yarn. The rupture load in grams per
denier, rupture elongation in per cent,
and energy to rupture in gram-centimeters per meter-denier are summarized in
Table II for these transverse impact
tests.
DISCUSSION OP RESULTS
When load-elongation curves are obtained for a textile yarn at increasingly
higher rates of straining, the following
6
This involves an approximation since the
strain e in this equation should be the local
strain at the transverse wave front rather than
the average strain e. This local strain differs at
most from the average strain by the magnitudes
of the longitudinal strain pulses traversing the
specimen. At the projectile velocities used in
the tests of this paper, these strain pulses are
small. More detailed analyses will be published
elsewhere
(36).
7
The motion of the center of mass of the
specimen between the projectile and clamp has
also been determined from the successive shapes
of the specimen and the tension obtained from
this motion.
tendencies have been observed in the

data of Meredith (7): (a) rupture loads
increase; (6) breaking elongations increase slightly, except in the case of
nylon where the elongations increase* and
then decrease again at still higher rates
of straining; and (c) initial slopes of the
load-elongation curves increase. The preliminary data presented here for nylon
and Fortisan yarns are in general accord
with these tendencies.
The values of energy to rupture for
nylon increase slightly with increasing
rates of straining and then decrease
greatly at very high rates of straining.
The values for Fortisan, however, increase with increasing rates of straining
without the reversal shown by nylon. At
all rates of straining, the energy values
for nylon exceed those for Fortisan. This
difference is attributable to the higher
rupture elongation values for nylon.
The rupture loads of the three wet
yarns tested are lower than those for the
dry yarns. The rupture elongations, however, are higher. The energies to rupture
for the wet yarns are lower than those
for the dry yarns.
Several features of the load-elongation
curves obtained after high-speed impact
deserve special comment. The rate of
straining in the longitudinal impact test
is not constant but decreases with time
sinusoidally. The rate of straining at the
instant of rupture depends upon the conditions of the test. When the specimen is
not ruptured, the rate of straining decreases sinusoidally to zero at maximum
elongation and then becomes negative as
the strain decreases to a final value depending on the permanent set obtained
in the specimen. Thus, the load-elongation curves obtained will have higher
initial slopes and lower slopes at rupture
than those 'obtained if the specimen had
been elongated at a uniform rate equal
to the average rate of straining in the
longitudinal impact test.
The elongations measured in the

longitudinal impact test are values averaged over the whole specimen. The
loads measured are the local values at the
tail mass. At high impact speeds, because
of the increasing effect of wave propagation in the specimen, the local loads and
elongations at a given instant differ appreciably from the average ones. Hence,
a plot of local load against average
elongation would have a step-wise appearance (35). By testing a long specimen
at high impact speeds, load-elongation
curves with pronounced jags have been
obtained. Wave propagation effects occuring to a slight degree were smoothed
out in the data presented here.
In the transverse impact tests, the rate
of straining increases abruptly at each
reflection of the transverse wave and is
139
roughly constant during the time this

wave traverses the specimen. The resulting load-elongation curve has a scalloped
appearance.
These
scallops
were
smoothed out before drawing the curves
presented here.
The above features and more complete
data will be discussed in more detail
elsewhere (36,37).
A cknowledgment:
This work was sponsored by the Quartermaster Research and Development
Command as a part of a broad and longterm fundamental program of research on
textile materials. This support and permission to publish is gratefully acknowledged. The authors also thank Miss
Kathryn Towne for making the static
tests on the yarns.
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(1) J. B. Dickson, "Functional Properties in
Textile Design," Journal, Textile Inst., Vol.
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(6) W. J. Lyons and I. B. Prettyman, "Use of
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of Tirecord," Textile Research Journal, Vol.
23, pp. 917-925(1953).
(7) R. Meredith, "The Effect of Rate of Extension on the Tensile Behavior of Viscose
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(8) S. B. Newman and Helen G. Wheeler,
"Impact Strength of Nylon and Sisal
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and G. G. Richey, "Impact Properties of

Yarns made from Different Fibers," Textile Research Journal, Vol. 23, pp. 489-494
(1953).
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Newman, "Dynamic Tensile Tests of
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Under Impact Conditions," Svensk Paperstidning, Vol. 53, pp. 1-7 (1950).
O. Andersson, "An Impulse Method for
Measuring the Impact Strength of Paper,"
Svensk Paperstidning, Vol. 56, pp. 403-411
(1953).
O. Andersson, "A Note on the Application
of Mechanical Models to Studies of Tensile
Properties of Paper," Svensk Paper stidning,
Vol. 56, pp. 587-589 (1953).
O. Andersson and L. Sjoberg, "Tensile
Studies of Paper at Different Rates of
Elongation," Svensk Paper stidning, Vol. 56,
pp. 615-624 (1953).
J. W. Ballou and S. Silverman, "Determination of Young's Modulus of Elasticity
for Fibers and Films by Sound Velocity
Measurements," Textile Research Journal
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M. Chaikin and N. H. Chamberlain, "The
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(17)
(18)
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Propagation of Longitudinal Stress Pulses
in Textile Fibers," Journal, Textile Inst.,
Vol. 46, pp. T25-T62 (1955).
J. D. Cole, C. B. Dougherty, and J. H.
Huth, "Constant Strain Waves in Strings,"
Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 20, pp.
519-522 (1953).
J. W. Craggs, "Wave Motion in PlasticElastic Strings," Journal of Mechanics and
Physics of Solids, Vol. 2, pp. 286-295 (1954).
H. DeVries, "On the Elastic and Optical
Properties of Cellulose Fibers," Drukkerij
Fa Schotanus en Jens, Utrecht, Holland
(1953).
B. A. Dunnell and J. H. Dillon, "The
Measurement of Dynamic Modulus and
Energy Losses in Single Textile Filaments
Subjected to Forced Longitudinal Vibrations," Textile Research Journal, Vol. 21,
pp. 393-403 (1951).
W. George, "The Measurement and Physical Interpretation of the Mechanical
Strength of Filaments," Textile Research
Journal, Vol. 21, pp. 847-861 (1951).
R. D. Glauz and E. H. Lee, "Transient
Wave Analysis in a Linear Time-Dependent
Material," Journal of Applied Physics, Vol.
25, pp. 947-953 (1954).
W. Hamburger, "The Application of Sonic
Techniques to the Investigation of the
Effect of Visco-Elastic Behavior upon
Stress-Strain Relationships in Certain High
Polymers," Textile Research Journal, Vol.
18, pp. 705-743 (1948).
W. H. Hoppmann, "The Velocity Aspect of
Tension-Impact Testing," Proceedings,
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 47, pp. 533
(1947).
H. Kolsky, "An Investigation of the
Mechanical Properties of Materials at Very
High Rates of Loading," Proceedings,
Physical Soc. (B), Vol. 62, pp. 676-700
(1949).
E. H. Lee and I. Kanter, "Wave Propagation in Finite Rods of Visco-Elastic Material," Journal of Applied Physics, Vol.
24, pp. 1115-1122 (1953).
W. J. Lyons, "Some Theoretical Considerations of Dynamic Property Data on Textile
Specimens," Journal of Applied Physics,
Vol. 21, pp. 520-522 (1950).
(28) R. Sips, "Propagation Phenomena in

Elastic-Viscous Media," Journal of Polymer
Science, Vol. 6, p. 285 (1951).
(29) B. Steenberg, "Behaviour of Paper Under
Stress and Strain," Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, Vol. 50, pp. 207-214 (1949).
(30) D. S. Villars, "Ultra Speed Tensile of
Rubber and Synthetic Elastomers," Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 21, pp. 565573 (1950).
(31) T. von Karman, "On the Propagation of
Plastic Deformation in Solids," Office Scientific Research and Development Report
No. 360, PB20276(1942).
(32) T. von Karman and Pol Duwez, "The
Propagation of Plastic Deformation in
Solids," Journal of Applied Physics, Vol.
21, pp. 987-994 (1950).
(33) W. K. Stone, H. F. Schiefer, and G. Fox,
"Stress-Strain Relationships hi Yarns Subjected to Rapid Impact Loading: Part I.
Equipment, Testing Procedure, and Typical Results," Textile Research Journal, Vol.
25, pp. 520-528 (1955).
(34) F. L. McCrackin, H. F. Schiefer, J. C.
Smith, and W. K. Stone, "Stress-Strain
Relationships in Yarns Subjected to Rapid
Impact Loading: Part II. Breaking Velocities, Strain Energies, and Theory Neglecting Wave Propagation," Textile Research
Journal, Vol. 25, pp. 529-534 (1955).
(35) J. C. Smith, F. L. McCrackin, and H. F.
Schiefer, "Stress-Strain Relationships in
Yarns Subjected to Rapid Impact Loading: Part IH. Effect of Wave Propagation,"
Textile Research Journal, Vol. 25, pp. 701708 (1955).
(36) J. C. Smith, F. L. McCrackin, H. F.
Schiefer, W. K. Stone, and K. M. Towne,
"Stress-Strain Relationships in Yarns Subjected to Rapid Impact Loading: Part IV.
Transverse Impact Tests," To be published in Textile Research Journal.
(37) J. C. Smith, F. L. McCrackin, and H. F.
Schiefer, "The Impact-Absorbing Capacity
of Textile Yarns," An Informal Presentation on Various Complex Rheological Problems, presented at The 59th Annual Meeting Am. Soc. Testing Mats. (1956).
(38) F. L. McCrackin, Doctoral Dissertation,
Lehigh University, In preparation.
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
SHOCK TESTER FOR SHIPPING CONTAINERS

BY W. H. CBOSS1 AND MAX McWmRTER1
SYNOPSIS
The object of this investigation was to develop a method of testing shipping
containers for the longitudinal shocks encountered during railroad switching
operations.
Field data were gathered by measurement of accelerations encountered on
a railroad car during various controlled switching conditions at speeds up to
10 mph. Shock spectra were prepared from the acceleration-time curves recorded.
The test method employs an inclined ramp which supplies the energy for
the system. The container to be tested is attached to a cart which is allowed
to roll down the ramp and strike a stack of rubber pads that are attached to a
fixed bumper. The shock pulse wave form obtained is reproducible. The magnitude and duration of the shock pulse to be applied to a given container are
governed by the dynamic response of an undamped simple single-degree-offreedom system having a natural frequency equal to the resonant frequency of
the container shock mitigating system. The response is obtained from the
shock spectra which was prepared from field data. The ramp test fixture will
simulate the longitudinal shocks, encountered during railroad switching, up
to impact velocities of 8 mph for shock mitigating systems with resonant frequencies below 20 cps.
To develop a method for simulating
the longitudinal accelerations encountered during actual railroad switching, an
inclined ramp is used to supply the
energy for the system. The shipping container to be tested is attached to a cart
that is allowed to roll^down the ramp
and strike a bumper which applies a
longitudinal acceleration having a wave
shape that is repeatable. The maximum
magnitude of the shock spectra and the
frequency at which this maximum occurs
is known for a particular acceleration
wave shape of known duration. The
magnitude and duration of the applied
acceleration wave shape should have

values sufficient to obtain the same
shock spectra magnitude, at the resonant
frequency of the shipping container
shock mitigating system, as the field data
shock spectra.
FIELD DATA
A railroad switching test was conducted to obtain field data that could
be used to develop a test method that
would simulate the longitudinal accelerations encountered during railroad
switching. Tests were conducted for
various conditions of railroad switching.
1
Project Engineer and Supervisor, respect- Results indicated that the most severe
ively, Dynamic Structural Test Section, Test switching condition was one in which
Laboratory Department, Sandia Corp., Albuthe instrumented car was coupled to
querque,
Copyright
by ASTMN.
Int'lMex.
(all rights reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06 EDT 2016
141
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142

accelerometers used with a Miller Type
C-3 carrier amplifier system. Miller
Model H Oscillographs were used with
1000-cps natural frequency galvanometers. A typical record of the longitudinal
shock signature as measured on the floor
of the instrumented rail car during an
8-mph impact is shown in Fig. 1.
FIG. 1.Longitudinal Shock Signature8

mph Impact.
DATA ANALYSIS
Shock spectra were computed for the
shock signatures obtained during the
most severe railroad switching con-
FIG. 2.Shock Spectrum for Undamped Systems3.4 mph Impact.
four stationary stopper cars loaded with

ballast. The hammer car was accelerated,
uncoupled from the locomotive, and
allowed to roll free into the instrumented
car. Impact velocities used during the
tests ranged from 2.5 to 10 mph. Accelerations were measured on the floor
of the rail car, on the main longitudinal
member of the rail car, and on a container and its contents. The accelerations
were measured by Statham Model ASA
dition. A shock spectrum is defined as a

graph of equivalent static acceleration
(equivalent static load) versus natural
frequency, which describes the effect of a
shock on linear single-degree-of-freedom
systems having a specified amount of
damping at the natural frequency of
each system. Equivalent static acceleration i& the gradually applied acceleration,
usually expressed as a multiple of the
acceleration due to gravity, to which a
CROSS AND McWHIRTER ON TESTING SHIPPING CONTAINERS
143
144
single-degree-of-freedom system with a

specified amount of damping must be
subjected in order to produce the same
amplitude of the deflection of the mass
as was produced by the shock. The
shock spectra were obtained from a
Reeves electric analog computer. Figures
2, 3, 4, and 5 are examples of the shock
spectra for undamped systems obtained
TEST FIXTURE
The test fixture for simulating longitudinal shocks encountered during railroad switching was developed on the
basis of a comparison between the
magnitude of the equivalent static acceleration of the simulated shock pulse
and the magnitude of the equivalent
static, acceleration of the shock pulse
FIG. 5.Shock Spectrum for Undamped Systems10 mph Impact.
from longitudinal shock signatures resulting from impact velocities of 3.4, 6,

8, and 10 mph. Each point on the spectrum is discrete. Straight lines are
drawn between each point for ease in
following the spectrum from point to
point. Spectra were also computed on
these shock signatures for systems with
0.5 per cent and 5 per cent damping
factors. The damped spectra were obtained to give the design engineer more
realistic design criteria, but were not
used to check shock simulation.
obtained from field data at the resonant

frequency of the shipping container
shock mitigating system.
It was, therefore, necessary to have a
test fixture that would apply an acceleration having a known maximum equivalent static acceleration for simplification
of comparison. An acceleration-time
curve approximating a square wave has
a known maximum equivalent static
acceleration of two times the applied
acceleration over a wide frequency range.
Small-scale tests performed in the labora-
CEOSS AND McWEIRTER ON TESTING SHIPPING CONTAINERS
FIG. 6.Ramp Test Fixture.
FIG. 7.Shearing Device Attached to Fixid Bumper.

145
146
tory proved that a satisfactory square

wave acceleration-time curve could be
obtained by shearing 2SO aluminum. A
full-scale test fixture was fabricated and
adapted for use with an inclined ramp
as shown in Fig. 6. The shipping container to be tested is attached to the
cart which is pulled up the ramp to a
height sufficient to produce the desired
duration of the square wave pulse. The

cart is then released and allowed to roll
down the ramp until it strikes the shear
forcing the shear blades through the 2SO
aluminum blocks as shown in Fig. 7. The
shear slides along two tubes attached to
the fixed bumper. The shear blades are
4340 steel heat treated to a Rockwell
hardness of 55 C. The magnitude of the
FIG. 8.Rubber Pads Attached to Fixed Bumper.
FIG. 9.Applied Acceleration-Time Wave

Form and Its Spectrum.
applied acceleration is determined by

the thickness and length of 2SO aluminum that is sheared off the blocks.
However, the fixture shown in Fig. 7
did not produce a satisfactory square
wave pulse because the fixed bumper,
which is set in a block of reinforced concrete, was not rigid due to a breakdown
of the surrounding soil structure.
It was found that a reproducible shock
pulse could be obtained by allowing the
cart to roll down the ramp and strike a
stack of rubber pads attached to the
fixed bumper as shown in Fig. 8. The
rubber pads used with this test fixture
have Shore durometer hardnesses of 37.5
and 68.0. The wave form obtained from
striking the rubber pads is not so con-
CROSS AND McWHIRTER ON TESTING SHIPPING CONTAINERS
147
venient as the square wave pulse in that

the pulse duration and maximum magnitude of the reproducible wave form
cannot be calculated, but can be obtained by trial and error until sufficient
data are acquired for a calibration.
Several of the acceleration-time curves
obtained from striking the rubber pads
were analyzed on a Reeves electric
analog computer, and shock spectra were
plotted. It was found that the accelera-
tions of the applied wave forms and the

frequencies at which the maximum
equivalent static accelerations occur are
26 g at 14 cps, 21 g at 11 cps, and 13 g at
6 cps, respectively. If these maximum
equivalent static accelerations are compared with those obtained from field
data, as shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5 at
the frequencies given, it will be seen that
satisfactory simulation is obtained up to
an impact velocity of 8 mph.


tion-time curves analyzed had a response

factor of 1.56 5 per cent. The response
factor is the ratio of the maximum
equivalent static acceleration to the
maximum applied acceleration. The
acceleration-tune curves analyzed had
frequencies of 5.7 to 22.7 cps and maximum magnitudes ranging from 8.2 to
17.8 g. Figures 9, 10, and 11 are typical
records of the applied accelerationtime wave forms and their respective
spectra, with a weight of 8040 Ib on the
cart and with the cart being released
from the maximum ramp height available.
From Figs. 9,10, and 11, it is seen that
the maximum equivalent static accelera-
CONCLUSION
For ease in comparing the spectra
obtained from the applied wave forms to
the spectra obtained from field data, the
square wave is probably the most convenient applied acceleration to use due
to the known magnitude and duration of
the applied square wave pulse and also
the known equivalent static acceleration.
The aluminum shearing device will produce a satisfactory square wave acceleration if a rigid structure is used for a fixed
bumper.
In general, the shipping container
shock-mitigating systems have natural
frequencies below 20 cps. The ramp test
fixture when used with rubber pads will
148
apply longitudinal shocks whose spectra

below 20 cps are of sufficient magnitude
to simulate railroad switching impact
velocities up to 8 mph. The present test

facility is limited by the height of the
ramp.
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
SHOCK TESTING WITH THE ROCKET POWERED PENDULUM

t
BY R. W. HAGER1
SYNOPSIS
To meet ever increasing need for adequate testing of full-scale aircraft and
ordnance structures and components, Sandia Corp. has developed the
rocket-powered pendulum. This pendulum, which is accelerated by the thrust
from a group of 3.5 in. bazooka rocket motors and decelerated by gravity, is
capable of simulating certain operational shock loadings on prototype structures and components. Although the present design of the rocket-powered
pendulum limits the magnitude and duration of the applied force, good simulation of sustained and water-impact shocks has been obtained on specimens
with resonant frequencies above 40 cps.
There is a growing need in the aircraft and ordnance fields for adequately
testing prototype structures and components under the shock loadings encountered during operation. Since operational tests are often expensive and
adequate data on loads in the structure
or on the operation of the component
are difficult to obtain, the trend is toward simulation of the operational
shock loadings under controlled conditions. To simulate two operational
shock loadings that are frequently encounteredsustained acceleration or deceleration and impactSandia Corp.
has developed a rocket-powered pendulum. This apparatus permits direct
cabling of the instrumentation and the
development of load-failure criteria for
various parts of the test specimen.
A number of impact testing machines
employing pendulum systems have been
developed in the past to test prototype
structures and components. These machines are similar to the high-impact

shock testing machines described in "A
Guide for Design of Shock-Resistant
Naval Equipment," Bureau of Ships,
Navy Department. With these machines
the specimen and support are accelerated by the impact of a pendulum which
has been accelerated by gravity. Since
this method of testing produces a high,
short-duration acceleration at the time
of impact, these machines are naturally
limited in the types of shock loadings
that can be simulated.
The rocket-powered pendulum is a
refinement of these machines in that the
magnitude and shape of the acceleration
impressed upon the specimen can be controlled.
BASIC PENDULUM DESIGN

The rocket-powered pendulum consists basically of a steel framework,
which holds the specimen, suspended by
1
Project Engineer, Dynamic Structural Test,
Test Laboratory Department, Sandia Corp., four 3-in-aluminum channels from two
pivots located on a cross-beam near the
Albuquerque,
N.rights
Mex.
Copyright
by ASTM Int'l (all
reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06 EDT 2016
149
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150
top of the tower (see Fig. 1). The distance from the center of gravity of the
specimen and supporting framework to
the pivot axis is 21 ft. The maximum
specimen weight that can be tested is
2000 lb. The system is accelerated by
Because of the lightweight suspension

system, the energy input is limited to
keep the maximum swing of the pendulum below 90 deg. Therefore, since
gravity is used for deceleration, the
maximum allowable velocity change dur-
FIG. 1.Rocket-Powered Pendulum.
the thrust of a group of 3.5-in. bazooka

rocket motors from the rest position
shown in Fig. 1. After the acceleration
period, the specimen and framework
swing upward in an arc decelerated by
gravity. The pendulum continues to oscillate or swing until it is finally stopped
by air resistance and friction in the
pivots.
ing the accleration period is approximately 36 ft per sec.

The magnitude and shape of the acceleration impressed upon the specimen
is controlled by the number of rockets
and the method used for transmitting
the rocket thrust to the supporting
framework.
HAGER ON TESTING WITH ROCKET-POWERED PENDULUM

ROCKET MOTORS
Rocket motors are used as a power
source for the pendulum because of the
consistent force-time characteristics that
can be obtained. A typical thrust-time
curve for a 3.5-in. bazooka rocket
motor with an initial temperature of
97 F is shown in Fig. 2. Thrust tests of
seven rockets with initial temperatures
of 97 F resulted in a range of peak thrusts
of from 5000 to 5700 Ib and burning
durations ranging from 23 to 25 millisec.
The rockets are fired by an electric
FIG. 2.Typical Thrust Curve of the 3.5-in.

Bazooka Rocket Motors.
impulse and can be ignited with low

voltage; however, to obtain good simultaneity of rocket ignition, the discharge
from a 400-v, 100-juf condenser bank was
used as a source for the firing circuit.
The present rocket-powered pendulum
can be accelerated by from one to fifty
3.5-in. bazooka rocket motors. The
rocket warheads and fuses are removed,
and the motor sections are attached to
the pendulum by threaded collars.
Although the magnitude and duration
of the acceleration are limited by the
use of these rockets and by the pendulum
design, good simulation of sustained
and impact shock loadings can be obtained for specimens having certain
resonant frequencies.
151
SUSTAINED SHOCK SIMULATION

When the sustained acceleration or
deceleration encountered under field
conditions, such as rocket or missile
takeoff and flight, is to be simulated
with the pendulum, a rigid framework
is used to transmit the rocket thrust to
the specimen mount. The burning time
of the rockets and the allowable velocity
change of the pendulum, limit the average acceleration with this test method
to a maximum of 45 g.
The acceleration-time history of the
specimen mount during a typical test
FIG. 3.Typical Specimen Mount Shock

Signature with Direct Coupled Rockets.
with direct coupled rockets is shown in

Fig. 3. Sixteen rockets were used to accelerate the framework and specimen,
which together weighed 2200 Ib. The
vibration superimposed upon the acceleration pulse resulted from the
response of the specimen and framework
to the rocket thrust.
Since the duration of the acceleration
is limited to approximately 25 millisec
by the burning time of the rockets, adequate simulation can be obtained only
on specimens having resonant frequencies above 40 cps. The rise time of the
rocket thrust of approximately 6 millisec
limits simulation to shocks of comparable
rise times or to shocks with shorter rise
times on specimens with resonant frequencies below 80 cps.
152
as the object passes into the material.

Such a deceleration curve obtained from
a full-scale field impact test into water
is shown in Fig. 4. The sustained portion
of the deceleration in this test was in
excess of 0.2 sec.
The simulation of the impact shock
requires an initial pulse of short duration, followed by a sustained shock of
sufficient duration to cause a maximum
response of the specimen. The resonant
FIG. 4.Deceleration During a Field Test of
frequency of the specimen determines
Water Impact.
FIG. 5.Rocket Ram Details for Impact Shock Simulation.
IMPACT SHOCK SIMULATION

The greatest advantages of the rocketpowered pendulum are realized in the
simulation of complicated shock loadings
such as impact. When an object impacts
upon a homogeneous material, there is
an initial peak deceleration as the object
strikes the surface of the material. This
is followed by a sustained deceleration
the duration required for adequate simulation.

Investigations conducted by Douglas
Aircraft Co. for Sandia Corp. showed
that the initial peak deceleration could
be controlled by accelerating a mass
with a buffer into the test specimen
mount. To adapt this method to the
pendulum, the framework that holds

the specimen was designed to support
two movable rams (Fig. 5). These rams
are accelerated over a short free-run
distance by the 3.5-in. bazooka rocket
motors before they impact upon the
framework.
The buffers attached to the forward
faces of the rams as shown in Fig. 5 are
soft 2SO aluminum cylinders. The testspecimen mount is attached to the frame-
153
cylinders, thereby simulating the peak

deceleration phase. Since the rockets
continue to burn after the impact, they
accelerate the framework and specimen,
simulating the sustained deceleration
phase. The initial peak deceleration is
controlled by varying the free-run distance of the rams, the number of rockets,
and the diameter and length of the
aluminum impact cylinder. In these
FIG. 6.Pendulum Design for Impact Shock Simulation.
work by two 1^-in. diameter steel trunnion bolts. Suspended in this manner,
the specimen can be oriented to the
acceleration, thereby simulating various
angles of impact. The specimen is secured in the desired orientation by
twelve ^-in. diameter bolts.
Before the test the rams are pulled
back the desired free-run distance. When
the rockets are fired, the rams are accelerated forward and impart their momentum as well -as the rocket thrust to
the framework through the impact
tests enough rockets are used to simulate

the sustained deceleration phase.
To evaluate this test method and to
determine the resonant frequencies of
the framework and trunnion suspension,
the solid steel specimen shown in Fig. 6
was used. This specimen was 5 in. thick,
33 in. wide, 28 in. long, and weighed
1300 Ib. The supporting framework and
rams weighed 860 Ib.
rigid specimen during impact shock
simulation is shown in Fig. 7. Twenty-six
154
rockets were used to accelerate the

pendulum. The free-run distance of the
ram was f in. The 250-cps vibration
superimposed on the acceleration pulse
resulted from the trunnion bolt mounting system.
A specimen similar to that used in the
full-scale water-impact test was also
subjected to water-impact shock simulation on the pendulum. This specimen
and its mount weighed 1340 Ib. The
framework was the same as that used
with the solid steel specimen. Twenty-six
rockets were used to accelerate the
FIG. 7.Impact Shock Simulation on a Rigid

Specimen., ,,
pendulum, and the free-run distance of

the rams was f in.
specimen mount is shown in Fig. 8. The
vibration in the mount shock signature
resulted from the response of the specimen as well as the trunnion bolt mounting system. The accelerations during
these tests were measured with Statham
Model ASA accelerometers with a range
of 200 g and natural frequencies of
approximately 1000 cps. Miller Type C-3
amplifiers and Models H and J oscillographs with 1000-cps natural frequency
galvanometers were used to record the
measurements.
Comparison of Figs. 4 and 8 shows
that good simulation of the initial peak
deceleration phase and a portion of the

sustained phase of water impact was
obtained with the pendulum. The specimen was tested at higher magnitudes of
acceleration than those which occurred
during water impact because failure
criteria of the specimen was desired.
The duration of the sustained portion of
the water impact that was in excess of
0.2 sec could not be obtained with the
pendulum; in view of the limitation in
the burning time of the rockets to a
maximum of 25 milliseconds. However,
for specimens with resonant frequencies
FIG. 8.Impact Shock Simulation on a Complex Structure.
above 40 cps, this duration is sufficient

to cause response of the specimen equal
to or greater than those occurring during
impact into water.
CONCLUSIONS
The rocket-powered pendulum as
presently designed is an adequate means
for simulating the two following field
shock conditions for prototype structures
and components with resonant frequencies above 40 cps:
1. Sustained accelerations or decelerations with rise times of approximately 6
millisec.
2. Deceleration occurring during impact into water.

The use of rockets with longer burning
durations will result in adequate simulation of lower resonant frequency
structures and components.
Modifications in the method of transmitting the rocket thrust to the test
specimen will permit the development
155
of test methods for simulating other

field shock conditions.
A cknowledgment:
This test method was originally suggested by C. N. Hickman, formerly of
Bell Telephone Labs, and Sandia Corp.
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AT HIGH RATES OF LOADING

BY D. WATSTEIN1
SYNOPSIS
The effect of the rate of application of load was investigated in compression
tests of a concrete having a nominal static strength of 2500 psi. The test
specimens were 3 by 6-in. cylinders, and the loads were applied at stress
rates ranging from about 10 to 2 X 107 psi per sec. The lower rates of loading
were obtained using a conventional hydraulic testing machine, and the higher
rates were achieved by loading the specimens in a drop-hammer machine.
The duration of impact in the drop-hammer machine was controlled by
placing rubber buffers of appropriate thickness and hardness on top of the
concrete specimens.
The compressive strength of the concrete increased with the rate of loading. The maximum ratio of dynamic to static compressive strength was
about 1.8 for the maximum rate of loading obtained with the drop-hammer
machine. There was a significant increase in the secant modulus of elasticity
as the rate of loading increased. The resistance of concrete to impact, as
measured by its ability to absorb strain energy, also increased with the rate
of application of load.
In designing a structure subject to

impact loading, the engineer faces the
twofold problem of determining the peak
loads on the structure and ascertaining
the mechanical properties of the structural material. The present paper is
concerned with the latter problem, that
is, the determination of the strength and
elastic properties of plain concrete under
impact.
In the field of reinforced concrete, the
designer has to know the physical
properties of two distinctly different
materials: steel reinforcement and concrete. While a number of investigators
have studied the properties of structural
steel and other metals under impact,
the study of the effect of loading rate
on the elastic properties and compressive
1
Acting Chief, Structural Engineering Section,
Nat.
Bureau Standards, Washington, D. C.
strength of concrete has been confined,

to date, to the relatively low testing
speeds employed by Abrams2 and Jones
and Richart.3 It was the purpose of the
present study to extend the speed of
testing of concrete into the range that
has been made possible by the recent
advances in the technique of measuring
forces and strains with bonded wire
strain gages.
CONCRETE TEST SPECIMENS
The concrete used in this investigation had a nominal compressive strength
2
D. A. Abrams, "Effect of Rate of Application of Load on the Compressive Strength of
Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats.,
Vol.
XVII, Part II, p. 364 (1917).
3
Paul G. Jones and F. E. Richart, "The
Effect of Testing Speed on Strength and Elastic
Properties of Concrete," Proceedings, Am. Soc.,
Testing Mats., Vol. XXXVI, Part II, p. 380
(1936).
156
www.astm.org
WATSTEIN ON CONCRETE AT HIGH RATES OF LOADING

of 2500 psi. The materials used in the
test specimens were portland cement of
type 1, siliceous sand, and f-in. gravel
from White Marsh, Md. The cement met
the requirements of ASTM Specification C ISO4 and the aggregate those of
ASTM Tentative Specification C 33.5
The proportions of the concrete are
given in the Table I.
TABLE I.PROPORTIONS OF MATERIALS IN THE CONCRETE
TEST SPECIMENS.
Concrete Used
in Series
1
2 and 3
WaterCement
Ratio, by
Gravel weight
Proportions, by weight
Cement
1
1
Sand
3.6
4.1
2.9
3.4
0.90
0.90
The specimens used in dynamic and

parallel static tests were 3 by 6-in.
cylinders. A "set" of four such cylinders
was cast in a four-cylinder gang mold,
and a 6 by 12-in. control cylinder was
cast from the same batch of concrete.
The 6 by 12-in. control cylinders were
fabricated in accordance with the
standard procedure given in ASTM
Tentative Method C 192.6 The 3 by 6-in.
cylinders were similarly fabricated,
except that a smaller tamping rod was
used to consolidate the concrete.
The concrete was mixed in a tiltingdrum mixer of 1-cu ft capacity. The
water, gravel, cement, and sand were
added to the mixer in that order, and
the mixing was continued for 2 mm
after the mixer was charged.
The concrete control cylinders were
moist-cured for 25 days and air dried
4
Specification for
Portland
Cement
(C 150-53), 1953 Supplement to Book of
ASTM
8
Tentative Specification for Concrete Aggregates (C33-52T), 1952 Book of ASTM
'Tentative Method of Making and Curing
Concrete Compression and Flexure Test
Specimens in the Laboratory (C192-52T),
1952 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 3, p. 1046.
157
for 3 days prior to testing. The 3 by 6-in.

cylinders were also moist-cured for 25
days and then were air dried for 2 days
to prepare the surface of the concrete
for application of bonded wire strain
gages. After application of the gages the
cylinders were placed in an oven maintained at 60 C for 3 to 4 hr. The specimens were then removed from the oven
and were allowed to cool overnight in the
laboratory.
The control cylinders were capped
with a sulfur-silica capping compound,
and the 3 by 6-in. cylinders were capped
with a high-strength plaster of Paris.
TESTING PROCEDURE AND APPARATUS
Static Tests:
The 6 by 12-in. control cylinders were
tested in a 300,000-lb capacity hydraulic
testing machine. The load was applied
to the specimen at a loading rate of
about 30 psi per sec. The controls of the
testing machine were adjusted during
the initial period of the application of
load to correspond to the loading rate
as given by the pacing disk, and no
further adjustments were made as the
specimen began to yield on approaching the maximum load.
In the static tests of the 3 by 6-in.
cylinders, two bonded wire gages, type
A2, were mounted diametrically opposite
at midheight. These gages had a nominal
gage length of 1 in., a resistance of 300
ohms, and a gage factor of about 2.
The ratio of the gage length to the
grading size of aggregate was about 2.7;
however, in the exploratory phase of the
program, a few static specimens were
tested with A5 gages having a length of
0.5 in. and no significant difference from
the longer gages was observed in the
results.
A specimen under static test is illustrated in Fig. 1. A 3 by 6-in. concrete
cylinder is shown being tested in a 60,000Ib capacity hydraulic machine. The load
158
FIG. 1.Static Test of a 3 by 6-in. Cylinder.
FIG. 2.Dynamic Test of Series 1.
WATSTEIN ON CONCRETE AT HIGH RATES or LOADING
159
was applied at a straining rate of ap- 60,000-lb hydraulic machine that loaded
proximately 1 microinch per in. per the specimens with the ram running at
sec, and the two gages were read simul- full speed. The speed of the ram was aptaneously with two strain indicators proximately 5 in. per min, the duration of
without stopping the application of test was about 0.9 sec, and the average
load. In applying the load, the rateôf rate of stressing was about 5000 psi
travel of the ram was adjusted with the per sec.
FIG. 3.Specimen in Drop-Hammer Machine.
load valve during the initial stage of the

test to correspond to a load application
rate computed from an assumed value
of the modulus of elasticity of concrete.
The load valve was then left undisturbed for the remainder of the test; the
duration of the test was about 30 min.
Dynamic Tests:
Tests Made in a Hydraulic Machine
(Series 1).The 3 by 6-in. concrete
cylinders of this series were tested in a
A 3 by 6-in. cylinder under test is

illustrated in Fig. 2. The load was applied to the specimen through a 2-in.
hardened steel ball which was interposed
between two bearing plates having suitable spherical seats. After the specimen
was centered in the machine, a small
initial load was applied to align the
bearing plate with the fixed compression
block in the crosshead of the machine;
the crosshead was then elevated several
inches and the lower platen of the
160
machine was pumped up at full speed

until the specimen failed.
The specimen was supported on a
dynamometer which measured the applied load (Fig. 2). The load indicated
by the weighing mechanism of the testing machine was disregarded. The output
of the dynamometer and of the strain
gages, mounted on the concrete specimen,
were fed into the 4-channel carrier-type
bridge and recording oscillograph (Fig. 2).
ported on four compression springs

giving the system a period of nearly 1
sec. The oscillations of the anvil following the impact test were limited by
inserting four shock absorbers and two
rubber buffers between the bottom of
the anvil and the concrete base of the
machine. The anvil was constrained to
move in a vertical plane during the
impact by means of two sway plates.
The sway plates, one at each end of the
FIG. 4.Elevation Drop-Hammer Machine.
The coête cylinders used in these

tests were eqpipped with bonded wire
gages of type C3. These gages, had a
nominal gage lengttf of 1 in., a resistance
of 500 ohms, and a gage factor of about
3.4.
Tests Made in a Drop-Hammer Machine (Series 2 and J).The tests of
series 2 and 3, which differed from each
other only in the rate of loading, were
made in the drop-hammer machine
illustrated in Fig. 3. The^ machine consisted essentially of a^meel anvil, a
dynamometer, a drop-hammer, and a
device for catching the hammerôn the
rebound after the test. (Fig. 4). The
anvil weighed 3200 Ib and was sup-
anvil, were attached through a hinge to

the end of the anvil and were anchored
to the concrete wall back of the machine
by another hinge.
The specimen shown on the anvil of
the machine in Fig. 3 was mounted on a
dynamometer. The hammer poised above
the specimen weighed 140 Ib and was
tipped with a flat striking surface. The
maximum height of drop which could be
obtained in this machine was 5.5 ft,
and the maximum velocity of the hammer was about 19 ft per sec.
The concrete test specimen shown in
Fig. 3 was set in plaster of Paris on the
dynamometer and was capped with a
steel plate. This steel capping plate
FIG. 5.Displacement of the Anvil During

Impact as Determined With a Vacuum Tube
Accelerometer.
161
capping plate and the rim of the guard

having a rubber gasket. After failure of
the concrete specimen, the capping plate
came down on the rim of the guard and
prevented the hammer from following
through and damaging the dynamometer.
The device for stopping the hammer
on the rebound consisted of a pair of
pawls mounted on opposite sides of the
cylindrical hammer in such a manner
that they permitted free fall of the
hammer. After the hammer made contact with the surface of the buffer on
top of the specimen, the inertia of the
cylindrical counterweights, poised alongside the hammer, caused the pawls to
trip and to engage the racks as the
hammer bounced after the impact. In
FIG. 6.Block DiagramCathode Ray Oscillograph Equipment.
served to distribute the load and, together with the cylindrical steel guard,
served to bring the drop-hammer to a
stop after failure of the concrete specimen. During the test, the cylindrical
steel guard shown on the anvil was placed
around the concrete cylinder. With the
steel guard in place there was about
j-in. clearance between the bottom of the
order to prevent the pawls from "freezing" hi their cocked position following
their first or outward swing, it was neces-'
sary to use suitable cushioning pads to
prevent the return of the pawls to their
initial position and to assure stoppage
of the hammer at its highest point of
rebound.
The displacement of the anvil during
162
the impact was determined indirectly

by means of a vacuum tube accelerometer.7 The accelerometer was attached
to the steel anvil alongside the dynamometer, and its output was recorded
by a cathode ray oscilloscope. The
accelerometer was calibrated by being
subjected to a sinusoidal vibration of
known frequency and amplitude. The
results obtained with the accelerometer
are shown by the typical graphs in
Fig. 5. The acceleration time curve shown
at the top of the figure was integrated
once to give the velocity-time relationship and again to give the displacementtime relationship. As shown in Fig. 5,
the maximum displacement of the anvil
was about 0.01 in. at the end of the
impact having a duration of 0.009 sec.
After the anvil attained its maximum
acceleration it continued to travel about
0.25 in. and was brought to a stop with
shock absorbers and rubber buffers.
The concrete specimens tested in
series 2 and 3 were also equipped with
type C3 strain gages; the outputs of these
gages and of the dynamometer were
measured with the equipment described
in Fig. 6. The equipment consisted essentially of a pair of potentiometers,
the outputs of which were fed into two
preamplifiers. The amplified signals
were then fed into a dual beam cathode
ray oscilloscope. The traces on the tube
were photographed with a 35-mm still
camera. As illustrated hi the block
diagram in Fig. 6, the strain gages and
the dynamometer formed parts of the
two potentiometers which were powered
with batteries producing a steady current
of about 20 ma for normal operation o'f
the equipment. In several instances, the
current in the strain gages was increased
up to 30 ma to increase the output of
the potentiometer. There was no noticeable drift or lack of stability in the
7
Walter Ramberg, "Vacuum-Tube Acceleration Pickup," Journal of Research, Nat. Bureau
Standards, Vol. 37, Dec., 1946, p. 391.
cathode ray oscilloscope after an initial

warm-up period of about 1 hr.
The trigger, shown in Fig. 6, operated
by delivering an external synchronizing
pulse in response to the closure of a
pair of contacts by the drop-hammer.
The first closure of the contacts provided the triggering pulse, and all
subsequent operations of the contacts
had no effect on the output of the trigger.
The triggering switch was mounted on
one of the piers of the drop-hammer
machine in the path of the sliding brackets that carried the drop-hammer along
the guiding rails. The elevation of the
switch was adjusted with reference to
the plane of contact of the hammer,
with the buffer placed on the test
specimens to initiate the single sweep
at a prescribed interval of time before
the impact. The duration of this interval
was determined in accordance with the
anticipated duration of impact, the
sweep frequency of the oscilloscope, and
the velocity of the drop-hammer.
The duration of impact hi the tests
made in the drop-hammer machine
ranged from about 0.004 sec in series 2
to 0.0003 sec in series 3, and the corresponding average rates of stressing
ranged from about 106 to 2 X 107 psi
per sec. The duration of impact was
controlled by the hardness and thickness
of the buffer placed on top of the capping
plate. The thickness of the buffers ranged
from 0.5 to 2 in.
Dynamometer.The
dynamometer
with a capacity of 50,000 Ib consisted of
a hollow cylinder made of high-strength
aluminum alloy with type C3 bonded
wire strain gages attached thereto. Four
of these gages were arranged around the
periphery of the cylinder in a manner
calculated to compensate for bending.
The gages were attached with nitrocellulose cement and were dried in air
several hours before being cured in an
oven at 60 C. Immediately upon removal
from the oven, the gages were given a

coating of hot cerese wax, which satisfactorily kept atmospheric moisture out
of the nitrocellulose cement.
Calibration of Equipment.The dynamometer was calibrated statically at
intervals during its period of service;
these calibrations consisted of loading
the dynamometer in a testing machine
and observing the corresponding values
of loads and the changes in resistance of
the bonded wire strain gages. The
calibrations of the oscillographs shown in
Figs. 2 and 6 consisted of introducing a
known change in the resistance of the
strain gage circuits. The change in the
circuit resistance was made by connecting calibrating resistors in parallel with
the gages (Fig. 6). This was accomplished by means of a hand operated,
single-throw 3-pole switch in tests of
series 2 and 3. Two of the knives of the
switch served to connect the calibrating
resistors across the appropriate strain
gages, while the third knife initiated the
driven sweep in the oscilloscope. The
leading edges of the three knives were
carefully adjusted by filing to give the
desired sequence of contacts.
In the series 1 tests, calibration of the
equipment was made separately for the
strain gages and the dynamometer
circuits; in the series 2 and 3 tests the
calibrations were made simultaneously.
Two calibrating resistors were used in
each of the potentiometer circuits to
provide a check on the accuracy of the
calibrations and to test the linearity of
response of the equipment to the
calibrating signals.
Recording and Reduction of Data.
The data obtained in tests of series 1
were recorded on photosensitized paper
by suitable galvanometers (Heiland
type C). The records of data in tests of
.series 2 and 3 were obtained by photographing the 5-in. screen of a cathode
ray oscilloscope on 35-mm film with a
fixed focus camera having an //3.5 lens.
The time base in the record produced
163
in the recording oscillograph (series 1)

was furnished by the transverse time
marks which were made every 0.01 sec.
In the photographic records of the
cathode ray oscilloscope (series 2 and 3),
the time base was furnished by an audiofrequency oscillator, which modulated
the intensity of the beams at frequencies
ranging from 5000 to 20,000 cps in
such a manner that the traces of the
beams became dotted lines.
In the records of series 1 data, a
reference line was furnished by a fixed
source of light in the recording oscillograph. In the photographic records of
series 2 and 3, reference lines were produced by exposing the film to a single
sweep of the beams immediately before
photographing the test traces.
The data were reduced directly from
the paper record or the 35-mm negative
with the aid of a toolmaker's microscope.
The microscope had a magnification of 15
diameters. It was equipped with two
micrometer screws with which the stage
could be transported in two mutually
perpendicular directions.
Sonic Tests:
In addition to determination of the
modulus of elasticity in these static and
dynamic tests by measuring corresponding values of stress and strain, a
dynamic modulus was determined for
the 3 by 6-in. concrete cylinders by the
nondestructive sonic method. The values
of the sonic modulus of elasticity were
those computed from the fundamental
longitudinal frequency of the cylinders.
The apparatus used in the sonic test
consisted essentially of a variable
frequency audio oscillator, an amplifier,
a driving unit and a pickup circuit. The
amplified power of the oscillator was
delivered to the driving unit which
was placed in contact with the concrete
specimen. The specimen was supported
on a thick pad of sponge rubber so as to
TABLE II.SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF STATIC AND DYNAMIC TESTS.

Test Series 1
Test Series 2
Test Series 3
Compressive strength, // (6 by 12-in. cylinders) :

//'c,psi
a
\c , per cent.
2810
2.2
2370
2.2
2400
3.3
Static (fs) and dynamic (/<j) compressive

strengths (3 by 6-in. cylinders):
//, psi
\c, per cent
2940
1.2
2390
1.1
2610
1.7
3210
1.8
3730
2.0
4830
1.8
//d, psi
\c, per cent
//-//.
\c, per cent
Modulus of elasticity (3 by 6-in. cylinders):
Initial tangent:
Static:
E,, psi
,
Dynamic:
Ed, psi
Ej/Es
Secant at strain of 0.001 in. per in.
Static:
(E's, psi
\c, per cent
Dynamic:
[E'd, psi
\c, per cent
(E'd/E's
\c, per cent
Sonic:
EI, psi
Ed/Ei
Strain at maximum stress:
Static:
es, in. per in
Dynamic:
ed, in. per in
<?/
Strain energy absorbed by specimens:
Static:
(W,, in.-lb per cu in
\c, per cent
Dynamic:
(Wd, in.-lb per cu in
\c, per cent
(Wd/W,
\c, per cent
Duration of impact:
(T, sec
\c, per cent
Average rate of stressing during impact :6
fflavg psi per sec
\c, per cent
1.19
1.2
1.57
2.0
1.84
1.8
3.00 X 106
3.00 X 106
3.10 X 106
3.07 X 106
1.02
3.20 X 106
1.07
3.49 X 106
1.10
2.21 X 106
1.1
2.12 X 106
1.0
2.29 X 106
1.3
2.47 X 106
1.5
1.12
1.3
2.80 X 106
2.4
1.32
2.0
3.42 X 106
2.8
1.47
2.6
3.81 X 106
0.81
4.40 X 106
0.73
4.38 X 106
0.78
2300 X 10-
2050 X 10~6
1990 X 10^6
2100 X lO-6
0.91
2280 X 1C-6
1.14
2630 X 1(T6
1.32
4.97
3.5
4.47
7.6
0.90
10.0
0.90
2.9
3570
1.8
4.6
3.70
3.88
3.5
5.68
9.0
1.55
9.2
8.41
5.6
2.23
8.1
0.0043
1.3
0.00025
3.6
0.864 X 106
1.5
19.1 X 106
2.8
0
c = coefficient of variation of the mean for the specimens in a set; the number of observations
ranged from six to eighteen.
5
<favg is defined as the maximum stress divided by the duration of the test.
NOTE.The time required to load the specimens to failure in static tests was about 30 min,
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with the
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at 10~
in. per in. per sec.
164

permit it to vibrate with minimal
restriction. The output of the pickup
unit held against the concrete specimen
was fed into a cathode ray oscilloscope
to indicate the maximum amplitude
associated with the resonant frequency
of the specimen. The pickup was also
used as a probe to identify the mode of
vibration set up in the specimen by
ascertaining the locations of the nodes
along the length of the cylinder.
The sonic modulus was computed
from the formula relating length of the
FIG. 7.Effect of Rate of Load Application

on Compressive Strength and Modulus of
Elasticity of Concrete.
specimen, L, its resonant frequency, N,

density, p, and modulus of elasticity,
Ei:Ei = 4PLW2.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Comparison of the properties of the
concrete under static and dynamic loading is given in Table II which lists the
average values of data obtained in three
series of dynamic tests and the companion static tests. Since only the
averaged data are presented in this
table, the coefficients of variation are
given as a measure of the dispersion of
the data.
Compressive strength:
The static compressive strength of the
concrete is given in Table II for both
the 6 by 12-in. control cylinders and the
3 by 6-in. test specimens. The average
165
value of the compressive strength of

the concrete in the control cylinders was
2530 psi, and the corresponding value
for the 3 by 6-in. cylinders was 2650 psi.
The observation that the smaller specimens developed somewhat higher
strengths was in accord with similar
results reported by other observers.8
The relationship between the dynamic
and static compressive strengths is
given in the table as the ratio of these
strengths for the several rates of load
application employed in these tests.
This relationship is also shown graphically in Fig. 7, in which the ratio of
dynamic to static strength is plotted
against the rate of stressing on a logarithmic scale. The ratio of dynamic to
static strength varied from 1.09 to 1.84
for rates of stressing ranging from about
103 to 2 X 107 psi per sec.
Modulus of elasticity:
Typical stress-strain relationships for
the concrete cylinders are illustrated in
Figs. 8, 9, and 10, and the average values
of the moduli are tabulated in Table II.
These curves show the relationship between stress and strain up to the maximum load for sets of four cylinders,
which were cast from the same batch
of concrete and molded in a single fourcylinder gang mold. Two specimens were
selected at random from each set for the
impact test. It will be seen that the
dynamic modulus remained constant to
higher values of stress as the duration of
impact decreased. The slope of the
linear portion of the stress-strain curves
also became steeper as the rate of
straining increased in the dynamic tests.
Since the determination of initial
tangent modulus of elasticity is subject
to uncertainty, the modulus of concrete
is usually given as the slope of the secant
8
H. F. Gonnerman, "Effect of Size and
Shape of Test Specimen on Compressive
Strength of Concrete," Bulletin No. 16, Lewis
Institute, Chicago, 111.
166
FIG. 8.Typical Stress-Strain Graphs, Series 1. (<r&vg = 3570 psi per sec.)
FIG. 9.'Typical Stress-Strain Graphs, Series 2. (o-avg = 0.864 X 10s psi per sec.)
167
FIG. 10.Typical Stress-Strain Graphs, Series 3. (a*ve = 19.1 X 10 psi per sec.)
drawn from the origin to a point on the

curve corresponding to some predetermined value of strain. Table II gives
both the initial tangent and the secant
values of the modulus of elasticity, the
secant being drawn to a point corresponding to a strain of 0.001 in. per in.
The variation of the values of the
dynamic secant modulus of elasticity
with the rate of stressing is shown in
Fig. 7 in which the ratio of the dynamic
to static modulus, E'd/E't, is plotted
against the stress rate <raVg. These data
indicate that the secant modulus of
elasticity of the concrete increases
significantly with an increasing rate of
stressing. The relationship between the
ratios of the dynamic to the static
modulus and the corresponding strength
FIG. 11.'Variation of Dynamic Secant Modulus with the Dynamic Compressive Strength.
168
mate from the areas under the stressstrain curves, such as those shown in
Figs. 8 to 10, the capacity of the concrete
to absorb strain energy under impact of
various durations.
The values of the ratio of the dynamic
to the static strain energy are given in
Table II and are shown plotted in
Fig. 12 against the corresponding
dynamic to static strength ratio. The
strain energy ratio Wd/Ws ranged from
about 0.9 to 2.2 as the strength ratio
fd/f, varied from 1.1 to 1.8. While the
individual values of Wd/Wt showed
FIG. 12.'Variation of the Ratio of Dynamic considerable dispersion, as can be seen
to Static Strain Energy with that of Dynamic from the values of coefficients of variato Static Strength.
tion given for Wd and Wg in Table II,
FIG. 13.Specimens After Failure in Dynamic and Static Compression Tests.
ratios is shown graphically in Fig. 11,

and the values of the sonic modulus of
elasticity computed from the resonance
frequencies of the concrete specimens
vibrating longitudinally are given in
Table II.
Strain Energy Absorbed by Concrete:
Measurement of stfain in both static

and dynamic tests was carried out up
to the maximum value of stress, and in a
few tests maximum values of strain were
recorded. Thus it was possible to esti-
the average values plotted in Fig. 12

are in fair concordance with the dynamic
to -static strength ratios.
It is worth noting that the greater
ability of the concrete to absorb strain
energy at high rates of loading was due
primarily to greater strength and to some
extent to the greater values of strain
at the maximum loads; it will be. recalled that the ability of concrete to
absorb strain energy was defined as the
area under the stress-strain curve. The
ratio of the dynamic to static strain at
WATSTEIN ON CONCRETE AT HIGH RATES or LOADING

maximum stress increased with the rate
of application of load, and the maximum
value of this ratio was about 1.3.
There was no significant difference in
the manner of failure of the concrete
cylinders in the dynamic and static
tests. The photographs of typical failures
in Fig. 13 show that specimens tested
under both dynamic and static conditions failed in the characteristic manner
of brittle material in a compression test
by developing cones at the ends which
served to split the cylinders.
SUMMARY
Concrete cylinders having a nominal
static strength of 2500 psi were tested
at several rates of stressing ranging from
about 10 to 2 X 107 psi per sec, with
corresponding durations of tests ranging
from 30 min to 0.0003 sec.
The compressive strains and stresses
were measured on 3 by 6-in. cylinders
up to the maximum loads in the dynamic
and companion static tests, and the
following results were observed:
169
1. The compressive strength of the

concrete increased with the rate of
application of load. The average ratio of
the dynamic to static compressive
strength at the highest rate of loading
employed in these tests was 1.84.
2. For the range of loading rates up
to 2 X 107 psi per sec, the values of the
dynamic secant modulus were 12 to 47
per cent greater than those of the static
modulus.
3. The resistance of the concrete to
impact, measured by its ability to
absorb strain energy, increased markedly
with the rate of loading. The average
observed ratio of the dynamic to static
strain energy ranged from about 0.9 to
2.2 for the range of loading rates used
in this study.
4. The values of strain observed at
failure in the dynamic tests for the
highest rates of loading were materially greater than the corresponding
values in^the static tests.
DISCUSSION
>MR. DEAN C. BROUGHTON.'I would
like to know if the objective was to devise a standard test procedure or was
the author doing absolute evaluations?
Further, would mass effects have much
.influence on the results?
MR. WATSTEIN (author).We were
not attempting to develop any standard
1
Research Supervisor, A. O. Smith Corp.,
Milwaukee, Wis.
procedure. We simply were asked to

evaluate some characteristics of concrete under high rates of loading.
As to the second question, I am afraid
I am not in a position to answer it. I
believe that some of the investigations,
such as those being carried out by R. J.
Hansen of Massachusetts Institute of
Technology with respect to reinforcedconcfete structures, might provide an
answer.
170
TfflS PUBLICATION is one of many
issued by the American Society for Testing Materials in

connection with its work of promoting knowledge of
the properties of materials and developing standard
specifications and tests for materials. Much of the data
result from the voluntary contributions of many of the
country's leading technical authorities from industry,
scientific agencies, and government.
Over the years the Society has published many technical symposiums, reports, and special books. These may
consist of a series of technical papers, reports by the
ASTM technical committees, or compilations of data
developed in special Society groups with many organizations cooperating. A list of ASTM publications and
information on the work of the Society will be furnished
on request.

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ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 176

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NOTE.The Society is not responsible, as a body, for the statements

Notched-Bar TestingTheory and PracticeS. L. Hoyt

Transition Behavior in V-Notch Charpy Slow-Bend TestsCarl E. Hartbower

Effects of Manganese and Aluminum Contents on Transition Temperature of Normal25

From Room Temperature

The Influence of Pendulum Flexibilities on Impact Energy MeasurementsJoseph

Longitudinal Impact Tests of Long Bars With A Slingshot MachineW. Ramberg

Stress-Strain Relationships in Yarns Subjected to Rapid Impact LoadingHerbert

Shock Testing with the Rocket-Powered PendulumR. W. Hager.

Properties of Concrete at High Rates of LoadingD. Watstein.

This page intentionally left blank

SYMPOSIUM ON IMPACT TESTING

Along this line, it was suggested some

Copyright 1956 by ASTM International

This page intentionally left blank

NOTCHED-BAR TESTINGTHEORY AND PRACTICE

Consultant, Columbus, Ohio.

Mats., p. 286 (1953). (Issued as separate publication

Copyright 1956 by ASTM International

SYMPOSIUM ON IMPACT TESTING

the fallacy of this assumption has been

HOYT ON NOTCHED-BAR TESTING

SYMPOSIUM ON IMPACT TESTING

given by data of Christensen and Augland, which were recently cited by

temperature, the selection could not be

DifferSteel ence BeNo. 6 tween

one is still concerned with the presence

to ask Mr. Hoyt a questionwould he be

MR. S. J. ROSENBERG.1I should like

would involve changes in the geometry

SYMPOSIUM ON IMPACT TESTING

tonnages that certain applications would

DISCUSSION ON NOTCHED-BAR TESTS

ness for a given application and at a cost

TRANSITION BEHAVIOR IN V-NOTCH CHARPY SLOW-BEND TESTS

under investigation in the United States

Copyright 1956 by ASTM International

HARTBOWER ON TRANSITION BEHAVIOR

gated by continuous release of the elasticstress field surrounding the crack,

FIG. 1.Typical V-Notch Charpy Slow-Bend Load Deflection Curves.

crack in the root of the notch at the

be obtained from the load-deflection

SYMPOSIUM ON IMPACT TESTING

in the system is sufficient to drive the

crack is propagated. Thus, when the

TABLE I.COMMERCIAL STEELS SUBJECTED TO SUBCRITICAL HEAT

Fully-killed 1^ in. plate

LABORATORY CARBON-MANGANESE STEELS

Carbon, per cent

Manganese, per cent

ASTM Grain Size

Pearlite, per cent

perature. Both types of fracture are

men. At lower temperatures, however,

HARTBOWER ON TRANSITION BEHAVIOR

nese content (1). The latter,4 containing

FIG. 2.Relation Between Lateral Deformation and Energy to Fracture.

fracture at maximum load are deemed

cal and physical property data are listed

SYMPOSIUM ON IMPACT TESTING

obtained from the earlier work of T. N.