Biochar - Learning From Nature

Biochar Network Meeting
Palmerston North, April 24, 2009
LEARNING FROM NATURE FOR

SEQUESTERING CARBON IN SOIL.
CARBONIZATION AND BIOCHAR
Marta Camps
Massey University
1
1. Biogeochemical carbon compartments and fluxes
The total amount of C present in the Earth is essentially constant
 C conservation
i f
follows the first
fi law off thermodynamicsi
805 Gt-Pg
Gt P
However, the forms
and amounts of C
present in the
different
biogeochemical
compartments are
not constant, and
t
transfers
f occur
between them
Soil 1,700
(carbonates)
6,000
Amount in the
0.1
atmosphere
y small
relatively
Lithosphere
39,000,000
(carbonates)
Modified from Houghton (2007)
Biochar Network
2
However, the total atmospheric concentration of CO2 has increased
markedly during the last century as a result of human activities
O=C=O
Charles Keeling
Current CO2 concentration is 380 ppm

(by volume) equivalent to 805 Gt C
Biochar Network
3
There is a well established relationship between the concentration of
CO2 and the GHG effect in the planet Earth
www.boilermakers.org
Global Warming Art
The GH effect is essential in maintaining the current

p
temperature of the Earth, otherwise the p
planet would be
extremely cold
Biochar Network
4
Medieval Warm Period
IPCC
Little Ice Age
The IPCC 2007 conclusion: “it is very

y likely
y that average
g NH temperatures
p during
g the
second half of the 20th century were warmer than any other 50-year period in the
last 500 years and likely the warmest in at least the past 1300 years”
W need
We d to
t stabilize
t bili GHG concentrations!!!
t ti !!!
Biochar Network
5
ATMOSPHERE
BIOSPHERE HYDROSPHERE
PEDOSPHERE LITHOSPHERE
As only the C present in the atmospheric compartment interferes with the

global climate  any processes that can sequester C into the other
compartments
p are of fundamental relevance
In addition, a reduction of C emissions is urgently needed
Biochar Network
6
Natural sinks vs. anthropogenic sinks
Until few decades ago, the CO2 emissions from agriculture were greater
than from other activities
Historical source of CO2
since the beginning of
agriculture
- deforestation
- burning
- tilling
Houghton (2007)
The increase has been smaller than expected due to the existence
of buffering mechanisms (oceanic and terrestrial compartments)
However, these natural sinks may become sources in the coming

future (e.g., CO2 release from the ocean with warming)
We need to generate anthropogenic mechanisms to produce a high

rate C sequestration
Biochar Network
2. Learning from the Earth history 7
Climate changes due to:

- Internal variability
- Response to:
- natural forces
 Earth
Earth’ss orbital geometry
 Plate tectonics
 volcanic aerosols
 grenhouse forcing
- anthropogenic forces
IPCC, 4th report
Major glacial-interglacial climate swings during Pleistocene are

attributed to changes of Earth’s orbit  changes in temperature 
changes in GHGs and sea level
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON CO2 CONCENTRATION:

Warm periods  release of CO2 dissolved in oceans (Henry’s law)
Cold periods  solubilization of CO2 in oceans (Henry’s law)
Zachos et al. (2001)
Biochar Network
8
On the longer time scales the C cycle controls the Earth climate
Berner (1999)
Berner (1999)
The silicate-carbonate
Th ili t b t subcycle
b l (carbonation/decarbonation):
( b ti /d b ti )
- Silicate rocks + soil CO2/organic acids  sedimentary rocks + saline oceans
CO2 + CaSiO3  CaCO3 + SiO2

Oelkers et al. (2008)
The burial of organic matter subcycle (coalification/oxidation):

- Fixation of CO2 through photosynthesis and burial of organic matter
CO2 + H2O  CH2O + O2
Marta Camps
Biochar Network
The Cenozoic era - the past 65 My 9
From greenhouse to glasshouse…
Paleocene/Eocene
boundary Late Oligocene
g
Middle Miocene
Zachos et al. (2001)
Hansen et al. (2008)
The large change (14 oC) of Cenozoic temperature must have been forced by changes in
GHG (which changed from 1500 ± 500 ppm in the early Cenozoic to180 ppm in glacial times)
50 My ago  Thermal maximum (early Eocene)  the Indo-Asian collision  outgas of CO2 
increase in To
Thereafter  weathering of the Himalayas/Tibetan plateau  CO2 sequestration  decrease To
Biochar Network
10
Therefore, natural terrestrial mechanisms that buffer high CO2
concentrations are:
1 - Photosynthesis and organic matter accumulation
2 - Coalification
3 - Mineral weathering and carbonation
Warm conditions (high water evaporation) and high
CO2 concentrations  accumulation of biomass and
organic matter in stagnant areas
H/Ag horizon
Bg/Cr horizon
Siderite (FeCO3)
2H/Ag horizon
B i off As
Basin A Pontes
P t (NW Spain)
S i )
Macías (2004)
Macías and Camps Arbestain (in preparation)

preparation)
Typha
Biochar Network
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND ORGANIC MATTER ACCUMULATION IN SOILS
Increase in C stocks in biomass and soils
Articles 3.3, 3.4, 6 and 12, Kyoto Protocol
Importance of organic C stocks (biomass vs. soil)

Monterey pine stands of 35 years old = mean total biomass = 120 t C/ha
73%
Organic C sequestration in soils is a
27%
Depth Corg Bulk Stock win-win strategy (Robert, 2001)
dens. Corg
Alu-andic Andosol (Spain)
cm % g cm-3 t/ha
• Increases soil quality
Ap 0-20 7.60 0.65 99 • Increases biomass production
Ap
• Decreases risk of erosion
Ah1 20-40 7.33 0.54 79
Ah1
• Increases the water filtering capacity
Ah2 Ah2 40-60 4.29 0.66 57 • Increases biodiversity
Ah3
Ah3 60-80 3.24 0.73 47
Ah4
Ah4 80-100 2.84 0.87 49 Importance of soil conservation!!!
Marta Camps Total 331
Biochar Network
TYPES OF OM ALONG A pH GRADIENT
peat Al-mull Andic-mull Fe-mull Eutric-mull Calcareous-mull
Primary production
Camps Arbestain and Macias (unpublished)
Biochar Network
CARBONIZATION AND BIOCHAR 13
Natural coalification of biomass takes place on a timescale of

hundred (peat) to hundred million (black coal) years...
years
... Humans have burnt part of it in less

than 200 years...
Berner (1999)
Hansen et al. (2008)
Hansen (2008)
Industrial activity
Addition off
Additi
biochar
We should
W h ld llook
k att th
the ffeasibility
ibilit off turning
t i coall formation
f ti into
i t an active
ti
element of carbon sequestration schemes  production of biochar
Titirici et al. (2007)
Biochar Network
14
Thinking about feasibility...
• Economics...
• Offsets tradings
• Use of feedstocks with a waste
management fee
• Production of chars with added value
• Agronomic added value
 Increases CEC
 Increases soil water content capacity
 I
Improves soilil structure
t t
 Increases biomass production
Prices in March
• Environmental added value
US$ 14 t CO2
 Reduces
US$ 51.3
need tC
of fertilizers
Avoided
 Pot. reduction N2O emissions
 US$ 41 t biochar emissions
 Offsets fossil fuel for energy
 Filters pollutants S il remediation
Soil di ti
Biochar Network
15
What is biochar?
Biochar is a fine-grained charcoal high in organic carbon
and largely resistant to decomposition
Jérôme Lecointre Jérôme Lecointre
It is produced from the thermal decomposition of organic

feedstocks – generally at slow heating rates under oxygen-
oxygen
limited conditions (slow pyrolysis) – although it may involve
other techniques
Biochar Network
Steiner (2007) 16
The definition adopted by IBI further
specifies the need for applying the material
to soil for agricultural and environmental
gain
Difference from charcoal

Charcoal is produced from the thermal
decomposition of wood, mainly for use as
an urban fuel for heating and cooking
Difference from char

Char is produced from the thermal
decomposition of any natural or synthetic
material
Difference ffrom activated

Diff ti t d
carbon
Activated
c a ed ca carbon
bo iss manufactured
a u ac u ed by heating
ea g ca carbonaceous
bo aceous
material at a high temperature and over long periods of time
Biochar Network
How is biochar made? 17
- Slow pyrolysis
- Flash pyrolysis
Major techniques: - Fast pyrolysis
- Hydrothermal carbonization
- Microwave conversion
Fast pyrolysis
- The production of biochar via pyrolysis
also yields bioenergy in the form of syn-
feedstock gas and bio-oil.
syngas
biooil
water
biochar
- Maximization of biochar output is at the

expense of bioenergy production
Slow pyrolysis
Biochar Network
Competition among pyrolysis products 18
Factors favoring biochar vs. bioenergy

formation:
- Lower temperature
- Slower heating rates
- Longer vapor residence times
- Higher pressure From Amonette (2009)
- Higher feedstock particle size
In general, process is more important

than feedstock in determining products
off pyrolysis
l i
From Amonette (2009)
Biochar Network
19
Biochar characteristics change with process conditions
Depending
D di on th
the extent
t t off thermal
th l
alteration, BC particles can take any form
along a continuum from slight charred
biomass to charcoal and to soot
Kleber and Keiluweit
Too hydrophobic
Threshold criteria needed

for the production of the
right biochar
Low pH, low CEC,

Biochar Network Small surface area
20
Biochar characteristics change with process conditions
Different temperatures of pyrolysis Surface oxidation with long-
t
term weathering
th i
80
60
40
20
0 total C (%)
350 ⁰C Lime equivalent (kg CaCO3 t‐1)
400 ⁰C Lehmann et al. (2005)
550 ⁰C
Aitkenhead et al. (2009)
P t
Post-pyrolysis
l i treatment
t t t incubating
i b ti att 70 deg
d C
Cheng et al. (2006)
Biochar Network
Influence of feedstock? 21
- Forest residues:
- Wood chips
- Wood pellets
- Tree bark
- Crop residues:
- straw
- nut shells
- rice
i h
hulls
ll
- organic wastes:
- distillers’ grains
- bagasse
- olive waste
- chicken litter
- dairy manure
- sewage sludge
- paper sludge
Biochar Network
100
80
60
- Feedstocks favoured for bioenergy
40
20 production  low mineral and N
0 content
total C (%)
Lime equivalent
- Feedstocks with high lignin content

produce the highest biochar yields at
moderate temperatures (500 deg C)
From Amonette (2009)
Biochar Network
Sewage sludge (550 deg C)
Biochar Network
Sewage sludge (550 deg C)
Biochar Network
Miscanthus
Mi th
(400 deg C)
Pine
(400 deg C)
Biochar Network
Why biochar? It is a win-win-win strategy (Laird, 2008)
26
1. Biochar uncouples the atmospheric and terrestrial carbon cycle, as it removes

carbon from the cycle in a form that can remain stable for hundreds to thousands
of years
2. Biochar has other potential environmental and agronomic benefits when
applied to soils
3. Biochar production may help to reduce waste and return elements to their
3
biogeochemical cycles
Biochar Network
Biochar and climate change 27
Whether stabilization by conversion to biochar represents a net carbon saving

depends on the type of biochar and time horizon for the comparison
(Baldock and Smernik,

Smernik
2002; Bischofberger,
2008)
Lehmann et al. (2006), Mitigation and adaptation

Strategies for Global Change, 11:403-427.
Biochar Network
Estimated biochar turnover: greatly depends on type of biochar, soil

type and environmental conditions!!
- Studies on Russian steppe soils estimated soil

black carbon turnover ranging from 182 to 541
years (Hammes et al., 2008)
- Studies on Australian savannah regions,

g
estimated mean residence time of BC was
1300-2600 years (Lehmann et al., 2008)
Less condensed BC structures were lost
Additional role of transport…

Biochar Network
Study of stability of charcoal in soils nearby historical charcoal blast

furnace sites across a climatic area (Cheng et al., 2008a,b)
- Charcoal was substantially oxidized after 130

years
- Positive relationship between biochar
oxidation and mean annual temperature
(MAT)
Biochar Network
Biochar in addition,
Biochar, addition
- may prevent N2O and CH4 release from soil and from wastes
- may avoid CO2 emissions from fertilizer production
- may promote natural organic C stabilization (although it may also have
an inverse effect)
- Promote plant growth and thus CO2 fixation
Laird (2008)
The effects are likely to reflect the impacts of biochar on soil physical properties,
Particularly modification of pore-size distribution (and hence soil water retention),
but also through retention of precursors of N2O
Biochar Network
Biochar and agriculture 31
David Laird
Day (2004)
Conventional fertilizers added to
bi h appear to
biochar t b be much h
more effective and less likely to
be washed out
Biochar Network
Biochar and microbial activity 32
Ogawa (1999) Kansai Environmental
The growth of pine root and mycorrhiza formation started 5-6 months after
the treatment (Day, 2004)
Addition of pyroligneous acid

(wood vinegar)
Das et al. (2008)
Biochar Network
Biochar added to soils provides nutrient and water storage for mycorrhiza
(Ogawa, Kansal Environmental, in Day, 2004)
It also enhances bacterial growth
Does this increase decomposition of native

soilil organic
i matter?
tt ?
Ogawa (1992) in Day (2004)
Biochar Network
Lincoln University Biochar Research

Dr Robert Hill
Positive effects of biochar on root zone;
beneficial microorganisms and plant health Bioprotection of Acacia mangium
and vigour using Trichoderma in Borneo
Biochar Network
Biochar and waste management 35
Utilization of wastes with a tipping fee holds the attraction of potential cost savings
f
from avoided
id d llandfill
dfill or other
th disposal
di l charges
h
Jérôme Lecointre Jérôme Lecointre
Biochar from biosolids Biochar from willow prunings
- Higher bulk density

- higher nutrient content
- additional beneficial effects of reducing the
risks of CH4 and N2O emissions
- Elements return to their biogeochemical
cycles
Soil horizons (2008)
Need to use wastes low in pollutants  importance of biosolids from non-industrial

non industrial
areas!!!!
Biochar Network
Biochar and other environmental effects 36
Biochar as a filter for pollutants
Laird (2008)
Wingate et al. (2008)
Biochar Network
37
The NZBRC aims to advance the understanding of biochar

for mitigating global climate change and to enable its use in
NZ, particularly by agricultural and forestry sectors
The work at the NZBRC is organized into three close linked

streams of R&D activities:
1 soilil science
1- i and
d biochar
bi h
2- pyrolysis plant and biochar engineering
3 biochar
3- bi h and
d greenhouse
h gas mitigation
iti ti strategies
t t i
Biochar Network
38
Research questions that require the attention of the NZBRC:

- Can we produce environmentally safe biochars from NZ feedstocks
with an agronomic value for NZ soils?
- Is the whole process economically viable with a long-term
long term net carbon
negative footprint?
- Which barriers (e.g., social, technical and logistic aspects) are to be
overcome before a large scale implementation is attempted?
- Are there alternative uses of biochar other than agronomic ones (e.g.,
wastewater filtering)?
- Can we monitor biochar in soils with rapid and accessible

technologies?
- What are the opportunities

i i ffor the trading
i off carbon credits
i sourced
from biochar/bioenergy systems?
Biochar Network
39
Need to look at the overall picture (adapted to NZ)
• Do we have enough wastes?

• Do they have other uses?
• Will we need to crop?
• Logistics of transport?
• Drying needs?
• Pre
Pre-processing?
processing?
• Optimization of the process?
• Mass and energy balances
• Size and site suitability?
• Energy use requirements in
the vicinity?
Ogawa et al. (2006 • Doses, handling properties?
• Storage, management
practices?
Biochar Network
Biochar application to soils 40
Problems related to low bulk density:

- Particulate air pollution
- Wind and water erosion
- large volumes to transport
Problems related to spontaneous
combustion
b ti risk
ik
 Challenge for safe and cost-effective

Laird (2008)
application
- Pelleting
P ll ti bi h might
biochar i ht b
be an option
ti but
b t increases
i costs
t and
d energy expenses, and
d might
i ht
change biochar properties
Methods of application (Blackwell et al., 2009):

- Top dressing
- Uniform topsoil mixing
- Incorporation with composts and manures
- Incorporation with liquid manures and slurries
- Deep-banded application in rows
http://www.biochar.org/joomla/images/stories/OkimoriBiochar1.jpg
Biochar Network
References 41
Amonette, J. 2009. An introduction to biochar: concept, processes, properties, and applications.
www.harvestcleanenergy.org/ conference/HCE9/Post-conference/PPT/JimAmonette.pdf
Aitkenhead,
Aitk h d W.W , J.
J Hindmarsh,
Hi d h M.
M Camps
C A b t i M.
Arbestain, M Hedley.
H dl 2009
2009. D
Detailed
t il d characterisation
h t i ti off biochars
bi h obtained
bt i d
from New Zealand feedstocks. Asia Pacific Biochar Conference, Golden Coast, Australia, 17-20 May.
Baldock, J.A., R.J. Smernik. 2002. Chemical composition and bioavailability of thermally altered Pinus resinosa (red pine)
wood. Organic Geochemistry, vol 33, pp. 1093-1109.
Berner, R.A. 1999. A new look at the long term carbon cycle. GSA Today. 9:1-6.
Blackwell, P., G. Riethmuller, M. Collins. 2009. Biochar application to soil. In: Biochar for Environmental Management.
Science and Technology. J. Lhemann and S. Joseph (Eds.). Pp. 207-226. Earthscan, London.
Bischofberger, S. 2008. Black carbon in soil carbon cycle: is it an oxidation resistant end-product? Therm paper. Institute
of Biogeochemistry and Pollution Dynamics. ETHZ Switzerland.
Cheng, C.H.,
Cheng C H JJ. Lehmann,
Lehmann J.E.
J E Thies,
Thies S.D.
S D Burton
Burton, M.H.
M H Engelhard.
Engelhard 2006
2006. Oxidation of black carbon through biotic and
abiotic processes. Org. Geochemistry. 37:1477-1488.
Cheng, C.H., J. Lehmann, M.H. Engelhard. 2008. Natural oxidation of black carbon in soils: changes in molecular form
and surface charge along a climosequence. Geochemica et Cosmochimica Acta 72:1598-1610.
Cheng, C.H., J. Lehmann, J.E. Thies, S.D. Burton. 2008. Stability of black carbon in soils across a climatic gradient. Journal
of Geophysical Research.
Research 113.
113 G02027,
G02027 doi:10.1029/2007JG000642.
doi:10 1029/2007JG000642
Das, K.C., M. Garcia-Perez, B. Bibens, N. Melear. 2008. Slow pyrolysis of poultry litter and pine woody biomass: impact of
chars and bio-oils on microbial growth. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. 43:714-724.
Demirbas, A. 2001. Carbonization ranking of selected biomass for charcoal, liquid and gaseous products. Energy
Conversion and Management, 42:1229-1238.
Hammes, K., M.S. Torn, A.G. Lapenas, M.W.I. Schmidt. 2008. Centennial black carbon turnover observed in a Russian
steppe soil. Biogeosciences 5:1339-1350.
Hansen, J., M. Sato, P. Kharecha, D. Beerling, R. Berner, V. Masson-Delmotte, M. Pagani, M. Raymo, D.L. Royer, J.C.
Zachos. 2008. Target atmospheric CO2: where shoudl humanity aim? The Open Atmospheric Science Journal. 2:217-231.
Houghton, R.A. 2007. Balancing the global carbon budget. Annu. Rev. Earth. Planet. Sci. 35:213-47.
Kleber, M., M. Keiluweit. A new geochemical model for environmental black carbon. Oregon State University.
Biochar Network
References 42
Laird, D.A. 2008. Pyrolysis, biochar and sustainable bioenergy feedstock production. Presented in Environmental and
rural development impacts, October 2008, St. Louis, Missouri.
LLehmann,
h J.,
J B.B Li
Liang, D.
D Salomon,
S l M.
M Lerotic,
L ti F.
F Luizao,
L i J Kinyangi,
J. Ki i T.
T Schafer,
S h f S.
S Wirick,
Wi i k C.
C Jacobsen.
J b 2005.
2005 NNear-edge
d X
ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy for mapping nano-scale distribution of organic carbon forms in soil:
application to black carbon particles. Global biogeochemical cycles. 19:1-12.
Lehmann, J. J. Gaunt, M. Rondon. 2006. Bio-char sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems – a review. Mitigation and
Adaptation Strategies for Global Warming. 11:403-427.
Lehmann,
h J., J. Skjemstad,
Skj d S.
S Sohi,
S hi J. Carter,
C M. Barson, P. Falloon,
ll K. Coleman,
C l P. Woodbury,
db E. Krull.
ll 2008.
2008 Australian
li
climate-carbon cycle feedback reduced by soil black carbon. Nature Geoscience. Advanced online publication.
Macias, F., M. Camps Arbestain. Learning from nature for sequestering carbon in soils. Carbonization and biochar (in
preparation).
Macias, F. 2004. Sumideros de carbono para el forzamiento climatico antropoceno. Una vision de alternativas de
actuacion desde la ciencia del suelo. Edafologia 11:7-25.
Oelkers, E.H., S.R. Gislason, J. Matter. 2008. Mineral carbonation of CO2. Elements. 4:333-337.
Ogawa, M., Y. Okimori, F. Takahashi. 2006. Carbon sequestration by carbonization of biomass and forestation: three
case studies. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies fro Global Warming. 11:421-236.
Scott, D
Scott D.S.,
S JJ. Piskorz
Piskorz, M.A.
M A Bergougou,
Bergougou R.
R Graham,
Graham R
R.P.
P Overend.
Overend 1988.
1988 The role of temperature in fast pyrolysis of cellulose
and wood. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research. 27:8-15.
Sohi, S. E. Lopez-Capel, E. Krull, R. Bol. 2009. Biochar, climate change and soil: A review to guide future research. CSIRO
Land and Water Science Report 05/09, 64 pp.
Titirici, M-M, A. Thomas, M. Antonietti. 2007. Back in the black: hydrothermal carbonization of plant material as an
efficient chemical process to treat the CO2 problem? New Journal of Chemistry
Chemistry. 31:787-789.
31:787 789
Wingate, J.R. 2008. Potential of non-activated charcoals for land remediation. University of Surrey.
Zachos, J., M. Pagani, L. Sloan, E. Thomas, K. Billups. 2001. Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to
present. Science 292:686-693.
Biochar Network
43
THANK YOU!!!
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Biochar Network Meeting

Palmerston North, April 24, 2009

LEARNING FROM NATURE FOR

Current CO2 concentration is 380 ppm

Global Warming Art

The GH effect is essential in maintaining the current

Medieval Warm Period

The IPCC 2007 conclusion: “it is very

As only the C present in the atmospheric compartment interferes with the

In addition, a reduction of C emissions is urgently needed

However, these natural sinks may become sources in the coming

We need to generate anthropogenic mechanisms to produce a high

Climate changes due to:

Major glacial-interglacial climate swings during Pleistocene are

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON CO2 CONCENTRATION:

Zachos et al. (2001)

CO2 + CaSiO3  CaCO3 + SiO2

The burial of organic matter subcycle (coalification/oxidation):

CO2 + H2O  CH2O + O2

Zachos et al. (2001)

Hansen et al. (2008)

Thereafter  weathering of the Himalayas/Tibetan plateau  CO2 sequestration  decrease To

Macías and Camps Arbestain (in preparation)

Articles 3.3, 3.4, 6 and 12, Kyoto Protocol

Importance of organic C stocks (biomass vs. soil)

peat Al-mull Andic-mull Fe-mull Eutric-mull Calcareous-mull

Natural coalification of biomass takes place on a timescale of

... Humans have burnt part of it in less

Jérôme Lecointre Jérôme Lecointre

It is produced from the thermal decomposition of organic

Difference from charcoal

Difference from char

Difference ffrom activated

- Maximization of biochar output is at the

Factors favoring biochar vs. bioenergy

- Higher feedstock particle size

In general, process is more important

From Amonette (2009)

Threshold criteria needed

Kleber and Keiluweit

Low pH, low CEC,

Cheng et al. (2006)

Aitkenhead et al. (2009)

- Feedstocks with high lignin content

From Amonette (2009)

Sewage sludge (550 deg C)

Aitkenhead et al. (2009)

Sewage sludge (550 deg C)

Aitkenhead et al. (2009)

Aitkenhead et al. (2009)

1. Biochar uncouples the atmospheric and terrestrial carbon cycle, as it removes

Whether stabilization by conversion to biochar represents a net carbon saving

(Baldock and Smernik,

Lehmann et al. (2006), Mitigation and adaptation

Estimated biochar turnover: greatly depends on type of biochar, soil

- Studies on Russian steppe soils estimated soil

- Studies on Australian savannah regions,

Less condensed BC structures were lost

Kleber and Keiluweit

Additional role of transport…

Study of stability of charcoal in soils nearby historical charcoal blast

- Charcoal was substantially oxidized after 130

Ogawa (1999) Kansai Environmental