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Answer:
Research may be classified crudely according to its major instant or the
methods. According to the intent, research may be classified as:
1. Pure Research:
It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in
practice, e.g. Einstein’s theory of relativity, Newton’s contributions, Galileo’s
contribution, etc. It is also know as basic or fundamental research. It is
undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It is not necessarily
problem-oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge. It may lead to either
discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It lays
foundation for applied research. It offers solutions to many practical
problems. It helps to find the critical factors in a practical problem. It
develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best
solution.
2. Applied Research
It is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or
policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action directed. It seeks an
immediate and practical result, e.g., marketing research carried on for
developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase experience of
customers. Through the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find
solutions to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the
development of theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovery of new
facts or testing of theory or conceptual clarity. It may integrate previously
existing theories.
3. Exploratory Research
It is also know as formularize research. It is preliminary study of an
unfamiliar problem about which the research has little or no knowledge. It is
ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives. It usually
takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research may be to
generate new ideas, or to increase the researcher’s familiarity with the
problem or to make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather
information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to
attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies. “At
the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the situations; at
the second, the discovery of relationship between variables.
4. Descriptive Study
It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the
simplest types of research. It is more specific than an exploratory research. It
aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community or institution
or problem under study and also aims at a classification of the range of
elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to the
development of a young science and useful in verifying focal concepts
through empirical observation. It can highlight important methodological
aspects of data collection and interpretation. The information obtained may
be useful for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of
the research. They are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social
action program.
5. Diagnostic Study
It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed
towards discovering what is happening, why it is happening and what can be
done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible
solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering and testing
whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior
knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of
the given population, adequate methods for collecting accurate information,
precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test of
significance.
6. Evaluation Studies
Answer:
Horton and hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research
1. Verifiable evidence:
That is factual observation with other observers can see and check.
2. Accuracy:
That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a
statement or describing things exactly as they are and avoiding jumping
to unwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or fantasizing.
3. Precision:
That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or
measurement. This avoids colorful literature and vague meanings.
4. Systematization:
Answer:
To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher has
collected) whether or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis
testing the main question is; whether the null hypothesis or not to accept the
null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to all those steps
that we undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e., rejection
Committing type II
Error
Answer:
Experimental Design:
1. The principle of replication:
The experiment should be reaped more than once. Thus, each treatment is
applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the
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statistical accuracy of the experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the
statistical accuracy of the experimental is increased. For example, suppose
we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we
may divide the filed into two parts and grows one variety in one part and the
other variety in the other part. We can compare the yield of the two parts
and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of
replication to this experiment, then we first divide the filed into several parts,
grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining
parts. We can collect the data yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion
by comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of
replication. The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for
better results. Consequently replication dose not present any difficulty, but
computationally it dose. However, it should be remembered that replication
is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to
increase the accuracy with which the main effects and interactions can be
estimated.
2. The principle of randomization:
It provides protection, which we conduct, an experiment, against the effect
of extraneous factors by randomization. In order words, this principle
indicates that we should design or plan the ‘experiment in the way that the
variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the
general heading of “chance”’. For instance if we grow one verity of rice say
in the first half of the parts of a filed and the other verity is grown in the
other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the
first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our result would not be
realistic. I such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in
different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling technique
i.e., we may apply randomization principle and protect ourselves against the
effects of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental
error.
Answer:
John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as
follows.
I. The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is
the case drawn out from its total context for the purpose do study
must be considered a member of the particular cultural group or
community. The scrutiny of the life histories of persons must be done
with a view to identify thee community values, standards and their
shared way of life.
II. The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is , the
action of the individual cases must be viewed as a series of actions to
social stimuli or situation. In other, words the social meaning of
behavior must be taken into consideration.
III. The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must
be recognized. That is, in case of an individual being the member of a
family, the role of family in shaping his behavior must never be
overlooked.
IV. The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social
behavior must be clearly shown. That is case histories that portray in
detail how basically a biological organism, the man, gradually
blossoms forth into a social person, are especially fruitful.
V. The continuous related charter of experience for childhood through
adulthood must be stressed. In other words, the life history must be a
configuration depicting the inter- relationships between three person’s
various experiences.
VI. Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a
factor. One of the important criteria for the life history is that a
person’s life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and
party owing to specific social sitatutions.
VII.The life history material itself must be organized according to some
conceptual framework; this in turn would facilitate generalizations at a
higher level.
Answer:
Probability sampling is based on the theory of probability. It is also known as
random sampling. it provides a known nonzero chance of selection for each
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