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AlbertEinsteinImportantScientistsThePhysicsoftheUniverse

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ALBERTEINSTEIN(18791955)

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AlbertEinsteinwasaGermanborntheoreticalphysicist,bestknown
forhisSpecialandGeneralTheoryofRelativityandtheconceptof
massenergyequivalenceexpressedbythefamousequation,
E=mc 2.HereceivedtheNobelPrizeinPhysicsin1921forhis
servicestotheoreticalphysics,andespeciallyforhisdiscoveryofthe
lawofthephotoelectriceffectandhemadesomeessential
contributionstotheearlydevelopmentofquantumtheory.Hewas
named"PersonoftheCentury"byTimemagazinein1999,thefourth
mostadmiredpersonofthe20thCenturyaccordingtoa1999Gallup
poll,andthegreatestscientistofthetwentiethcenturyandoneofthe
supremeintellectsofalltimeaccordingtoThe100:ARankingofthe
MostInfluentialPersonsinHistoryin1978.
AlbertEinsteinwasbornintoanonpractisingJewishfamilyinUlmin
AlbertEinstein
theKingdomofWrttemberg,Germanyon14March1879.Hewas
alwaysalittledifferentfromotherchildren:hisheadwasslightly
largerthannormal,andhehardlyspokeasayoungboy,leadingonehousekeepertoconsiderhim
"retarded".Atanearlyage,hisfamilymovedtoMunichwhereEinsteinattendedaCatholicschool
andshowedanearlyaptitudeformathematics,particularlygeometryandcalculus(althoughhe
dislikedtheschool'spolicyofstrictmemorization,whichhethoughtunhelpful).Outsideofschool,he
exploredhisownpathoflearninginmathematicsandphilosophywithamedicalstudentandfriendof
thefamily,MaxTalmud.
At15,afterhisfatherselectricalequipmentbusinessfailed,hefollowedhisfamilytoPavia,Italy(not
wishingtostayandfinishhisschoolinginGermany),andthenontoAarau,Switzerland,wherehe
finallyfinishedhighschool.Attheageofjust16,hehadalreadymadehisfirstconceptual
breakthroughwhilelookingatamirrorandwonderingwhathewouldseeifheweretravellingatthe
speedoflight(athoughtexperimentsometimesreferredtoas"Einstein'sMirror").In1896,he
renouncedhisGermancitizenshipinordertoavoidmilitaryservice,andwenttostudymathematics
andphysicsattheSwissFederalInstituteofTechnologyinZrich,graduatingin1900.Hegained
Swisscitizenshipin1901andneverrevokedit.
Unabletofindateachingpostaftergraduation,Einsteineventuallyobtainedajobevaluatingpatent
applicationsforelectromagneticdevicesattheSwisspatentofficeinBern.HemarriedaSerbwoman
namedMilevaMaricin1903,andthecoupleweretobeartwosons,HansAlbert(1904)andEduard
(1910),(andpossiblyanotherchild,Lieserl,beforetheirmarriage,whoeitherdiedinchildhoodorwas
putupforadoption),beforedivorcingin1919.
In1905,sometimesreferredtoashisannusmirabilis(wonderfulyear),andwhilehewasstill
workinginthepatentoffice,theyoung26yearoldEinsteincompletedhisPhD(withathesison"A
newdeterminationofmoleculardimensions")andhadnolessthanfourimportantpaperspublishedin
theAnnalenderPhysik,theleadingGermanphysicsjournal:
apaperontheparticulatenatureoflight,inwhichheexplainedthephotoelectriceffectand
certainotherexperimentalresultsbyproposingthatlightinteractswithmatterasdiscrete
packetsorquantaofenergy,ratherthanasawave(anideafirstsuggestedbyMaxPlanck
asapurelymathematicalmanipulation).
apaperexplainingBrownianmotion(theseeminglyrandommovementofparticlessuspended
inafluid)asdirectevidenceofmolecularaction,thussupportingtheatomictheory(thatall
matterismadeupoftinyatomsandmolecules).
apaper,whichhasbecomeknownastheSpecialTheoryofRelativity,ontheelectrodynamics
ofmovingbodies,whichshowedthatthespeedoflightisindependentoftheobserver'sstate

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ofmotion,andintroducedtheideathatthespacetimeframeofamovingbodycouldslow
downandcontractinthedirectionofmotionrelativetotheframeoftheobserver.
apaperonmassenergyequivalence,inwhichhededucedthefamousequationE=mc 2from
hisspecialrelativityequations,suggestingthattinyamountsofmasscouldbeconvertedinto
hugeamountsofenergy(whichpresagedthelaterdevelopmentofnuclearpower).
Muchofthisworkwashighlycontroversial(orjustignored)withinthescientificcommunityofthe
time,andhecontinuedhisworkatthepatentofficeuntil1908.ButhehadearnedhisPhDfromthe
UniversityofZrichin1905,andhewaseventuallyabletoobtainaprivatdozentpositionatthe
UniversityofBernin1908,followedbybriefteachingpostsattheUniversityofZrichandthe
UniversityofPraguein1911.
Duringthistimehecontinuedtopublishpapers,butitwasonlyonmovingbacktotheSwissFederal
InstituteofTechnologyinZrichin1912thathebeganworkinginearnestonageneralizationofhis
theoryofrelativity.HebenefittedfromthemathematicalassistanceofhisoldfriendMarcel
Grossman,whowasoneoftheonlypeopleinZurichwithwhomEinsteincoulddiscusshisnew
ideas.HemovedontoBerlinin1914(atthepersonalrequestofMaxPlanck),wherehebecamea
memberofthePrussianAcademyofSciences,adirectoroftheKaiserWilhelmInstituteforPhysics
andaprofessorattheHumboldtUniversityofBerlin,aswellasmaintaininganongoingrelationship
withLeidenUniversityintheNetherlands(throughhiscontactstherewiththephysicistsHendrik
LorentzandWillemdeSitter).HebecameactivelyinvolvedinantiwardemonstrationsduringWorld
WarI,publiclyadvocatingcivildisobedienceandtherefusalofconscription.
Einsteingaveaseriesoflecturesin1915abouthisnewtheory,whichwastobecomeknownasthe
GeneralTheoryofRelativity,includinganewequationtoreplaceNewton'slawofgravity,nowknown
asEinstein'sfieldequation.Thecompletetheorywasfinallypublishedin1916,althoughphysicists
andmathematicianslikeKarlSchwarzschildandLudwigFlammwerestartingtopublishsolutionsto
hisfieldequationsevenbeforeitspublication.Generalrelativityisbasedonthenotionthatgravity
andaccelerationareindistinguishable(theprincipleofequivalence)anddescribesgravityasa
propertyofthegeometry(or,morespecifically,thewarpage)ofspacetime,leadingtotheprediction
ofphenomenalikethebendingoflight,blackholesandwormholes.
Ayearlater,EinsteinpublishedapaperintroducinganewnotionintohisGeneralTheoryofRelativity,
asortofantigravityforcewhichhecalledthecosmologicalconstantthatkepttheuniversefrom
collapsinginonitself,inanattempttomodelthebehaviouroftheentireuniverse,whileretaininghis
firmbeliefinaNewtonianinfinite,staticmodeloftheuniverse.Helatercalledthisideahisgreatest
blunderalthough,inthelightofrecentdiscoveriesabouttheacceleratinguniverseanddarkenergy,it
isbeginningtolookremarkablyprescient.
HedivorcedMilevaMaricin1919,havinglivedapartforthelastfiveyears,andwithinmonthsofthe
divorce,marriedhiscousinElsaLwenthal(whohadnursedhimthroughanillness)andtogetherthey
raisedMargotandIlse,Elsa'sdaughtersfromherfirstmarriage.
DespitetheattemptsbymanyscientiststodisprovetheGeneralTheoryofRelativity,theBritish
astronomerArthurEddingtonclaimedin1919tohaveconfirmedEinstein'spredictionofthe
gravitationaldeflectionofstarlightbytheSun,leading,almostovernight,toglobalrenownand
internationalmediaattentionforEinstein.Hisfellowscientistsbegantospeakofgeneralrelativityin
termssuchas"probablythegreatestscientificdiscoveryevermade"and"thegreatestfeatofhuman
thinkingaboutnature".Hewasawardedthe1921NobelPrizeinPhysics,forhisservicesto
theoreticalphysics,andespeciallyforhisdiscoveryofthelawofthephotoelectriceffect(i.e.notfor
histheoryofrelativity).
Einsteinspentthenextfewyearstravellingextensively,givinglecturesaroundtheworld.Throughout
the1920s,heengagedinanextendedpublicdebatewithNielsBohrandWernerHeisenbergoverthe
inherentlyprobabilisticCopenhageninterpretationofquantummechanics,withwhichhewasnever
quitehappyfromaphilosophicalstandpoint,claimingin1926thatI,atanyrate,amconvincedthat
He[God]doesnotthrowdice".HetriedtodevelopthoughtexperimentswherebyHeisenberg's
uncertaintyprinciplemightbeviolatedbut,eachtime,BohrfoundloopholesinEinstein'sreasoning.
DuringtheFirstWorldWar,Einsteinhadcampaignedvigorouslyagainstthewar,supportingvarious
antiWarandpacifistorganizations.HeremainedastaunchpacifistevenaftertheendoftheWar,and
washighlycriticalofnationalismandcommittedtotheideaofasingleworldgovernmentfreeofa
military.Throughoutthe1920s,hecontinuedtoparticipateinnumerouspeacecampaignsandwrote
articlesoninternationalpeaceanddisarmament.HewasalsowasdrawntotheZionistcauseduring
the1920s,despiteitsnationalisticcharacter.
Hisphysicsresearchaftergeneralrelativityconsistedprimarilyofalongseriesof(largely
unsuccessful)attemptstogeneralizehistheoryofgravitationstillfurtherinordertounifyandsimplify
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thefundamentallawsofphysics,particularlygravitationandelectromagnetism.Hewasdesparateto
comeupwithaunifiedfieldtheory,a"theoryofeverything"thatwouldrefutetheclaimsofquantum
theory,whichhenevercametotermswith.Hewentsofarastopublishapaperin1929,which
purportedtobejustsuchatheory,andwhichattractedhugemediaattention,buthewasforcedto
admittoerrorsandbacktrackedrapidly,losingcredibilityandacceptingpublichumiliationinthe
process.
Hebecameincreasinglyisolatedinhisresearch,pursuinghisownlonelytrackwhilelargelyignoring
otherdevelopmentsinphysicsandparticularlyinquantumtheory.Hedidpursueafewcollaborations,
mostnotablywiththeIndianphysicistSatyendraNathBose,theAustrianErwinSchrdingerandhis
HungarianformerstudentLeSzilrd,andlaterinthe1930swiththeRussianphysicistBoris
PodolskyandtheIsraeliphysicistNathanRosen.Buthishisdistrustofquantumtheoryandhis
inconclusivesearchfortheelusive"theoryofeverything"wastoconsumehimuntilthedayhedied.
Intheearly1930s,EinsteintooktospendinghiswintersattheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnologyin
Pasadena,California,andwasalsoaguestlectureratthenewlyfoundedInstituteforAdvanced
StudyinPrinceton,NewJersey.When,in1933,AdolfHitlerwasappointedChancellorofGermany
andpromptlypassedthe"LawoftheRestorationoftheCivilService"removingJewsandpolitically
suspectgovernmentemployees(includinguniversityprofessors)fromtheirjobs,theEinsteins
prudentlymovedtotheU.S.A.,buyingahouseinPrinceton.TheNazisfrozehisGermanbank
accountandseizedhishome,andEinsteinremainedintheUnitedStatesfortherestofhislife,
becomingacitizenin1940(althoughhealsoretainedhisSwisscitizenship).Overtime,hebecame
sowellknowninhisadoptedAmericathathewouldbestoppedonthestreetbypeoplewantinghim
toexplain"thattheory".
HiswifeElsadiedin1936,andhispersonalsecretary,HelenDukas,caredforhimthereafter,ashis
healthbecameincreasinglyprecarious.Duringthe1930sandintoWorldWarII,Einsteinwroteahuge
numberofaffidavitsrecommendingU.S.visasforEuropeanJewswhoweretryingtofleepersecution.
TheDeutschePhysikmovementinNaziGermanypublishedpamphletsandeventextbooks
denigratingEinstein,andblacklistinganyinstructorswhotaughthistheories(includingNobel
laureatesMaxPlanckandWernerHeisenberg).
WiththeNazirisetopowerinGermany,Einsteindecidedtorethinkhisrigidpacifiststance.Many
scientistsintheU.S.A.,especiallyrefugeesfromEuropeanantiSemitism,recognizedthedangerof
GermanscientistsdevelopinganatomicbombduringWorldWarII,basedonthenewlydiscovered
phenomenonofnuclearfission,towhichEinsteinsowntheoreticalworkhadcontributedtosome
extent.In1939,EinsteinsignedalettertoU.S.PresidentFranklinDelanoRoosevelt,pennedbythe
HungarianmigrandphysicistLeSzilrd,urgingAmericandevelopmentofsuchaweapon,and
thisletterisconsideredinstrumentalinRooseveltssubsequentauthorizationofsecretresearchinto
theharnessingofnuclearfissionformilitarypurposes(whichdevelopedintotheManhattanProject
andultimatelyresultedinthenuclearweaponsusedontheJapanesecitiesofHiroshimaand
Nagasaki).
AlthoughEinsteinhimselfdidnotplayadirectroleinthedevelopmentoftheatomicbomb,helater
expressedregretaboutsigningthelettertoRoosevelt,andurgedthatallnuclearweaponsbe
transferredintothecontroloftheUnitedNations.InthelaterColdWaryears,Einsteinlobbied,along
withAlbertSchweitzerandBertrandRussell,tostopallnucleartestingandfuturebombs.
Inpolitics,hewasasocialistZionistwhosupportedthecreationofaJewishnationalhomelandinthe
BritishmandateofPalestine,andheraisedmoneyforZionistorganizationsandwasinpart
responsibleforthe1933formationoftheInternationalRescueCommittee.In1952,hewaseven
invitedtobeIsrael'ssecondpresident,buthedeclined,claimingthathehadneitherthenaturalability
northeexperiencetodealwithhumanbeings.Ina1949articleentitled"WhySocialism?",Einstein
describedachaoticcapitalistsocietyasthe"predatoryphaseofhumandevelopmentandasa
sourceofeviltobeovercome.Hewasamemberofseveralcivilrightsgroups,andwassympathetic
tothenotionofvegetarianism,adoptingastrictvegetariandietlaterinlife.
AlthoughmanyreligiousgroupshaveclaimedthatEinsteinworshippedaJudeoChristianGod,he
himselfwasquiteclearonthematter,repeatedlyprofessinghimselftobeahumanistandanagnostic
(althoughnotanatheist),withnobeliefinapersonalGod,whichhecalledachildlikefaith.The
familypractisednoformalreligionintheirhomeandEinsteindidnotwanthischildrentoreceiveany
formofreligiousinstruction.Hedid,however,admittoprofessingabeliefinSpinoza'sGod,who
revealsHimselfinthelawfulharmonyoftheworld,notinaGodwhoconcernsHimselfwiththefate
andthedoingsofmankind,andheoftenexpressedacontinuingaweattheharmonyandorderof
natureandtheuniverse.
Einsteinbegantosufferfromillhealthin1950,andeventuallydiedofanaorticaneurysmon18April
1955inPrincetonHospitalinNewJerseyattheageof76,havingcontinuedtowork,bothonphysics
andonhiscivilrightsandpoliticalconcerns,untilthedayhedied,hissearchfora"theoryof
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everything"stillunrealized.

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