Mars PDF

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MarsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Mars
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
MarsisthefourthplanetfromtheSunandthesecond
smallestplanetintheSolarSystem,afterMercury.
NamedaftertheRomangodofwar,itisoftenreferredto
asthe"RedPlanet"[13][14]becausetheironoxide
prevalentonitssurfacegivesitareddishappearance.[15]
Marsisaterrestrialplanetwithathinatmosphere,having
surfacefeaturesreminiscentbothoftheimpactcratersof
theMoonandthevalleys,deserts,andpolaricecapsof
Earth.
TherotationalperiodandseasonalcyclesofMarsare
likewisesimilartothoseofEarth,asisthetiltthat
producestheseasons.MarsisthesiteofOlympusMons,
thelargestvolcanoandsecondhighestknownmountain
intheSolarSystem,andofVallesMarineris,oneofthe
largestcanyonsintheSolarSystem.ThesmoothBorealis
basininthenorthernhemispherecovers40%ofthe
planetandmaybeagiantimpactfeature.[16][17]Marshas
twomoons,PhobosandDeimos,whicharesmalland
irregularlyshaped.Thesemaybecaptured
asteroids,[18][19]similarto5261Eureka,aMarstrojan.
UntilthefirstsuccessfulMarsflybyin1965byMariner
4,manyspeculatedaboutthepresenceofliquidwateron
theplanet'ssurface.Thiswasbasedonobservedperiodic
variationsinlightanddarkpatches,particularlyinthe
polarlatitudes,whichappearedtobeseasandcontinents
long,darkstriationswereinterpretedbysomeas
irrigationchannelsforliquidwater.Thesestraightline
featureswerelaterexplainedasopticalillusions,though
geologicalevidencegatheredbyuncrewedmissions
suggeststhatMarsoncehadlargescalewatercoverage
onitssurfaceatsomeearlierstageofitsexistence.[20]In
2005,radardatarevealedthepresenceoflargequantities
ofwatericeatthepoles[21]andatmidlatitudes.[22][23]
TheMarsroverSpiritsampledchemicalcompounds
containingwatermoleculesinMarch2007.ThePhoenix
landerdirectlysampledwatericeinshallowMartiansoil
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars
Mars
Marsimagedbythe
HubbleSpaceTelescopein2003
Designations
Pronunciation
UKEnglish:/mz/
USEnglish:
Adjectives
/mrz/
Martian
Orbitalcharacteristics[2]
EpochJ2000
Aphelion
1.6660AU
249.2Gm
Perihelion
1.3814AU
206.7Gm
Semimajoraxis
1.523679AU
227.9392Gm
Eccentricity
0.0934
Orbitalperiod
1.8808Julianyears
686.971d
668.5991sols
Synodicperiod
779.96days
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onJuly31,2008.[24]OnSeptember28,2015,NASA
announcedthepresenceofbrinyflowingsaltwateron
theMartiansurface.[25]
2.135Julianyears
Averageorbitalspeed 24.077km/s
Meananomaly
19.373
Marsishosttosevenfunctioningspacecraft:fiveinorbit
2001MarsOdyssey,MarsExpress,Mars
ReconnaissanceOrbiter,MAVENandMarsOrbiter
MissionandtwoonthesurfaceMarsExploration
RoverOpportunityandtheMarsScienceLaboratory
Curiosity.ObservationsbytheMarsReconnaissance
Orbiterhaverevealedpossibleflowingwaterduringthe
warmestmonthsonMars.[26]In2013,NASA'sCuriosity
roverdiscoveredthatMars'ssoilcontainsbetween1.5%
and3%waterbymass(albeitattachedtoother
compoundsandthusnotfreelyaccessible).[27]
Inclination
1.850toecliptic
5.65toSun'sequator
Thereareongoinginvestigationsassessingthepast
habitabilitypotentialofMars,aswellasthepossibilityof
extantlife.Insituinvestigationshavebeenperformedby
theVikinglanders,SpiritandOpportunityrovers,
Phoenixlander,andCuriosityrover.Futureastrobiology
missionsareplanned,includingtheMars2020and
ExoMarsrovers.[28][29][30][31]
Equatorialradius
MarscaneasilybeseenfromEarthwiththenakedeye,
ascanitsreddishcoloring.Itsapparentmagnitude
reaches2.91,[7]whichissurpassedonlybyJupiter,
Venus,theMoon,andtheSun.Opticalgroundbased
telescopesaretypicallylimitedtoresolvingfeatures
about300kilometers(190mi)acrosswhenEarthand
MarsareclosestbecauseofEarth'satmosphere.[32]
Flattening
1.67toinvariableplane[1]
Longitudeof
ascendingnode
49.558
Argumentof
perihelion
286.502
Satellites
2
Physicalcharacteristics
Meanradius
3,389.5 0.2km[a][3]
3,396.2 0.1km[a][3]
0.533Earths
Polarradius
3,376.2 0.1km[a][3]
0.531Earths
Surfacearea
0.00589 0.00015
144,798,500km2
0.284Earths
Volume
1.6318 1011km3[4]
0.151Earths
Contents
1 Physicalcharacteristics
1.1 Internalstructure
1.2 Surfacegeology
1.3 Soil
1.4 Hydrology
1.4.1 Polarcaps
1.5 Geographyandnamingofsurface
features
1.5.1 Mapofquadrangles
1.5.2 Impacttopography
1.5.3 Volcanoes
1.5.4 Tectonicsites
1.5.5 Holes
Mass
6.4171 1023kg[5]
0.107Earths
Meandensity
Surfacegravity
3.9335 0.0004g/cm[4]
3.711m/s[4]
0.376g
Momentofinertia
factor
0.3662 0.0017[6]
Escapevelocity
5.027km/s
Siderealrotation
period
1.025957d
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1.5.5 Holes
1.6 Atmosphere
1.6.1 Aurora
1.7 Climate
2 Orbitandrotation
3 Searchforlife
4 Habitability
5 Exploration
5.1 Future
6 AstronomyonMars
7 Viewing
7.1 Closestapproaches
7.1.1 Relative
7.1.2 Absolute,aroundthepresent
time
8 Historicalobservations
8.1 Ancientandmedievalobservations
8.2 Martian"canals"
8.3 Spacecraftvisitation
9 Inculture
9.1 Intelligent"Martians"
10 Moons
11 Farfuture
12 Seealso
13 Notes
14 References
15 Externallinks
Physicalcharacteristics
24h37m22s[4]
Equatorial
rotationvelocity
868.22km/h(241.17m/s)
Axialtilt
25.19toitsorbital
plane[7]
Northpole
rightascension
21h10m44s
317.68143
Northpoledeclination 52.88650
Albedo
0.170(geometric)[8]
0.25(Bond)[7]
Surfacetemp. min
Kelvin
130K
Celsius
mean
210K[7]
143C[10] 63C
Apparentmagnitude
+1.6to3.0[9]
Angulardiameter
3.525.1[7]
max
308K
35C[11]
Atmosphere[7][12]
Surfacepressure
Compositionby
volume
0.636(0.40.87)kPa
0.00628atm
95.97%carbon
dioxide
1.93%argon
1.89%nitrogen
0.146%oxygen
0.0557%carbon
monoxide
MarsisapproximatelyhalfthediameterofEarth,andits
surfaceareaisonlyslightlylessthanthetotalareaof
Earth'sdryland.[7]MarsislessdensethanEarth,having
about15%ofEarth'svolumeand11%ofEarth'smass,
resultinginabout38%ofEarth'ssurfacegravity.The
redorangeappearanceoftheMartiansurfaceiscausedbyiron(III)oxide,orrust.[33]Itcanalsolooklike
butterscotch,[34]andothercommonsurfacecolorsincludegolden,brown,tan,andgreenish,dependingon
themineralspresent.[34]
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Comparison:EarthandMars. Animation(00:40)showingmajor Video(01:28)showinghowthree

featuresofMars.
NASAorbitersmappedthe
gravityfieldofMars.
Internalstructure
LikeEarth,Marshasdifferentiatedintoadensemetalliccoreoverlaidbylessdensematerials.[35]Current
modelsofitsinteriorimplyacoreregionabout1,79465kilometers(1,11540mi)inradius,consisting
primarilyofironandnickelwithabout1617%sulfur.[36]Thisiron(II)sulfidecoreisthoughttobetwice
asrichinlighterelementsthanEarth'score.[37]Thecoreissurroundedbyasilicatemantlethatformed
manyofthetectonicandvolcanicfeaturesontheplanet,butitnowappearstobedormant.Besidessilicon
andoxygen,themostabundantelementsintheMartiancrustareiron,magnesium,aluminum,calcium,and
potassium.Theaveragethicknessoftheplanet'scrustisabout50km(31mi),withamaximumthicknessof
125km(78mi).[37]Earth'scrust,averaging40km(25mi),isonlyonethirdasthickasMars',relativetothe
sizesofthetwoplanets.
Surfacegeology
Marsisaterrestrialplanetthatconsistsofmineralscontainingsiliconandoxygen,metals,andother
elementsthattypicallymakeuprock.ThesurfaceofMarsisprimarilycomposedoftholeiiticbasalt,[38]
althoughpartsaremoresilicarichthantypicalbasaltandmaybesimilartoandesiticrocksonEarthor
silicaglass.Regionsoflowalbedoshowconcentrationsofplagioclasefeldspar,withnorthernlowalbedo
regionsdisplayinghigherthannormalconcentrationsofsheetsilicatesandhighsiliconglass.Partsofthe
southernhighlandsincludedetectableamountsofhighcalciumpyroxenes.Localizedconcentrationsof
hematiteandolivinehavealsobeenfound.[39]Muchofthesurfaceisdeeplycoveredbyfinelygrained
iron(III)oxidedust.[40][41]
AlthoughMarshasnoevidenceofacurrentstructuredglobalmagneticfield,[43]observationsshowthat
partsoftheplanet'scrusthavebeenmagnetized,andthatalternatingpolarityreversalsofitsdipolefield
haveoccurredinthepast.Thispaleomagnetismofmagneticallysusceptiblemineralshaspropertiesthatare
similartothealternatingbandsfoundontheoceanfloorsofEarth.Onetheory,publishedin1999andre
examinedinOctober2005(withthehelpoftheMarsGlobalSurveyor),isthatthesebandsdemonstrate
platetectonicsonMarsfourbillionyearsago,beforetheplanetarydynamoceasedtofunctionandthe
planet'smagneticfieldfadedaway.[44]
DuringtheSolarSystem'sformation,Marswascreatedastheresultofastochasticprocessofrunaway
accretionoutoftheprotoplanetarydiskthatorbitedtheSun.Marshasmanydistinctivechemicalfeatures
causedbyitspositionintheSolarSystem.Elementswithcomparativelylowboilingpoints,suchas
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chlorine,phosphorus,andsulphur,aremuchmorecommononMars
thanEarththeseelementswereprobablyremovedfromareascloser
totheSunbytheyoungstar'senergeticsolarwind.[45]
GeologicmapofMars(USGS,
2014)[42]
Aftertheformationoftheplanets,allweresubjectedtothesocalled
"LateHeavyBombardment".About60%ofthesurfaceofMars
showsarecordofimpactsfromthatera,[46][47][48]whereasmuchof
theremainingsurfaceisprobablyunderlainbyimmenseimpact
basinscausedbythoseevents.Thereisevidenceofanenormous
impactbasininthenorthernhemisphereofMars,spanning10,600
by8,500km(6,600by5,300mi),orroughlyfourtimeslargerthan
theMoon'sSouthPoleAitkenbasin,thelargestimpactbasinyet
discovered.[16][17]ThistheorysuggeststhatMarswasstruckbya
Plutosizedbodyaboutfourbillionyearsago.Theevent,thoughtto
bethecauseoftheMartianhemisphericdichotomy,createdthe
smoothBorealisbasinthatcovers40%oftheplanet.[49][50]
ThegeologicalhistoryofMarscanbesplitintomanyperiods,but
thefollowingarethethreeprimaryperiods:[52][53]
Noachianperiod(namedafterNoachisTerra):Formationof
theoldestextantsurfacesofMars,4.5billionyearsagoto3.5
billionyearsago.Noachianagesurfacesarescarredbymany
largeimpactcraters.TheTharsisbulge,avolcanicupland,is
thoughttohaveformedduringthisperiod,withextensive
floodingbyliquidwaterlateintheperiod.
Artist'simpressionofhowMarsmay
Hesperianperiod(namedafterHesperiaPlanum):3.5billion
havelookedfourbillionyearsago[51]
yearsagoto2.93.3billionyearsago.TheHesperianperiod
ismarkedbytheformationofextensivelavaplains.
Amazonianperiod(namedafterAmazonisPlanitia):2.93.3billionyearsagotopresent.
Amazonianregionshavefewmeteoriteimpactcraters,butareotherwisequitevaried.OlympusMons
formedduringthisperiod,alongwithlavaflowselsewhereonMars.
SomegeologicalactivityisstilltakingplaceonMars.TheAthabascaVallesishometosheetlikelava
flowsuptoabout200Mya.WaterflowsinthegrabenscalledtheCerberusFossaeoccurredlessthan20
Mya,indicatingequallyrecentvolcanicintrusions.[54]OnFebruary19,2008,imagesfromtheMars
ReconnaissanceOrbitershowedevidenceofanavalanchefroma700mhighcliff.[55]
Soil
ThePhoenixlanderreturneddatashowingMartiansoiltobeslightlyalkalineandcontainingelementssuch
asmagnesium,sodium,potassiumandchlorine.ThesenutrientsarefoundingardensonEarth,andtheyare
necessaryforgrowthofplants.[56]ExperimentsperformedbythelandershowedthattheMartiansoilhasa
basicpHof7.7,andcontains0.6%ofthesaltperchlorate.[57][58][59][60]
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StreaksarecommonacrossMarsandnewonesappearfrequentlyon
steepslopesofcraters,troughs,andvalleys.Thestreaksaredarkat
firstandgetlighterwithage.Sometimes,thestreaksstartinatiny
areawhichthenspreadoutforhundredsofmetres.Theyhavealso
beenseentofollowtheedgesofbouldersandotherobstaclesin
theirpath.Thecommonlyacceptedtheoriesincludethattheyare
darkunderlyinglayersofsoilrevealedafteravalanchesofbright
dustordustdevils.[61]Severalexplanationshavebeenputforward,
someofwhichinvolvewateroreventhegrowthof
organisms.[62][63]
Hydrology
Exposureofsilicarichdust
uncoveredbytheSpiritrover
LiquidwatercannotexistonthesurfaceofMarsduetolow
atmosphericpressure,whichisabout100timesthinnerthan
Earth's,[64]exceptatthelowestelevationsforshortperiods.[65][66]Thetwopolaricecapsappeartobemade
largelyofwater.[67][68]Thevolumeofwatericeinthesouthpolaricecap,ifmelted,wouldbesufficientto
covertheentireplanetarysurfacetoadepthof11meters(36ft).[69]Apermafrostmantlestretchesfromthe
poletolatitudesofabout60.[67]
Largequantitiesofwatericearethoughttobetrappedwithinthe
thickcryosphereofMars.RadardatafromMarsExpressandthe
MarsReconnaissanceOrbitershowlargequantitiesofwaterice
bothatthepoles(July2005)[21][70]andatmiddlelatitudes
(November2008).[22]ThePhoenixlanderdirectlysampledwaterice
inshallowMartiansoilonJuly31,2008.[24]
LandformsvisibleonMarsstronglysuggestthatliquidwaterhas
existedontheplanet'ssurface.Hugelinearswathesofscoured
ground,knownasoutflowchannels,cutacrossthesurfaceinaround
25places.Thesearethoughttorecorderosionwhichoccurred
duringthecatastrophicreleaseofwaterfromsubsurfaceaquifers,
PhotomicrographbyOpportunity
thoughsomeofthesestructureshavealsobeenhypothesizedto
showingagrayhematiteconcretion,
resultfromtheactionofglaciersorlava.[71][72]Oneofthelarger
nicknamed"blueberries",indicative
examples,Ma'adimVallisis700km(430mi)longandmuchbigger
ofthepastpresenceofliquidwater
thantheGrandCanyonwithawidthof20km(12mi)andadepth
of2km(1.2mi)insomeplaces.Itisthoughttohavebeencarvedby
[73]
flowingwaterearlyinMars'shistory. Theyoungestofthesechannelsarethoughttohaveformedas
recentlyasonlyafewmillionyearsago.[74]Elsewhere,particularlyontheoldestareasoftheMartian
surface,finerscale,dendriticnetworksofvalleysarespreadacrosssignificantproportionsofthelandscape.
Featuresofthesevalleysandtheirdistributionstronglyimplythattheywerecarvedbyrunoffresulting
fromrainorsnowfallinearlyMarshistory.Subsurfacewaterflowandgroundwatersappingmayplay
importantsubsidiaryrolesinsomenetworks,butprecipitationwasprobablytherootcauseoftheincisionin
almostallcases.[75]
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Alongcraterandcanyonwalls,therearealsothousandsoffeaturesthatappearsimilartoterrestrialgullies.
ThegulliestendtobeinthehighlandsofthesouthernhemisphereandtofacetheEquatorallarepoleward
of30latitude.Anumberofauthorshavesuggestedthattheirformationprocessinvolvesliquidwater,
probablyfrommeltingice,[76][77]althoughothershavearguedforformationmechanismsinvolvingcarbon
dioxidefrostorthemovementofdrydust.[78][79]Nopartiallydegradedgullieshaveformedbyweathering
andnosuperimposedimpactcratershavebeenobserved,indicatingthattheseareyoungfeatures,possibly
evenactivetoday.[77]
Othergeologicalfeatures,suchasdeltasandalluvialfanspreservedincraters,arefurtherevidencefor
warmer,wetterconditionsatsomeintervalorintervalsinearlierMarshistory.[80]Suchconditions
necessarilyrequirethewidespreadpresenceofcraterlakesacrossalargeproportionofthesurface,for
whichthereisalsoindependentmineralogical,sedimentologicalandgeomorphologicalevidence.[81]
Furtherevidencethatliquidwateronceexistedonthesurfaceof
Marscomesfromthedetectionofspecificmineralssuchashematite
andgoethite,bothofwhichsometimesforminthepresenceof
water.[82]In2004,Opportunitydetectedthemineraljarosite.This
formsonlyinthepresenceofacidicwater,whichdemonstratesthat
wateronceexistedonMars.[83]Morerecentevidenceforliquid
watercomesfromthefindingofthemineralgypsumonthesurface
byNASA'sMarsroverOpportunityinDecember2011.[84][85]
Additionally,thestudyleaderFrancisMcCubbin,aplanetary
scientistattheUniversityofNewMexicoinAlbuquerquelookingat
hydroxalsincrystallinemineralsfromMars,statesthattheamount
ofwaterintheuppermantleofMarsisequaltoorgreaterthanthat
ofEarthat50300partspermillionofwater,whichisenoughto
covertheentireplanettoadepthof2001,000m(6603,280ft).[86]
Compositionof"YellowknifeBay"
rocks.Rockveinsarehigherin
calciumandsulfurthan"portage"soil
(Curiosity,APXS,2013).
OnMarch18,2013,NASAreportedevidencefrominstrumentsontheCuriosityroverofmineral
hydration,likelyhydratedcalciumsulfate,inseveralrocksamplesincludingthebrokenfragmentsof
"Tintina"rockand"SuttonInlier"rockaswellasinveinsandnodulesinotherrockslike"Knorr"rockand
"Wernicke"rock.[87][88][89]Analysisusingtherover'sDANinstrumentprovidedevidenceofsubsurface
water,amountingtoasmuchas4%watercontent,downtoadepthof60cm(24in),intherover'straverse
fromtheBradburyLandingsitetotheYellowknifeBayareaintheGlenelgterrain.[87]
OnSeptember28,2015,NASAannouncedthattheyhadfoundconclusiveevidenceofhydratedbrineflows
onrecurringslopelineae,basedonspectrometerreadingsofthedarkenedareasofslopes.[90][91][92]These
observationsprovidedconfirmationofearlierhypothesesbasedontimingofformationandrateofgrowth
thatthesedarkstreaksresultedfromwaterflowingintheveryshallowsubsurface.[93]Thestreakscontain
hydratedsalts,perchlorates,whichhavewatermoleculesintheircrystalstructure.[94]Thestreaksflow
downhillinMartiansummer,whenthetemperatureisabove23degreesCelsius,andfreezeatlower
temperatures.[95]
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Someresearchersthinkthatmuchofthelownorthernplainsoftheplanetwerecoveredwithanocean
hundredsofmetersdeep,thoughthisremainscontroversial.[96]InMarch2015,scientistsstatedthatsuch
oceanmighthavebeenthesizeofEarth'sArcticOcean.Thisfindingwasderivedfromtheratioofwater
anddeuteriuminthemodernMartianatmospherecomparedtotheratiofoundonEarth.Eighttimesas
muchdeuteriumwasfoundatMarsthanexistsonEarth,suggestingthatancientMarshadsignificantly
higherlevelsofwater.ResultsfromtheCuriosityroverhadpreviouslyfoundahighratioofdeuteriumin
GaleCrater,thoughnotsignificantlyhighenoughtosuggestthepresenceofanocean.Otherscientists
cautionthatthisnewstudyhasnotbeenconfirmed,andpointoutthatMartianclimatemodelshavenotyet
shownthattheplanetwaswarmenoughinthepasttosupportbodiesofliquidwater.[97]
Polarcaps
Marshastwopermanentpolaricecaps.Duringapole'swinter,itliesin
continuousdarkness,chillingthesurfaceandcausingthedepositionof25
30%oftheatmosphereintoslabsofCO2ice(dryice).[98]Whenthepolesare
againexposedtosunlight,thefrozenCO2sublimes,creatingenormouswinds
Northpolarearly
summericecap(1999)
Southpolarmidsummer
icecap(2000)
thatsweepoffthepolesasfastas400km/h(250mph).Theseseasonalactions
transportlargeamountsofdustandwatervapor,givingrisetoEarthlikefrost
andlargecirrusclouds.Cloudsofwatericewerephotographedbythe
Opportunityroverin2004.[99]
Thepolarcapsatbothpolesconsistprimarily(70%)ofwaterice.Frozen
carbondioxideaccumulatesasacomparativelythinlayeraboutonemetre
thickonthenorthcapinthenorthernwinteronly,whereasthesouthcaphasa
permanentdryicecoverabouteightmetresthick.Thispermanentdryice
coveratthesouthpoleispepperedbyflatfloored,shallow,roughlycircular
pits,whichrepeatimagingshowsareexpandingbymetersperyearthis
suggeststhatthepermanentCO2coveroverthesouthpolewatericeis
degradingovertime.[100]Thenorthernpolarcaphasadiameterofabout
1,000km(620mi)duringthenorthernMarssummer,[101]andcontainsabout
1.6millioncubickilometres(380,000cumi)ofice,which,ifspreadevenlyon
thecap,wouldbe2km(1.2mi)thick.[102](Thiscomparestoavolumeof2.85millioncubickilometres
(680,000cumi)fortheGreenlandicesheet.)Thesouthernpolarcaphasadiameterof350km(220mi)and
athicknessof3km(1.9mi).[103]Thetotalvolumeoficeinthesouthpolarcapplustheadjacentlayered
depositshasalsobeenestimatedat1.6millioncubickm.[104]Bothpolarcapsshowspiraltroughs,which
recentanalysisofSHARADicepenetratingradarhasshownarearesultofkatabaticwindsthatspiraldue
totheCoriolisEffect.[105][106]
Theseasonalfrostingofsomeareasnearthesouthernicecapresultsintheformationoftransparent1
metrethickslabsofdryiceabovetheground.Withthearrivalofspring,sunlightwarmsthesubsurfaceand
pressurefromsublimingCO2buildsupunderaslab,elevatingandultimatelyrupturingit.Thisleadsto
geyserlikeeruptionsofCO2gasmixedwithdarkbasalticsandordust.Thisprocessisrapid,observed
happeninginthespaceofafewdays,weeksormonths,arateofchangeratherunusualingeology
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especiallyforMars.Thegasrushingunderneathaslabtothesiteofageysercarvesaspiderweblike
patternofradialchannelsundertheice,theprocessbeingtheinvertedequivalentofanerosionnetwork
formedbywaterdrainingthroughasingleplughole.[107][108][109][110]
Geographyandnamingofsurfacefeatures
AlthoughbetterrememberedformappingtheMoon,Johann
HeinrichMdlerandWilhelmBeerwerethefirst"areographers".
TheybeganbyestablishingthatmostofMars'ssurfacefeatures
werepermanentandbymorepreciselydeterminingtheplanet's
rotationperiod.In1840,Mdlercombinedtenyearsofobservations
anddrewthefirstmapofMars.Ratherthangivingnamestothe
variousmarkings,BeerandMdlersimplydesignatedthemwith
lettersMeridianBay(SinusMeridiani)wasthusfeature"a".[111]
Today,featuresonMarsarenamedfromavarietyofsources.
Albedofeaturesarenamedforclassicalmythology.Craterslarger
than60kmarenamedfordeceasedscientistsandwritersandothers
whohavecontributedtothestudyofMars.Craterssmallerthan
60kmarenamedfortownsandvillagesoftheworldwith
populationsoflessthan100,000.Largevalleysarenamedforthe
word"Mars"or"star"invariouslanguagessmallvalleysarenamed
forrivers.[112]
AMOLAbasedtopographicmap
showinghighlands(redandorange)
dominatingthesouthernhemisphere
ofMars,lowlands(blue)the
northern.Volcanicplateausdelimit
thenorthernplainsinsomeregions,
whereasthehighlandsarepunctuated
byseverallargeimpactbasins.
Largealbedofeaturesretainmanyoftheoldernames,butareoftenupdatedtoreflectnewknowledgeofthe
natureofthefeatures.Forexample,NixOlympica(thesnowsofOlympus)hasbecomeOlympusMons
(MountOlympus).[113]ThesurfaceofMarsasseenfromEarthisdividedintotwokindsofareas,with
differingalbedo.Thepalerplainscoveredwithdustandsandrichinreddishironoxideswereoncethought
ofasMartian"continents"andgivennameslikeArabiaTerra(landofArabia)orAmazonisPlanitia
(Amazonianplain).Thedarkfeatureswerethoughttobeseas,hencetheirnamesMareErythraeum,Mare
SirenumandAuroraeSinus.ThelargestdarkfeatureseenfromEarthisSyrtisMajorPlanum.[114]The
permanentnorthernpolaricecapisnamedPlanumBoreum,whereasthesoutherncapiscalledPlanum
Australe.
Mars'sequatorisdefinedbyitsrotation,butthelocationofitsPrimeMeridianwasspecified,aswasEarth's
(atGreenwich),bychoiceofanarbitrarypointMdlerandBeerselectedalinein1830fortheirfirstmaps
ofMars.AfterthespacecraftMariner9providedextensiveimageryofMarsin1972,asmallcrater(later
calledAiry0),locatedintheSinusMeridiani("MiddleBay"or"MeridianBay"),waschosenforthe
definitionof0.0longitudetocoincidewiththeoriginalselection.[115]
BecauseMarshasnooceansandhenceno"sealevel",azeroelevationsurfacealsohadtobeselectedasa
referencelevelthisisalsocalledtheareoid[116]ofMars,analogoustotheterrestrialgeoid.Zeroaltitude
wasdefinedbytheheightatwhichthereis610.5Pa(6.105mbar)ofatmosphericpressure.[117]This
pressurecorrespondstothetriplepointofwater,anditisabout0.6%ofthesealevelsurfacepressureon
Earth(0.006atm).[118]Inpractice,todaythissurfaceisdefineddirectlyfromsatellitegravitymeasurements.
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Mapofquadrangles
Formappingpurposes,theUnitedStatesGeologicalSurveydividesthesurfaceofMarsintothirty
"quadrangles",eachnamedforaprominentphysiographicfeaturewithinthatquadrangle.[119][120]The
quadranglescanbeseenandexploredviatheinteractiveimagemapbelow.
MC01
MareBoreum
90N0W
0N180W
MC02
MC03
MC04
MC05
MC06
MC07
Diacria
Arcadia
MareAcidalium
IsmeniusLacus
Casius
Cebrenia
MC08
MC09
MC10
MC11
MC12
MC13
MC14
MC15
Amazonis
Tharsis
LunaePalus
OxiaPalus
Arabia
SyrtisMajor
Amenthes
Elysium
MC21
MC22
MC23
Iapygia
Tyrrhenum
Aeolis
MC16
MC17
MC18
Memnonia
Phoenicis
Coprates
0N0W
MC19
MC20
Margaritifer
Sabaeus
MC24
MC25
MC26
MC27
MC28
MC29
Phaethontis
Thaumasia
Argyre
Noachis
Hellas
Eridania
MC30
MareAustrale
ThethirtycartographicquadranglesofMars,definedbytheUnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey. [119][121]The
quadranglesarenumberedwiththeprefix"MC"for"MarsChart."[122]Clickonaquadranglenamelink
andyouwillbetakentothecorrespondingarticle.Northisatthetop0N180Wisatthefarleftonthe
equator.ThemapimagesweretakenbytheMarsGlobalSurveyor.
Impacttopography
ThedichotomyofMartiantopographyisstriking:northernplainsflattenedbylavaflowscontrastwiththe
southernhighlands,pittedandcrateredbyancientimpacts.Researchin2008haspresentedevidence
regardingatheoryproposedin1980postulatingthat,fourbillionyearsago,thenorthernhemisphereof
MarswasstruckbyanobjectonetenthtotwothirdsthesizeofEarth'sMoon.Ifvalidated,thiswouldmake
thenorthernhemisphereofMarsthesiteofanimpactcrater10,600by8,500km(6,600by5,300mi)in
size,orroughlytheareaofEurope,Asia,andAustraliacombined,surpassingtheSouthPoleAitkenbasin
asthelargestimpactcraterintheSolarSystem.[16][17]
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Marsisscarredbyanumber
ofimpactcraters:atotalof
43,000craterswitha
diameterof5km(3.1mi)or
FreshasteroidimpactonMarsat
greaterhavebeenfound.[124]
3.34N219.38Ebefore/March27
Thelargestconfirmedof
&after/March28,2012(MRO)[123]
theseistheHellasimpact
basin,alightalbedofeature
clearlyvisiblefromEarth.[125]DuetothesmallermassofMars,the
BonnevillecraterandSpiritrover's
probabilityofanobjectcollidingwiththeplanetisabouthalfthatof
lander
Earth.Marsislocatedclosertotheasteroidbelt,soithasan
increasedchanceofbeingstruckbymaterialsfromthatsource.
Marsisalsomorelikelytobestruckbyshortperiodcomets,i.e.,thosethatliewithintheorbitof
Jupiter.[126]Inspiteofthis,therearefarfewercratersonMarscomparedwiththeMoon,becausethe
atmosphereofMarsprovidesprotectionagainstsmallmeteors.Somecratershaveamorphologythat
suggeststhegroundbecamewetafterthemeteorimpacted.[127]
Volcanoes
TheshieldvolcanoOlympusMons(MountOlympus)isanextinct
volcanointhevastuplandregionTharsis,whichcontainsseveral
otherlargevolcanoes.OlympusMonsisroughlythreetimesthe
heightofMountEverest,whichincomparisonstandsatjustover
8.8km(5.5mi).[128]Itiseitherthetallestorsecondtallestmountain
intheSolarSystem,dependingonhowitismeasured,withvarious
sourcesgivingfiguresrangingfromabout21to27km(13to17mi)
high.[129][130]
Tectonicsites
Thelargecanyon,Valles
Viking1imageofOlympusMons.
Marineris(LatinforMariner
Thevolcanoandrelatedterrainare
Valleys,alsoknownas
approximately550km(340mi)
Agathadaemonintheold
across.
canalmaps),hasalengthof
4,000km(2,500mi)anda
VallesMarineris(2001Mars
depthofupto7km(4.3mi).ThelengthofVallesMarinerisis
Odyssey)
equivalenttothelengthofEuropeandextendsacrossonefifththe
circumferenceofMars.Bycomparison,theGrandCanyononEarth
isonly446km(277mi)longandnearly2km(1.2mi)deep.VallesMarineriswasformedduetothe
swellingoftheTharsisareawhichcausedthecrustintheareaofVallesMarineristocollapse.In2012,it
wasproposedthatVallesMarinerisisnotjustagraben,butalsoaplateboundarywhere150km(93mi)of
transversemotionhasoccurred,makingMarsaplanetwithpossiblyatwoplatetectonic
arrangement.[131][132]
Holes
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ImagesfromtheThermalEmissionImagingSystem(THEMIS)aboardNASA'sMarsOdysseyorbiterhave
revealedsevenpossiblecaveentrancesontheflanksofthevolcanoArsiaMons.[133]Thecaves,namedafter
lovedonesoftheirdiscoverers,arecollectivelyknownasthe"sevensisters".[134]Caveentrancesmeasure
from100to252m(328to827ft)wideandtheyareestimatedtobeatleast73to96m(240to315ft)deep.
Becauselightdoesnotreachthefloorofmostofthecaves,itispossiblethattheyextendmuchdeeperthan
theselowerestimatesandwidenbelowthesurface."Dena"istheonlyexceptionitsfloorisvisibleandwas
measuredtobe130m(430ft)deep.Theinteriorsofthesecavernsmaybeprotectedfrommicrometeoroids,
UVradiation,solarflaresandhighenergyparticlesthatbombardtheplanet'ssurface.[135]
Atmosphere
EscapingatmosphereonMars(carbon,oxygen,andhydrogen)byMAVENinUV[136]
Marslostitsmagnetosphere4billionyearsago,[137]possiblybecauseofnumerousasteroidstrikes,[138]so
thesolarwindinteractsdirectlywiththeMartianionosphere,loweringtheatmosphericdensitybystripping
awayatomsfromtheouterlayer.BothMarsGlobalSurveyorandMarsExpresshavedetectedionised
atmosphericparticlestrailingoffintospacebehindMars,[137][139]andthisatmosphericlossisbeingstudied
bytheMAVENorbiter.ComparedtoEarth,theatmosphereofMarsisquiterarefied.Atmosphericpressure
onthesurfacetodayrangesfromalowof30Pa(0.030kPa)onOlympusMonstoover1,155Pa
(1.155kPa)inHellasPlanitia,withameanpressureatthesurfacelevelof600Pa(0.60kPa).[140]The
highestatmosphericdensityonMarsisequaltothatfound35km(22mi)[141]aboveEarth'ssurface.The
resultingmeansurfacepressureisonly0.6%ofthatofEarth(101.3kPa).Thescaleheightofthe
atmosphereisabout10.8km(6.7mi),[142]whichishigherthanEarth's(6km(3.7mi))becausethesurface
gravityofMarsisonlyabout38%ofEarth's,aneffectoffsetbyboththelowertemperatureand50%higher
averagemolecularweightoftheatmosphereofMars.
TheatmosphereofMarsconsistsofabout96%carbondioxide,1.93%argonand1.89%nitrogenalongwith
tracesofoxygenandwater.[7][143]Theatmosphereisquitedusty,containingparticulatesabout1.5min
diameterwhichgivetheMartianskyatawnycolorwhenseenfromthesurface.[144]Itmayalsotakeona
pinkhueduetoironoxideparticlessuspendedinit.[14]
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MethanehasbeendetectedintheMartianatmospherewithamolefraction
ofabout30ppb[145][146]itoccursinextendedplumes,andtheprofiles
implythatthemethanewasreleasedfromdiscreteregions.Innorthern
midsummer,theprincipalplumecontained19,000metrictonsofmethane,
withanestimatedsourcestrengthof0.6kilogramspersecond.[147][148]The
profilessuggestthattheremaybetwolocalsourceregions,thefirst
centerednear30N260Wandthesecondnear0N310W.[147]Itis
estimatedthatMarsmustproduce270tonnesperyearofmethane.[147][149]
MethanecanexistintheMartianatmosphereforonlyalimitedperiod
beforeitisdestroyedestimatesofitslifetimerangefrom0.64
Thetenuousatmosphereof
Marsvisibleonthehorizon
years.[147][150]Itspresencedespitethisshortlifetimeindicatesthatanactive
sourceofthegasmustbepresent.Volcanicactivity,cometaryimpacts,and
thepresenceofmethanogenicmicrobiallifeformsareamongpossible
sources.Methanecouldalsobeproducedbyanonbiologicalprocesscalledserpentinization[b]involving
water,carbondioxide,andthemineralolivine,whichisknowntobecommononMars.[151]
TheCuriosityrover,whichlandedonMarsinAugust2012,isable
tomakemeasurementsthatdistinguishbetweendifferent
isotopologuesofmethane,[152]butevenifthemissionisto
determinethatmicroscopicMartianlifeisthesourceofthe
methane,thelifeformslikelyresidefarbelowthesurface,outside
oftherover'sreach.[153]ThefirstmeasurementswiththeTunable
LaserSpectrometer(TLS)indicatedthatthereislessthan5ppbof
methaneatthelandingsiteatthepointofthe
measurement.[154][155][156][157]OnSeptember19,2013,NASA
Potentialsourcesandsinksof
scientists,fromfurthermeasurementsbyCuriosity,reportedno
detectionofatmosphericmethanewithameasuredvalueof
methane(CH4)onMars
0.18 0.67ppbvcorrespondingtoanupperlimitofonly1.3ppbv
(95%confidencelimit)and,asaresult,concludethattheprobability
ofcurrentmethanogenicmicrobialactivityonMarsisreduced.[158][159][160]
TheMarsOrbiterMissionbyIndiaissearchingformethaneintheatmosphere,[161]whiletheExoMars
TraceGasOrbiter,plannedtolaunchin2016,wouldfurtherstudythemethaneaswellasitsdecomposition
products,suchasformaldehydeandmethanol.[162]
OnDecember16,2014,NASAreportedtheCuriosityroverdetecteda"tenfoldspike",likelylocalized,in
theamountofmethaneintheMartianatmosphere.Samplemeasurementstaken"adozentimesover20
months"showedincreasesinlate2013andearly2014,averaging"7partsofmethaneperbillioninthe
atmosphere."Beforeandafterthat,readingsaveragedaroundonetenththatlevel.[163][164]
AmmoniawasalsotentativelydetectedonMarsbytheMarsExpresssatellite,butwithitsrelativelyshort
lifetime,itisnotclearwhatproducedit.[165]AmmoniaisnotstableintheMartianatmosphereandbreaks
downafterafewhours.Onepossiblesourceisvolcanicactivity.[165]
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Aurora
In1994theEuropeanSpaceAgency'sMarsExpressfoundanultravioletglowcomingfrom"magnetic
umbrellas"inthesouthernhemisphere.Marsdoesnothaveaglobalmagneticfieldwhichguidescharged
particlesenteringtheatmosphere.Marshasmultipleumbrellashapedmagneticfieldsmainlyinthe
southernhemisphere,whichareremnantsofaglobalfieldthatdecayedbillionsofyearsago.
InlateDecember2014,NASA'sMAVENspacecraftdetectedevidenceofwidespreadaurorasinMars's
northernhemisphereanddescendedtoapproximately2030degreesNorthlatitudeofMars'sequator.The
particlescausingtheaurorapenetratedintotheMartianatmosphere,creatingaurorasbelow100kmabove
thesurface,Earth'saurorasrangefrom100kmto500kmabovethesurface.Magneticfieldsinthesolar
winddrapeoverMars,intotheatmosphere,andthechargedparticlesfollowthesolarwindmagneticfield
linesintotheatmosphere,causingaurorastooccuroutsidethemagneticumbrellas.[166]
OnMarch18,2015,NASAreportedthedetectionofanaurorathatisnotfullyunderstoodandan
unexplaineddustcloudintheatmosphereofMars.[167]
Climate
DuststormonMars
November18,2012
OfalltheplanetsintheSolarSystem,theseasonsofMarsarethemostEarth
like,duetothesimilartiltsofthetwoplanets'rotationalaxes.Thelengthsof
theMartianseasonsareabouttwicethoseofEarth'sbecauseMars'sgreater
distancefromtheSunleadstotheMartianyearbeingabouttwoEarthyears
long.Martiansurfacetemperaturesvaryfromlowsofabout143C(225F)
atthewinterpolarcaps[10]tohighsofupto35C(95F)inequatorial
summer.[11]Thewiderangeintemperaturesisduetothethinatmosphere
whichcannotstoremuchsolarheat,thelowatmosphericpressure,andthelow
thermalinertiaofMartiansoil.[168]Theplanetisalso1.52timesasfarfromthe
SunasEarth,resultinginjust43%oftheamountofsunlight.[169]
November25,2012
IfMarshadanEarthlikeorbit,itsseasonswouldbesimilartoEarth'sbecause
itsaxialtiltissimilartoEarth's.Thecomparativelylargeeccentricityofthe
Martianorbithasasignificanteffect.Marsisnearperihelionwhenitis
summerinthesouthernhemisphereandwinterinthenorth,andnearaphelion
whenitiswinterinthesouthernhemisphereandsummerinthenorth.Asaresult,theseasonsinthe
southernhemispherearemoreextremeandtheseasonsinthenorthernaremilderthanwouldotherwisebe
thecase.Thesummertemperaturesinthesouthcanbeupto30K(30C54F)warmerthanthe
equivalentsummertemperaturesinthenorth.[170]
OpportunityandCuriosity
roversarenoted.
MarsalsohasthelargestduststormsintheSolarSystem.Thesecanvaryfromastormoverasmallarea,to
giganticstormsthatcovertheentireplanet.TheytendtooccurwhenMarsisclosesttotheSun,andhave
beenshowntoincreasetheglobaltemperature.[171]
Orbitandrotation
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Mars'saveragedistancefromtheSunisroughly230millionkilometres
(143,000,000mi),anditsorbitalperiodis687(Earth)days.Thesolarday
(orsol)onMarsisonlyslightlylongerthananEarthday:24hours,39
minutes,and35.244seconds.AMartianyearisequalto1.8809Earthyears,
or1year,320days,and18.2hours.[7]
TheaxialtiltofMarsis25.19degreesrelativetoitsorbitalplane,whichis
similartotheaxialtiltofEarth.[7]Asaresult,MarshasseasonslikeEarth,
thoughonMars,theyarenearlytwiceaslongbecauseitsorbitalperiodis
thatmuchlonger.Currently,theorientationofthenorthpoleofMarsis
closetothestarDeneb.[12]MarspassedanaphelioninMarch2010[172]and
itsperihelioninMarch2011.[173]ThenextaphelioncameinFebruary
2012[173]andthenextperihelioncameinJanuary2013.[173]
Marsisabout230million
kilometres(143,000,000mi)
fromtheSunitsorbital
periodis687(Earth)days,
depictedinred.Earth'sorbit
isinblue.
Marshasarelativelypronouncedorbitaleccentricityofabout0.09ofthe
sevenotherplanetsintheSolarSystem,onlyMercuryhasalargerorbital
eccentricity.Itisknownthatinthepast,Marshashadamuchmorecircular
orbitthanitdoescurrently.Atonepoint,1.35millionEarthyearsago,Marshadaneccentricityofroughly
0.002,muchlessthanthatofEarthtoday.[174]Mars'scycleofeccentricityis96,000Earthyearscompared
toEarth'scycleof100,000years.[175]Marsalsohasamuchlongercycleofeccentricitywithaperiodof2.2
millionEarthyears,andthisovershadowsthe96,000yearcycleintheeccentricitygraphs.Forthelast
35,000years,theorbitofMarshasbeengettingslightlymoreeccentricbecauseofthegravitationaleffects
oftheotherplanets.TheclosestdistancebetweenEarthandMarswillcontinuetomildlydecreaseforthe
next25,000years.[176]
Searchforlife
Thecurrentunderstandingofplanetaryhabitabilitytheabilityofa
worldtodevelopenvironmentalconditionsfavorabletothe
emergenceoflifefavorsplanetsthathaveliquidwaterontheir
surface.Mostoftenthisrequirestheorbitofaplanettoliewithin
thehabitablezone,whichfortheSunextendsfromjustbeyond
VenustoaboutthesemimajoraxisofMars.[177]Duringperihelion,
Marsdipsinsidethisregion,buttheplanet'sthin(lowpressure)
Viking1Lander'ssamplingarm
atmospherepreventsliquidwaterfromexistingoverlargeregions
createddeeptrenches,scoopingup
forextendedperiods.Thepastflowofliquidwaterdemonstratesthe
materialfortests(ChrysePlanitia).
planet'spotentialforhabitability.Somerecentevidencehas
suggestedthatanywaterontheMartiansurfacemayhavebeentoo
saltyandacidictosupportregularterrestriallife.[178]
ThelackofamagnetosphereandtheextremelythinatmosphereofMarsareachallenge:theplanethas
littleheattransferacrossitssurface,poorinsulationagainstbombardmentofthesolarwindandinsufficient
atmosphericpressuretoretainwaterinaliquidform(waterinsteadsublimestoagaseousstate).Marsis
alsonearly,orperhapstotally,geologicallydeadtheendofvolcanicactivityhasapparentlystoppedthe
recyclingofchemicalsandmineralsbetweenthesurfaceandinterioroftheplanet.[179]
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Evidencesuggeststhattheplanetwasoncesignificantlymore
habitablethanitistoday,butwhetherlivingorganismseverexisted
thereremainsunknown.TheVikingprobesofthemid1970scarried
experimentsdesignedtodetectmicroorganismsinMartiansoilat
theirrespectivelandingsitesandhadpositiveresults,includinga
temporaryincreaseofCO2productiononexposuretowaterand
nutrients.Thissignoflifewaslaterdisputedbysomescientists,
resultinginacontinuingdebate,withNASAscientistGilbertLevin
Detectionofimpactglassdeposits
assertingthatVikingmayhavefoundlife.Areanalysisofthe
(greenspots)atAlgacrater,a
Vikingdata,inlightofmodernknowledgeofextremophileformsof
possiblesiteforpreservedancient
life,hassuggestedthattheVikingtestswerenotsophisticated
life[180]
enoughtodetecttheseformsoflife.Thetestscouldevenhavekilled
a(hypothetical)lifeform.[181]TestsconductedbythePhoenixMars
landerhaveshownthatthesoilhasaalkalinepHanditcontainsmagnesium,sodium,potassiumand
chloride.[182]Thesoilnutrientsmaybeabletosupportlife,butlifewouldstillhavetobeshieldedfromthe
intenseultravioletlight.[183]ArecentanalysisofmartianmeteoriteEETA79001found0.6ppmClO4,1.4
ppmClO3,and16ppmNO3,mostlikelyofmartianorigin.TheClO3suggestspresenceofotherhighly
oxidizingoxychlorinessuchasClO2orClO,producedbothbyUVoxidationofClandXrayradiolysisof
ClO4.Thusonlyhighlyrefractoryand/orwellprotected(subsurface)organicsorlifeformsarelikelyto
survive.[184]Inaddition,recentanalysisofthePhoenixWCLshowedthattheCa(ClO4)2inthePhoenixsoil
hasnotinteractedwithliquidwaterofanyform,perhapsforaslongas600Myr.Ifithad,thehighly
solubleCa(ClO4)2incontactwithliquidwaterwouldhaveformedonlyCaSO4.Thissuggestsaseverely
aridenvironment,withminimalornoliquidwaterinteraction.[185]
SomescientistshaveproposedthatcarbonateglobulesfoundinmeteoriteALH84001,whichisthoughtto
haveoriginatedfromMars,couldbefossilizedmicrobesextantonMarswhenthemeteoritewasblasted
fromtheMartiansurfacebyameteorstrikesome15millionyearsago.Thisproposalhasbeenmetwith
skepticism,andanexclusivelyinorganicoriginfortheshapeshasalsobeenproposed.[186]
SmallquantitiesofmethaneandformaldehydedetectedbyMarsorbitersarebothclaimedtobepossible
evidenceforlife,asthesechemicalcompoundswouldquicklybreakdownintheMartian
atmosphere.[187][188]Alternatively,thesecompoundsmayinsteadbereplenishedbyvolcanicorother
geologicalmeans,suchasserpentinization.[151]
Impactglass,formedbytheimpactofmeteors,whichonEarthcanpreservesignsoflife,hasbeenfoundon
thesurfaceoftheimpactcratersonMars.[189][190]Likewise,theglassinimpactcratersonMarscouldhave
preservedsomesignsoflifeiflifeexistedatthesite.[191][192][193]
Habitability
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TheGermanAerospaceCenterdiscoveredthatEarthlichenscansurviveinsimulatedMarsconditions,
makingthepresenceoflifemoreplausibleaccordingtoresearcherTilmanSpohn.[194]Thesimulationbased
temperatures,atmosphericpressure,minerals,andlightondatafromMarsprobes.[194]Aninstrumentcalled
REMSisdesignedtoprovidenewcluesaboutthesignatureoftheMartiangeneralcirculation,microscale
weathersystems,localhydrologicalcycle,destructivepotentialofUVradiation,andsubsurfacehabitability
basedongroundatmosphereinteraction.[195][196]ItlandedonMarsaspartofCuriosity(MSL)inAugust
2012.
Exploration
InadditiontoobservationfromEarth,someofthelatestMars
informationcomesfromsevenactiveprobesonorinorbitaround
Mars,includingfiveorbitersandtworovers.Thisincludes2001
MarsOdyssey,[197]MarsExpress,MarsReconnaissanceOrbiter,
MAVEN,MarsOrbiterMission,Opportunity,andCuriosity.
Dozensofcrewlessspacecraft,includingorbiters,landers,and
rovers,havebeensenttoMarsbytheSovietUnion,theUnited
States,Europe,andIndiatostudytheplanet'ssurface,climate,and
geology.ThepubliccanrequestimagesofMarsviatheHiWish
program.
PanoramaofGusevcrater,where
Spiritroverexaminedvolcanicbasalts
TheMarsScienceLaboratory,namedCuriosity,launchedonNovember26,2011,andreachedMarson
August6,2012UTC.ItislargerandmoreadvancedthantheMarsExplorationRovers,withamovement
rateupto90m(300ft)perhour.[198]Experimentsincludealaserchemicalsamplerthatcandeducethe
makeupofrocksatadistanceof7m(23ft).[199]OnFebruary10,2013,theCuriosityroverobtainedthe
firstdeeprocksamplesevertakenfromanotherplanetarybody,usingitsonboarddrill.[200]
OnSeptember24,2014,MarsOrbiterMission(MOM),launchedbytheIndianSpaceResearch
Organisation,reachedMarsorbit.ISROlaunchedMOMonNovember5,2013,withtheaimofanalyzing
theMartianatmosphereandtopography.TheMarsOrbiterMissionusedaHohmanntransferorbittoescape
Earth'sgravitationalinfluenceandcatapultintoaninemonthlongvoyagetoMars.Themissionisthefirst
successfulAsianinterplanetarymission.[201]
Future
PlannedforMarch2016isthelaunchoftheInSightlander,togetherwithtwoidenticalCubeSatsthatwill
flybyMarsandprovidelandingtelemetry.ThelanderandCubeSatsareplannedtoarriveatMarsin
September2016.[202]
TheEuropeanSpaceAgency,incollaborationwithRoscosmos,willdeploytheExoMarsTraceGasOrbiter
andSchiaparellilanderin2016,andtheExoMarsroverin2018.NASAplanstolaunchitsMars2020
astrobiologyroverin2020.
TheUnitedArabEmirates'MarsHopeorbiterisplannedforlaunchin2020,reachingMarsorbitin2021.
TheprobewillmakeaglobalstudyoftheMartianatmosphere.[203]
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SeveralplansforahumanmissiontoMarshavebeenproposedthroughoutthe20thcenturyandintothe
21stcentury,butnoactiveplanhasanarrivaldatesoonerthan2025.
AstronomyonMars
TrackingsunspotsfromMars
Withtheexistenceofvarious
orbiters,landers,androvers,itis
nowpossibletodoastronomyfrom
Mars.AlthoughMars'smoon
Phobosappearsaboutonethirdthe
angulardiameterofthefullmoonas
itappearsfromEarth,Deimos
appearsmoreorlessstarlikeand
appearsonlyslightlybrighterthan
VenusdoesfromEarth.[204]
PhobostransitstheSun
(OpportunityMarch10,
2004)
Therearevariousphenomena,wellknownonEarth,thathavebeen
observedonMars,suchasmeteorsandauroras.[205]AtransitofEarthas
seenfromMarswilloccuronNovember10,2084.[206]Therearealso
transitsofMercuryandtransitsofVenus,andthemoonsPhobosandDeimosareofsufficientlysmall
angulardiameterthattheirpartial"eclipses"oftheSunarebestconsideredtransits(seeTransitofDeimos
fromMars).[207][208]
OnOctober19,2014,CometSidingSpringpassedextremelyclosetoMars,soclosethatthecomamay
haveenvelopedMars.[209][210][211][212][213][214]
Viewing
BecausetheorbitofMarsiseccentric,itsapparentmagnitudeat
oppositionfromtheSuncanrangefrom3.0to1.4.Theminimum
brightnessismagnitude+1.6whentheplanetisinconjunctionwith
theSun.[9]Marsusuallyappearsdistinctlyyellow,orange,orred
theactualcolorofMarsisclosertobutterscotch,andtheredness
seenisjustdustintheplanet'satmosphere.NASA'sSpiritroverhas
takenpicturesofagreenishbrown,mudcoloredlandscapewith
bluegreyrocksandpatchesoflightredsand.[215]Whenfarthest
awayfromEarth,itismorethanseventimesasfarfromthelatteras
whenitisclosest.Whenleastfavorablypositioned,itcanbelostin
theSun'sglareformonthsatatime.Atitsmostfavorabletimesat
15or17yearintervals,andalwaysbetweenlateJulyandlate
Septemberalotofsurfacedetailcanbeseenwithatelescope.
Especiallynoticeable,evenatlowmagnification,arethepolarice
caps.[216]
Animationoftheapparentretrograde
motionofMarsin2003asseenfrom
Earth
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AsMarsapproachesopposition,itbeginsaperiodofretrogrademotion,whichmeansitwillappearto
movebackwardsinaloopingmotionwithrespecttothebackgroundstars.Thedurationofthisretrograde
motionlastsforabout72days,andMarsreachesitspeakluminosityinthemiddleofthismotion.[217]
Closestapproaches
Relative
ThepointatwhichMars'sgeocentriclongitudeis180differentfromtheSun'sisknownasopposition,
whichisnearthetimeofclosestapproachtoEarth.Thetimeofoppositioncanoccurasmuchas8.5days
awayfromtheclosestapproach.Thedistanceatcloseapproachvariesbetweenabout54[218]andabout
103millionkmduetotheplanets'ellipticalorbits,whichcausescomparablevariationinangularsize.[219]
ThelastMarsoppositionoccurredonApril8,2014atadistanceofabout93millionkm.[220]ThenextMars
oppositionoccursonMay22,2016atadistanceof76millionkm.[220]Theaveragetimebetweenthe
successiveoppositionsofMars,itssynodicperiod,is780daysbutthenumberofdaysbetweenthedatesof
successiveoppositionscanrangefrom764to812.[221]
AsMarsapproachesoppositionitbeginsaperiodofretrogrademotion,whichmakesitappeartomove
backwardsinaloopingmotionrelativetothebackgroundstars.Thedurationofthisretrogrademotionis
about72days.
Absolute,aroundthepresenttime
MarsmadeitsclosestapproachtoEarthandmaximumapparent
brightnessinnearly60,000years,55,758,006km(0.37271925AU
34,646,419mi),magnitude2.88,onAugust27,2003at9:51:13
UT.ThisoccurredwhenMarswasonedayfromoppositionand
aboutthreedaysfromitsperihelion,makingitparticularlyeasyto
seefromEarth.Thelasttimeitcamesocloseisestimatedtohave
beenonSeptember12,57617BC,thenexttimebeingin2287.[222]
Thisrecordapproachwasonlyslightlycloserthanotherrecentclose
approaches.Forinstance,theminimumdistanceonAugust22,1924
was0.37285AU,andtheminimumdistanceonAugust24,2208
willbe0.37279AU.[175]
Historicalobservations
Marsoppositionsfrom20032018,
viewedfromabovetheeclipticwith
Earthcentered
ThehistoryofobservationsofMarsismarkedbytheoppositionsof
Mars,whentheplanetisclosesttoEarthandhenceismosteasily
visible,whichoccureverycoupleofyears.Evenmorenotableare
theperihelicoppositionsofMars,whichoccurevery15or17yearsandaredistinguishedbecauseMarsis
closetoperihelion,makingitevenclosertoEarth.
Ancientandmedievalobservations
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TheexistenceofMarsasawanderingobjectinthenightskywasrecordedbytheancientEgyptian
astronomersandby1534BCEtheywerefamiliarwiththeretrogrademotionoftheplanet.[223]Bythe
periodoftheNeoBabylonianEmpire,theBabylonianastronomersweremakingregularrecordsofthe
positionsoftheplanetsandsystematicobservationsoftheirbehavior.ForMars,theyknewthattheplanet
made37synodicperiods,or42circuitsofthezodiac,every79years.Theyalsoinventedarithmetic
methodsformakingminorcorrectionstothepredictedpositionsoftheplanets.[224][225]
InthefourthcenturyBCE,AristotlenotedthatMarsdisappearedbehindtheMoonduringanoccultation,
indicatingtheplanetwasfartheraway.[226]Ptolemy,aGreeklivinginAlexandria,[227]attemptedtoaddress
theproblemoftheorbitalmotionofMars.Ptolemy'smodelandhiscollectiveworkonastronomywas
presentedinthemultivolumecollectionAlmagest,whichbecametheauthoritativetreatiseonWestern
astronomyforthenextfourteencenturies.[228]LiteraturefromancientChinaconfirmsthatMarswasknown
byChineseastronomersbynolaterthanthefourthcenturyBCE.[229]InthefifthcenturyCE,theIndian
astronomicaltextSuryaSiddhantaestimatedthediameterofMars.[230]IntheEastAsiancultures,Marsis
traditionallyreferredtoasthe"firestar"(),basedontheFiveelements.[231][232][233]
Duringtheseventeenthcentury,TychoBrahemeasuredthediurnalparallaxofMarsthatJohannesKepler
usedtomakeapreliminarycalculationoftherelativedistancetotheplanet.[234]Whenthetelescopebecame
available,thediurnalparallaxofMarswasagainmeasuredinanefforttodeterminetheSunEarthdistance.
ThiswasfirstperformedbyGiovanniDomenicoCassiniin1672.Theearlyparallaxmeasurementswere
hamperedbythequalityoftheinstruments.[235]TheonlyoccultationofMarsbyVenusobservedwasthat
ofOctober13,1590,seenbyMichaelMaestlinatHeidelberg.[236]In1610,MarswasviewedbyGalileo
Galilei,whowasfirsttoseeitviatelescope.[237]ThefirstpersontodrawamapofMarsthatdisplayedany
terrainfeatureswastheDutchastronomerChristiaanHuygens.[238]
Martian"canals"
Bythe19thcentury,theresolutionoftelescopesreachedalevelsufficientforsurfacefeaturestobe
identified.AperihelicoppositionofMarsoccurredonSeptember5,1877.Inthatyear,Italianastronomer
GiovanniSchiaparelliuseda22cm(8.7in)telescopeinMilantohelpproducethefirstdetailedmapof
Mars.Thesemapsnotablycontainedfeatureshecalledcanali,whichwerelatershowntobeanoptical
illusion.Thesecanaliweresupposedlylong,straightlinesonthesurfaceofMars,towhichhegavenames
offamousriversonEarth.Histerm,whichmeans"channels"or"grooves",waspopularlymistranslatedin
Englishas"canals".[239][240]
Influencedbytheobservations,theorientalistPercivalLowellfoundedanobservatorywhichhad30and
45cm(12and18in)telescopes.TheobservatorywasusedfortheexplorationofMarsduringthelastgood
opportunityin1894andthefollowinglessfavorableoppositions.HepublishedseveralbooksonMarsand
lifeontheplanet,whichhadagreatinfluenceonthepublic.[241][242]Thecanaliwerealsofoundbyother
astronomers,likeHenriJosephPerrotinandLouisTholloninNice,usingoneofthelargesttelescopesof
thattime.[243][244]
Theseasonalchanges(consistingofthediminishingofthepolarcapsandthedarkareasformedduring
Martiansummer)incombinationwiththecanalsleadtospeculationaboutlifeonMars,anditwasalong
heldbeliefthatMarscontainedvastseasandvegetation.Thetelescopeneverreachedtheresolution
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requiredtogiveprooftoanyspeculations.Asbiggertelescopeswere
used,fewerlong,straightcanaliwereobserved.Duringanobservation
in1909byFlammarionwithan84cm(33in)telescope,irregular
patternswereobserved,butnocanaliwereseen.[245]
Eveninthe1960sarticleswerepublishedonMartianbiology,putting
asideexplanationsotherthanlifefortheseasonalchangesonMars.
Detailedscenariosforthemetabolismandchemicalcyclesfora
functionalecosystemhavebeenpublished.[246]
MapofMarsbyGiovanni
Schiaparelli
Spacecraftvisitation
OncespacecraftvisitedtheplanetduringNASA'sMarinermissionsin
the1960sand70stheseconceptswereradicallybroken.Inaddition,
theresultsoftheVikinglifedetectionexperimentsaidedan
intermissioninwhichthehypothesisofahostile,deadplanetwas
generallyaccepted.[247]
Marssketchedasobservedby
Lowellsometimebefore1914
(Southtop)
Mariner9andVikingallowedbettermapsofMarstobemadeusing
thedatafromthesemissions,andanothermajorleapforwardwasthe
MarsGlobalSurveyormission,launchedin1996andoperateduntil
late2006,thatallowedcomplete,extremelydetailedmapsofthe
Martiantopography,magneticfieldandsurfacemineralstobe
MapofMarsfromHubbleSpace
obtained.[248]Thesemapsarenowavailableonlineforexample,at
Telescopeasseennearthe1999
GoogleMars.MarsReconnaissanceOrbiterandMarsExpress
opposition(Northtop)
continuedexploringwithnewinstruments,andsupportinglander
missions.NASAprovidestwoonlinetools:MarsTrek,whichprovides
visualizationsoftheplanetusingdatafrom50yearsofexploration,andExperienceCuriosity,which
simulatestravelingonMarsin3DwithCuriosity.[249]
Inculture
MarsisnamedaftertheRomangodofwar.Indifferentcultures,Marsrepresentsmasculinity
andyouth.Itssymbol,acirclewithanarrowpointingouttotheupperright,isalsousedasa
symbolforthemalegender.
ThemanyfailuresinMarsexplorationprobesresultedinasatiricalcountercultureblamingthefailureson
anEarthMars"BermudaTriangle",a"MarsCurse",ora"GreatGalacticGhoul"thatfeedsonMartian
spacecraft.[250]
Intelligent"Martians"
ThefashionableideathatMarswaspopulatedbyintelligentMartiansexplodedinthelate19thcentury.
Schiaparelli's"canali"observationscombinedwithPercivalLowell'sbooksonthesubjectputforwardthe
standardnotionofaplanetthatwasadrying,cooling,dyingworldwithancientcivilizationsconstructing
irrigationworks.[251]
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Manyotherobservationsandproclamationsbynotablepersonalitiesadded
towhathasbeentermed"MarsFever".[252]In1899whileinvestigating
atmosphericradionoiseusinghisreceiversinhisColoradoSpringslab,
inventorNikolaTeslaobservedrepetitivesignalsthathelatersurmised
mighthavebeenradiocommunicationscomingfromanotherplanet,
possiblyMars.Ina1901interviewTeslasaid:
An1893soapadplayingon
thepopularideathatMars
waspopulated
Itwassometimeafterwardwhenthethoughtflasheduponmy
mindthatthedisturbancesIhadobservedmightbeduetoan
intelligentcontrol.AlthoughIcouldnotdeciphertheir
meaning,itwasimpossibleformetothinkofthemashaving
beenentirelyaccidental.Thefeelingisconstantlygrowingon
methatIhadbeenthefirsttohearthegreetingofoneplanetto
another.[253]
Tesla'stheoriesgainedsupportfromLordKelvinwho,whilevisitingtheUnitedStatesin1902,was
reportedtohavesaidthathethoughtTeslahadpickedupMartiansignalsbeingsenttotheUnited
States.[254]Kelvin"emphatically"deniedthisreportshortlybeforedepartingAmerica:"WhatIreallysaid
wasthattheinhabitantsofMars,ifthereareany,weredoubtlessabletoseeNewYork,particularlythe
glareoftheelectricity."[255]
InaNewYorkTimesarticlein1901,EdwardCharlesPickering,directoroftheHarvardCollege
Observatory,saidthattheyhadreceivedatelegramfromLowellObservatoryinArizonathatseemedto
confirmthatMarswastryingtocommunicatewithEarth.[256]
EarlyinDecember1900,wereceivedfromLowellObservatoryinArizonaatelegramthata
shaftoflighthadbeenseentoprojectfromMars(theLowellobservatorymakesaspecialtyof
Mars)lastingseventyminutes.IwiredthesefactstoEuropeandsentoutneostylecopies
throughthiscountry.Theobserverthereisacareful,reliablemanandthereisnoreasonto
doubtthatthelightexisted.ItwasgivenasfromawellknowngeographicalpointonMars.
Thatwasall.Nowthestoryhasgonetheworldover.InEuropeitisstatedthatIhavebeenin
communicationwithMars,andallsortsofexaggerationshavespringup.Whateverthelight
was,wehavenomeansofknowing.Whetherithadintelligenceornot,noonecansay.Itis
absolutelyinexplicable.[256]
PickeringlaterproposedcreatingasetofmirrorsinTexas,intendedtosignalMartians.[257]
Inrecentdecades,thehighresolutionmappingofthesurfaceofMars,culminatinginMarsGlobal
Surveyor,revealednoartifactsofhabitationby"intelligent"life,butpseudoscientificspeculationabout
intelligentlifeonMarscontinuesfromcommentatorssuchasRichardC.Hoagland.Reminiscentofthe
canalicontroversy,somespeculationsarebasedonsmallscalefeaturesperceivedinthespacecraftimages,
suchas'pyramids'andthe'FaceonMars'.PlanetaryastronomerCarlSaganwrote:
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MarshasbecomeakindofmythicarenaontowhichwehaveprojectedourEarthlyhopesand
fears.[240]
ThedepictionofMarsinfictionhasbeenstimulatedbyitsdramaticred
colorandbynineteenthcenturyscientificspeculationsthatitssurface
conditionsmightsupportnotjustlifebutintelligentlife.[258]Thusoriginated
alargenumberofsciencefictionscenarios,amongwhichisH.G.Wells'
TheWaroftheWorlds,publishedin1898,inwhichMartiansseektoescape
theirdyingplanetbyinvadingEarth.AsubsequentUSradioadaptationof
TheWaroftheWorldsonOctober30,1938,byOrsonWelleswaspresented
asalivenewsbroadcastandbecamenotoriousforcausingapublicpanic
whenmanylistenersmistookitforthetruth.[259]
InfluentialworksincludedRayBradbury'sTheMartianChronicles,in
whichhumanexplorersaccidentallydestroyaMartiancivilization,Edgar
RiceBurroughs'Barsoomseries,C.S.Lewis'novelOutoftheSilentPlanet
(1938),[260]andanumberofRobertA.Heinleinstoriesbeforethemid
sixties.[261]
Martiantripodillustration
fromthe1906French
editionofTheWarofthe
WorldsbyH.G.Wells
JonathanSwiftmadereferencetothemoonsofMars,about150years
beforetheiractualdiscoverybyAsaphHall,detailingreasonablyaccuratedescriptionsoftheirorbits,inthe
19thchapterofhisnovelGulliver'sTravels.[262]
AcomicfigureofanintelligentMartian,MarvintheMartian,appearedontelevisionin1948asacharacter
intheLooneyTunesanimatedcartoonsofWarnerBrothers,andhascontinuedaspartofpopularcultureto
thepresent.[263]Inthe1950s,TVshowssuchasILoveLucymadelightofthepopularbeliefinlifeon
Marsforexample,whenLucyandEthelwerehiredtoportrayMartianslandingonthetopoftheEmpire
StateBuildingasapublicitystuntforanupcomingmovie.
AftertheMarinerandVikingspacecrafthadreturnedpicturesofMarsasitreallyis,anapparentlylifeless
andcanallessworld,theseideasaboutMarshadtobeabandoned,andavogueforaccurate,realist
depictionsofhumancoloniesonMarsdeveloped,thebestknownofwhichmaybeKimStanleyRobinson's
Marstrilogy.PseudoscientificspeculationsabouttheFaceonMarsandotherenigmaticlandmarksspotted
byspaceprobeshavemeantthatancientcivilizationscontinuetobeapopularthemeinsciencefiction,
especiallyinfilm.[264]
ThethemeofaMartiancolonythatfightsforindependencefromEarthisamajorplotelementinthenovels
ofGregBearaswellasthemovieTotalRecall(basedonashortstorybyPhilipK.Dick)andthetelevision
seriesBabylon5.Somevideogamesalsousethiselement,includingRedFactionandtheZoneofthe
Endersseries.Mars(anditsmoons)werealsothesettingforthepopularDoomvideogamefranchiseand
thelaterMartianGothic.
Moons
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Marshastworelativelysmallnaturalmoons,Phobos(about22km
(14mi)indiameter)andDeimos(about12km(7.5mi)indiameter),
whichorbitclosetotheplanet.Asteroidcaptureisalongfavoredtheory,
buttheiroriginremainsuncertain.[265]Bothsatelliteswerediscoveredin
1877byAsaphHalltheyarenamedafterthecharactersPhobos
(panic/fear)andDeimos(terror/dread),who,inGreekmythology,
accompaniedtheirfatherAres,godofwar,intobattle.Marswasthe
RomancounterpartofAres.[266][267]InmodernGreek,though,theplanet
retainsitsancientnameAres(Aris:).[268]
FromthesurfaceofMars,themotionsofPhobosandDeimosappear
differentfromthatoftheMoon.Phobosrisesinthewest,setsintheeast,
andrisesagaininjust11hours.Deimos,beingonlyjustoutside
synchronousorbitwheretheorbitalperiodwouldmatchtheplanet's
periodofrotationrisesasexpectedintheeastbutslowly.Despitethe30
hourorbitofDeimos,2.7dayselapsebetweenitsriseandsetforan
equatorialobserver,asitslowlyfallsbehindtherotationofMars.[269]
EnhancedcolorHiRISEimage
ofPhobos,showingaseriesof
mostlyparallelgroovesand
craterchains,withStickney
crateratright
BecausetheorbitofPhobosisbelow
synchronousaltitude,thetidalforcesfrom
theplanetMarsaregraduallyloweringits
orbit.Inabout50millionyears,itcould
eithercrashintoMars'ssurfaceorbreakup
intoaringstructurearoundtheplanet.[269]
EnhancedcolorHiRISEimage
Theoriginofthetwomoonsisnotwell
ofDeimos(nottoscale),
understood.Theirlowalbedoand
showingitssmoothblanketof
carbonaceouschondritecompositionhave
regolith
beenregardedassimilartoasteroids,
supportingthecapturetheory.TheunstableorbitofPhoboswouldseemto
pointtowardsarelativelyrecentcapture.Butbothhavecircularorbits,neartheequator,whichisunusual
forcapturedobjectsandtherequiredcapturedynamicsarecomplex.AccretionearlyinthehistoryofMars
isalsoplausible,butwouldnotaccountforacompositionresemblingasteroidsratherthanMarsitself,if
thatisconfirmed.
OrbitsofPhobosand
Deimos(toscale)
Athirdpossibilityistheinvolvementofathirdbodyorsomekindofimpactdisruption.[270]Morerecent
linesofevidenceforPhoboshavingahighlyporousinterior,[271]andsuggestingacompositioncontaining
mainlyphyllosilicatesandothermineralsknownfromMars,[272]pointtowardanoriginofPhobosfrom
materialejectedbyanimpactonMarsthatreaccretedinMartianorbit,[273]similartotheprevailingtheory
fortheoriginofEarth'smoon.AlthoughtheVNIRspectraofthemoonsofMarsresemblethoseofouter
beltasteroids,thethermalinfraredspectraofPhobosarereportedtobeinconsistentwithchondritesofany
class.[272]
Marsmayhaveadditionalmoonssmallerthan50to100metres(160to330ft)indiameter,andadustring
ispredictedbetweenPhobosandDeimos.[19]
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Farfuture
Althoughpredictionsofthefuturecanneverbeabsolutelycertain,[274]presentscientificunderstandingin
variousfieldshasallowedaprojectedcourseforthefurthestfutureeventstobesketchedout,ifonlyinthe
broadeststrokes.
25,000yearsfromnow.ThenorthernMartianpolaricecapcouldrecedeasMarsreachesawarming
peakofthenorthernhemisphereduringthe~50,000yearperihelionprecessionaspectofits
Milankovitchcycle.[275][276]
2070millionyearsfromnow.Mars'moonPhoboswillgetcloseenoughtothesurfacetobetorn
apartbytidalstresses.AfractionoftheresultingdebrisislikelytogiveMarsaplanetaryring,which
willlastsomewherebetweenoneandonehundredmillionyears.[277][278]
1.51.6billionyearsfromnow.TheSun'sincreasingluminositywillcauseitscircumstellarhabitable
zonetomoveoutwardsastheamountofcarbondioxideincreasesinMars'satmosphere,itssurface
temperaturewillrisetolevelsakintoEarthduringtheiceage.[279][280]
7.5billionyearsfromnow.EarthandMarsmaybecometidallylockedwiththeexpandingSun.[280]
7.9billionyearsfromnow.TheSunwillreachthetipoftheredgiantbranchoftheHertzsprung
Russelldiagram,reachingitsmaximumradiusof256timesthepresentdayvalue.[281]Intheprocess,
Mercury,Venus,verylikelyEarth,andpossiblyMarswillbedestroyed.[282]
Seealso
ColonizationofMars
CompositionofMars
Dariancalendar
GeodynamicsofMars
GeologyofMars
Extraterrestriallife
ExplorationofMars
ListofartificialobjectsonMars
ListofchasmataonMars
ListofcratersonMars
ListofcratersonMars
ListofmountainsonMars
ListofquadranglesonMars
ListofrocksonMars
ListofvallesonMars
SeasonalflowsonwarmMartianslopes
TerraformingofMars
WateronMars
Notes
a.Bestfitellipsoid
b.Therearemanyserpentinizationreactions.Olivineisasolidsolutionbetweenforsteriteandfayalitewhose
generalformulais(Fe,Mg)2SiO4.Thereactionproducingmethanefromolivinecanbewrittenas:Forsterite+
Fayalite+Water+CarbonicacidSerpentine+Magnetite+Methane,or(inbalancedform):18Mg2SiO4+
6Fe2SiO4+26H2O+CO212Mg3Si2O5(OH)4+4Fe3O4+CH4
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Externallinks
Mars(https://www.dmoz.org/Science/Astronomy/Solar_System/Planets/Mars/)atDMOZ
MarsExplorationProgram(http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/)atNASA.gov
OnMars:ExplorationoftheRedPlanet19581978(1984)(http://history.nasa.gov/SP4212/on
mars.html)bytheNASAHistoryOffice
GoogleMars(http://www.google.com/mars/)andGoogleMars3D
(https://www.google.com/maps/space/mars/),interactivemapsoftheplanet
GeodyMars(http://www.geody.com/?world=mars),mappingsitethatsupportsNASAWorldWind,
Celestia,andotherapplications
MarsSociety(http://www.marssociety.org/),aninternationalorganizationdedicatedtothestudy,
exploration,andsettlementofMars
Images
Marsimages(http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/targetFamily/Mars)byNASA'sPlanetaryPhotojournal
Marsimages(http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/)byNASA'sMarsExplorationProgram
Marsimages(http://www.msss.com/scienceimages/)byMalinSpaceScienceSystems
HiRISEimagecatalog(http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/)bytheUniversityofArizona
AnaglyphsfromtheMarsRovers(http://dualmoments.com/marsrovers/index.html)byDual
Moments
4billionpixelpanoramicviewofGaleCrater(http://www.wired.com/2013/03/4billionpixelmars
panorama/)atWired.com(March2013)
PanoramicviewsofMars(http://www.panoramas.dk/mars/)(Curiosityimage1
(http://www.360pano.eu/show/?id=733)andimage2(http://www.360pano.eu/show/?id=731))
Videos
RotatingcolorglobeofMars(http://sos.noaa.gov/Datasets/dataset.php?id=224)bytheNational
OceanicandAtmosphericAdministration
RotatinggeologicalglobeofMars(http://gallery.usgs.gov/videos/822)bytheUnitedStates
36/37
4/17/2016
GeologicalSurvey
NASA'sCuriosityFindsAncientStreambedFirstEvidenceofWateronMars
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jr1Xu2iUc0)onYouTubebyTheScienceChannel(2012,4:31)
FlightIntoMarinerValley(http://themis.mars.asu.edu/node/5470)byArizonaStateUniversity
Cartographicresources
Marsnomenclature(http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/MARS/target)andquadranglemaps
withfeaturenames(http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/mars1to5mTHEMIS)bytheUnited
StatesGeologicalSurvey
GeologicalmapofMars(http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3292/)bytheUnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey
Vikingorbiterphotomap(http://planetologia.elte.hu/terkep/marsvikingen.pdf)byEtvsLornd
University
MarsGlobalSurveyortopographicalmap(http://planetologia.elte.hu/terkep/marsmolaen.pdf)by
EtvsLorndUniversity
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mars&oldid=715581683"
Categories: Mars Astronomicalobjectsknownsinceantiquity Terrestrialplanets
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TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
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