1

Theorem 1: Intermediate Value Theorem

Definition: A function y=f(x) that is continuous on a closed interval [a,b]
takes on every value between f(a) and f(b).

If u is a number between
f (a) and f (b), f (a) < u <f
(b)
Then there is a c (a, b) such
that
f (c) = u.

Algebraic Example:

y x2

0, 2

f ( x) 2
2 x2
2 x
0 2 2

R : 0, 4

Limits
Definition: a limit is the value that a function or sequence "approaches"
as the input or index approaches some value
Estimating Limits from Graphs
Limits that exist:
A) Continuous Function

B) Discontinuous Function

Limits that dont exist:

A) Jump Discontinuity

B) Involving Infinity

Estimating Limits from Tables

Limits that exist:
A)From a Continuous Function

B) From a Discontinuous Function

Limits that do not exist:

A) Jump Discontinuity

B) Infinite Discontinuity

C) Horizontal Asymptote

Calculating Limits using Algebra

Evaluating Limits using Substitution:
A)Polynomial

lim x 3 5 x 2 8 x 3 (2)3 5 2 8(2) 3 15

2

x 2

B) Non Polynomial

lim tan( x) tan 3

x
3
3

Limits in Indeterminate Forms:

A)By Factoring

x 2 x 6
lim

lim
2
x 3
x 3
x

x 3 x 2

x 2 x 2

6
x 3
lim

x 3 x 2
5

B) By Conjugate

lim

x 3
0

x9
0

x 9

lim

x 3
*

x9

x 9

lim
x 9

1
1
6
x 3

C) Common Denominator

x 3
x 9
lim

9
x 3
( x 9)( x 3)

1
1
1 1

5 x 5 2 2 0

x
0
0

1(5)
1(5 x)
x

5(5 x)
(5 x)5 5(5 x)
lim

x
x
x 0

lim
x 0

lim

x 0

x
1
1
1
lim

*
x 0 5(5 x )
x 5(5 0) 25

Piecewise Functions:
A)Limit Exists

B) Limit Does Not Exist

Multiple Choice Questions #1

x 3

x 3 x 2 2 x 3

lim
1.
(A) 0
(B) 1

(C)

is

1
4

(D)
(E) None of these
Correct answer is (C)

x3
lim 2

lim
x 3 x 2 x 3
x 3

2.

x 3 8
lim 2
x 2 x 4

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)

4
0
1
3

Correct answer is (D)

is

x3
lim

x 3 x 1 x 3

1
1

x 1 4

10

x 2 x 2 2 x 4

x3 8
lim
lim 2 lim
x 2 x 4
x2
x 2 x 2 x 2

2x 4
3
x 2

Continuity
My Definition: The roads meet and the bridges is built where the
roads meet.
The families of functions that are continuous: polynomial, exponential,
sine, cosine, absolute value, radical, logarithmic, arc-tan, arc-cotangent,
arcsine, arccosine
Continuity with Graphs
Continuity at a Point:
I.

c
c
The function is defined at . That is, is in the domain of
definition of f(x).

lim f ( x)
II.
III.

x c

Exists.

lim f ( x ) f (c)
x c

Removable Discontinuity:

11

Jump Discontinuity:

Infinite Discontinuity:

12

Continuity with Algebra

Continuity at a point:

f ( x) x 2 1

Continuous @ x = 0 b/c

lim f ( x) 1 lim f ( x)

1)
2)

x 0

x 0

f (0) 1
f (0) lim f ( x)

3)

x 0

Removable Discontinuity:

13

f ( x)

x 2 x 1
x2

x 1if x 2
Removable disc @ x=2 b/c

lim f ( x) lim x 1 3
1)

x 2

f (2)
2)

x 2

0
dne
0

Jump Discontinuity:

1 if x 0
f ( x)
1if x 0

Jump disc @ x=0 b/c

lim f ( x) 1 lim f ( x) 1

1)

x 0

x 0

Infinite Discontinuity:

1
f ( x)
x

Infinite disc @ x=0 b/c

lim f ( x ) lim f ( x)

1)

x 0

LHopitals Rule

x 0

14

lim

LHopitals Rule is a method for computing a limit of the form

C can be a number,

x c

f ( x)
g ( x)

or . The conditions for applying it are

1. The functions f and g are differentiable in an open interval

containing c
2. G and g are nonzero in the open interval , expect possibly at c

f '( x )
g '( x)

lim
x c

3.
4. As

xc

EX:

Is defined or is

or is .

sin( x 2 4)
f ( x)
x2

sin( x 2 4) 0
lim

x2
x2
0
sin( x 2 4)
2 x cos( x 2 4)
lim
lim
4
x 2
x 2
x2
1

Continuous @ x=2 b/c

2 x cos( x 4)
2 x cos( x 4)
4 lim
x 2
x 2
1
1
2

lim

f (2) 4
2 x cos( x 2 4)
f (2) lim
4
x 2
1
Multiple Choice Questions #2
1. Which of the following is/are true about the function g if

g ( x)

x 2

x2 x 6

15

I.
II.
III.

g is continuous at x =2
the graph of g has a vertical asymptote at x=-3
the graph of g has a horizontal asymptote at y=0

(a) I only (b) II only (c) III only (d) I and II only (e) II and III only
Correct answer (B)

Graph of g(x)

x 3 2 x 2 29 x 42
f ( x)
x2 9

2. Let
. Which of the following
statements is true
(a) f(x) has a removable discontinuity at x=-3
(b) f(x) has a jump discontinuity at x=3
(c) if f(3) = -5/3, then f(x) is continuous at x=3
(d) f(x) has non removable discontinuities at x=-3 and x=3

lim f ( x)

(e)

x 3

Correct answer (A)

f ( x)

( x 2)( x 7)( x 3)
( x 3)( x 3)

Therefore there is a removable

discontinuity at x=-3

Theorem 2: Differentiability and Continuity

16

Definition: If a function is differentiable at a point x=a, then the function

is continuous at a point x=a
DIFFERENTIABILITY IMPLIES CONTINUNITY
CONTINUNITY DOES NOT IMPLY DIFFERENTABILITY

The graph at x=2 is

continuous but not
differentiable
Due to a corner

Algebraic Example:

17

x 2, x 2
( x 2), x 2

y x2

Cont at x 2?

y (2) 0

lim y 0
x2

continous !

1, x 2
LHD RHD, Not Differentiable @ x 2
1, x 2

y'

Derivatives:
What is a Derivative? : Instantaneous rate of change, slope of the tangent
line, slope of the curve
Formal Definition:
Algebraic Example:

f ( x h) f ( x )
h 0
h
Ex : f ( x) x 3

m lim

f ( x h) f ( x)
x 3 3 x 2 h 3 xh 2 h 3 x 3
f '( x) lim
lim
h 0
h0
h
h
h(3x 2 3 xh h 2 )
f '( x) lim
3x 2
h 0
h
f '(1) 3(1) 2 3
Graphical Illustration:

18

Alternate Form:
Algebraic Example:

f ( x) f (a)
lim
xa
xa
Ex : f ( x) x 2
x a x a

x2 a2
f '( x) lim
lim
2a
x a x a
x a
xa
f '(1) 2(1) 2
Graphical Illustration:

19

Derivatives to Memorize:
Trig Functions:

d
sin( x) cos( x)
dx
d
cos( x) sin( x)
dx
d
tan( x) sec 2 ( x)
dx
Inverse Trig Functions:

d
csc( x) csc( x) cot( x)
dx
d
sec( x) sec( x) tan( x)
dx
d
cot( x) csc 2 ( x)
dx

20

d
1
sin 1 ( x)
dx
1 x2

d
csc 1 ( x )
dx
x

d
1
cos 1 ( x)
dx
1 x2

d
sec 1 ( x)
dx
x

d
1
tan 1 ( x) 2
dx
x 1

d
1
cot 1 ( x) 2
dx
x 1

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

d x
e ex
dx
d
1
ln x
dx
x

d x
a a x ln(a )
dx
d
1
log a x
dx
x ln a

Derivative Structures:
Product Rule:

h( x) xe x
h '( x) x '(e x ) x (e x ' )
h '( x) e x xe x
Quotient Rule:

x2 1
x2 1

21

f ( x)

2x 1
x 3

d
d
[2 x 1] (2 x 1) [ x 3]
dx
dx
f '( x)
( x 3) 2
(2)( x 3) (2 x 1)(1)
7
f '( x)

2
( x 3)
( x 3) 2
( x 3)

Power Rule:

y xh
y ' hx h 1
y x15
y ' 15 x14
Chain Rule:

y (3x 1) 2
y ' 2(3 x 1)(3)
y ' 6(3 x 1) 18 x 6

22

Implicit Rule:

x 2 y xy 2 6

y * 2 x

x2

dy

dx

2 y *1

dy
dy
2 xy x 2
2 y 2 xy
dx
dx
dy 2 xy 2 y 2
2
dx
x 2 xy

Derivative of an Inverse (not trig):

g ( x) f 1 ( x)

f ( x) x 2
g '(3) ?
3 x2
f '( x)

7x

1
2 x2

so g '(3) 6

f '(7)

g '( x)

1 x2
y
1 x2

2 9

1
f '( x)

Multiple Choice Questions #3:

1. Find dy/dx

1
6

dy

x*2y
dx

23

4 x

4 x 3

4x

1 x

2 2

1 x

(a)
(b)
Correct Answer is B

1 x

2 2

2 2

(c)

(d)

2x
1 x2

(e)

4
1 x2

(1 x 2 )2 x (1 x 2 )(2 x)
y'
(1 x 2 ) 2
dy
( x 2 y)
2x y
dx

2. If
(a)

-10/3 (b)

, what is the value of

(c) 2
(d) 10/3

d2y
dx 2

at the point (3,0)

(e) Undefined

Correct Answer is A

dy 2 x y

dx x 2 y
2

d y
dx 2
d2y
dx 2

dy
dy
) (2 x y )(1 2 )
dx
dx

( x 2 y)2
2x y
2x y
( x 2 y )(2
) (2 x y )(1 2
)
x 2y
x 2y

( x 2 y)2
( x 2 y )(2

d 2 y 10
when x 3& y 0 then 2
dx
3
Derivative DNE:
Corner:

24

x, x 0
f ( x) x
x, x 0

1, x 0
f '( x)
1, x 0

Cusp:

25

g ( x) x 2/3

2 1/3
2
g '( x) x 3
3
3 x

26

Vertical Tangent:

f ( x) 3 x

1 2/3
1
f '( x) x

3
3 3 x2

27

Discontinuity:

x 2, x 0

f ( x)

2
x
2, x 0

1, x 0
f '( x)
2 x, x 0

28

FRQ #1:
1995 AB 3
Consider the curve defined by

(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)
(e)
Solution:

dy
dx

8 x 2 5 xy y 3 149

Find
Write an equation for the line tangent to the curve at the point
(4,-1).
There is a number k so that the point (4.2, k) is on the curve.
Using the tangent line found in part (b), approximate the
value of k
Write an equation that can be solved to find the actual value
of k so that the point (4.2, k) is on the curve
Solve the equation found in part (d) for the value of k.

29

16 x 5 y 5 x

dy
dy
3y2
0
dx
dx

dy 16 x 5 y

dx 5 x 3 y 2

(a)

dy
64 5

3
dx (4,1) 20 3

(b)

y 1 3(4.2 4)

(c)

y 1 3( x 4)

y .4 k .4

8(4.2) 2 5(4.2) k k 3 149

(d)

k .373

(e)

Multiple Choice Questions #4:

1.

If f ( x) x sin x, then f '( x)

(a)

1 cos x

(b)

1 cos x

(c)

cos x

(d)

sin x x cos x

(e)

sin x x cos x

Correct answer is A
dy
dy
f '( x )
x sin x 1 cos x
dx
dx
2. The tangent to the curve
a. y=0
3& 3
b. y=

y 2 xy 9 0

is vertical when

30

c. y=1/2
d. y=-3&3
e. none of these
Correct answer is C

y 2 xy 9 0
dy
dy
yx
0
dx
dx
dy
y

dx 2 y x
sub x 2 y

2y

y
y
is where y ' is vertical
2y 2y 0

Theorem 3: Mean Value Theorem

Definition: If y = f(x) is continuous at every point of the closed interval
[a, b] and differentiable at every point of its interior (a, b) then there is at
least one point c at which

f (b) f (a )
f '(c)
ba
Graphically speaking, if A and B are two points on a differentiable curve
then somewhere between points A and B there is at least one tangent line

31

to the curve that is parallel to

the chord AB.

Algebraic Example:
Consider the function

f ( x ) 3x 2

on the interval

[1, 5]

f (b) f (a ) 75 3 72

18
ba
5 1
4

Theorem 4: Rolles Theorem:

Definition: If f(x) is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). If
f (a) =f (b) then there is at least one point c in (a, b) where f (c)=0

f (b) f (a )
when f (b) f (a ) 0
ba

32

Algebraic example:

If f ( x) x 3 4 x and f (2) f (0) 0

, find the value of c that

satisfies the conclusion of Rolles Theorem.

f '(c) 0
f '( x) 3x 2 4
f '( x) 0
3x 2 4 0

x 1.157 and 1.157

C=-1.157 b/c c is on the interval of [-2, 0]

ARC/IRC
Graphical:
ARC:

33

ARC

f (b) f ( a)
ba

IRC:

IRC lim

Algebraic ARC:
Polynomial:

f ( x) x 3 1 over int erval [2,3]

ARC

f (3) f (2) 28 9

19
3 2
3 2

Non-Polynomial:

f ( x h) f ( x)
h

34

f ( x) sin x over int erval [ , ]
6 4

f ( ) f ( )
6 6 2 6
ARC 4

4 6
Piecewise:

2 2x x2 , x 0
f ( x)
over int erval [ 1,1]
2
x

2,
x

ARC

f (1) f (1)
1
1 1

Secant:

f ( x) sin x over int erval ,
6 4
6 2 6

1
f( )

6
2
1 6 2 6

y
(x )
2

Algebraic IRC

35

Polynomial:

y x2
( x h) 2 x 2
h(2 x h)
lim
lim
2x
h 0
h

0
h
h
y ' 2x
Non-Polynomial:

y x
xh x
xh x
*
h 0
h
xh x
1
1
lim

h 0
xh x 2 x
1
y'
2 x
lim

Piecewise:

2 2x x2 x 0
f ( x)
at x 0
2 x 2 x 0
LHD : f '( x ) 2 x 2, f '(0) 2
RHD : f '( x) 2, f '(0) 2
LHD RHD @ x 0

36

Tangent equation/Normal equation:

y x2 @ x 4
y ' 2 x m @ x 4 is 8
y (8) 16
y 16 8( x 6)
1
Normal : y 16 ( x 4)
8
Approx. rate of change from:

37

Graphs:

Tables:

38

Find AROC between x=2 and x=4

f (4) f (2) 48 30

9
42
2
Approximate IROC at x=4

f (5) f (3) 38 36
f '(4)

1
53
2

Multiple Choice Questions #5:

1. What is the Instantaneous Rate of Change of y=ln(4)
(a) 0
(b)
(c)1
(d) e
(e) non existent
Correct answer is B
ln(4 h) ln(4) 1
lim

h 0
h
4
2.
The table gives the values of function f that is differentiable on the
interval [0, 1]. What is the best approximation of f (.2)
(a)

.62

(b)1.08

Correct answer is C

f '(.2)

f (.3) f (.1)
.357 .171

(c).93

(d)1.77

(e) 2.88

39

FRQ #2:
2007 AB3
The wind chill is the temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit (F), a human
feels based on the air temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit, and the wind
velocity v, in miles per hour (mph). If the air temperature is 32F, then
W (v) 55.6 22.1v.16
5 v 60
the wind chill is given by
and is valid for
(a)

Find W (20). Using correct units , explain the meaning of

W(20) in terms of the wind chill

(b)

Find the average rate of change of W over the interval

.
Find the value of v at which the instantaneous rate of change of
W is equal to the average rate of change of W over interval

5 v 60

5 v 60

(c)

0t 4

Over the time interval

hours, the air temperature is a
constant 32F. At time t=0, the wind velocity is v = 20 mph. If
the wind velocity increases at a constant rate of 5 mph per hour,
what is the rate of change of the wind chill with the respect to
time at t=3 hours? Indicate units of measure.

Solution
(a)

W '(20) 22.1*.16* 20 .84 .285

when v=20 mph, the

wind chill is decreasing at .286F/mph

(b)

The ARC of W over the interval

W (60) W (5)
.253
60 5
W '(v)

5 v 60

W (60) W (5)
when v 23.011
60 5

is

40

(c)

W (v) 55.6 22.1(20 5t )

.16

dW
dt

8.92
t 3

F/hr

The First Derivative:

Increasing/Decreasing:
f(x) is increasing when f (x) > 0
f(x) is decreasing when f (x) < 0
Max/Min:
If f (c) = 0 or DNE and f (x) changes from + to at x=c, then
f(c) is a relative max.
If f(c) = 0 or DNE and f (x) changes from to + at x=c, then
f(c) is a relative min.
f ( x) x 3 2 x 1 on (3,3)
f '( x) 3x 2 2 0
x

2
3

Max f (
Min f (

2
)
3

2
)
3

Max b/c it goes +to - on f Min b/c it goes to +

41

The Second Derivative:

Concave Up/Concave Down:
f (x) is increasing or f (x) >0 then f(x) is concave up
f (x) is decreasing or f (x)<0 then f(x) is concave down
Point of Inflection:
If f (c) = 0 and changes from + to OR to + at x=c , then f(c) has a
point of inflection.
OR
f (x) has an extremum then f(x) has a point of inflection.

42

f ( x) x 3 2 x 1on (3,3)
f '( x ) 3x 2 2 0
f ''( x ) 6 x
f ''(0) 0
POI @ x 0 b / c f ''( x) sign changes from to

Multiple Choice Questions #6:

1. The graph of

y 3 x 4 16 x3 24 x 2 48

is concave down for

(a)x < 0 (b)x > 0(c) x < -2 or x > -2/3 (d) x<2/3 or x>2 (e)2/3 < x < 2
Correct answer is e

y 3 x 4 16 x 3 24 x 2 48
y '' 12(3 x 2 8 x 4) 0

y ' 12 x 3 48 x 2 48 x
y '' 0 when x

2
x is negative from to 2 on y '' so y is CD
3
2.

2
and x 2
3

43

The graph of the function f is shown above. For which of the following
values of x if f (x) positive and increasing
(a)a

(b)b

(c)c

(d)d

(e)e

e b/c f is increasing thus f (x) is positive and f is concave up thus f (x)

is increasing

Theorem 5: Extreme Value Theorem

Definition: if a real-valued function f is continuous in the closed and
bounded interval [a,b], then f must attain a maximum and a minimum,
each at least once.
That is, there exist numbers c and d in [a,b] such that

44

f (c) f ( x) f (d ) for all x [a, b]

Algebraic Example:
Find the Min and Max values of

f ( x) x 4 3x3 1

on [-2,2]

f ( x) x 4 3x3 1
f '( x) 4 x 3 9 x 2
9
x 0 and x
4

Because x=9/4 is not in the interval [2,2],

the only critical point occurs at x = 0 which is (0,1). The function
values at the endpoints of the interval are f(2)=9 and f(2)=39; hence,
the maximum function value 39 at x = 2, and the minimum function
value is 9 at x = 2.

Extrema
Absolute vs. Relative Extrema:
Let f be a function defined on some interval and c be a number in that
interval.
An absolute maximum of the function f occurs at (c,f(c)) if
for every x value in the interval.

f ( x ) f (c )

45

An absolute minimum of the function f occurs at (c,f(c)) if

for every x value in the interval.

f ( x ) f (c )

The point (c,f(c)) is a relative maximum of a function f if there exists an

open interval a,b in the domain of f containing c such that
for all x in a,b

f ( x ) f (c )

The point (c,f(c)) is a relative maximum of a function f if there exists an

open interval a,b in the domain of f containing c such that
for all x in a,b

3 Ways to Find Extrema:

Comparison of Function values:

f ( x ) f (c)

46

f ( x) x 3 2 x 1 on [3,3]
f '( x ) 3x 2 2

2
) .0887
3
f (3) 20
f(

Abs Max Value = 22 at x =3

2
) 2.0887
3
f (3) 22
f (

Relative Max =-.0887 at x=

Abs Min value = -20 at x=-3

2
3

Relative Min=2.0887 at

2
3

Abs Max b/c highest y value

Relative Max b/c f (x) goes + to

Abs Mix b/c lowest y value

Relative Min b/c f (x) goes to +

47

First Derivative Test:

If f (c) = 0 or DNE and f (x) changes from + to at x=c, then f(c) is a
relative max.
If f(c) = 0 or DNE and f (x) changes from to + at x=c, then f(c) is a
relative min.

f ( x) x 3 2 x 1 on (3,3)
f '( x) 3x 2 2 0
x

2
3

Max f (
Min f (

2
)
3

2
)
3

Max b/c it goes +to - on f Min b/c it goes to +

Second Derivative Test:

48

<- F(x)
1. F(c) = 0
AND
2. F(c)<0
Therefore there is a Max at x=c
<- F(x)
1. F(c) = 0
AND
2. F(c)>0
Therefore there is a

f ( x) x3 2 x 1

f '( x) 3 x 2 2 0

2
3
f ''( x) 6 x

f ''(

f '(
f '(

2
)0
3

f ''(

2
)0
3

2
2
2
) 0 AND f ''( ) 0 then min at x
3
3
3
2
2
2
) 0 AND f ''( ) 0 then max at x
3
3
3

FRQ #3:

Min at x=c

49

1989 BC3
Consider the function f is defined by
(a)
(b)
(c)

f ( x) e x cos x with the domain [0, 2 ]

Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of f(x)

Find the intervals on which f is increasing
Find the x-coordinate of each point of inflection on graph of f

Solution:
f ( x ) e x cos x with the domain [0, 2 ]

(a)

f '( x ) e x sin x e x cos x e x [cos x sin x]

5
f '( x ) 0 when sin x cos x, x ,
4 4

Max:

Min:

(b)

Increasing on

(c)

2 5 /4
e
2

5
[0, ],[ , 2 ]
4
4

f ''( x) e x [ sin x cos x] e x [cos x sin x] 2e x sin x

f ''( x) 0 when x 0, , 2
POI at x

50

Motion on a Line:
Moving Left/Right:
Velocity = v (t) = s (t)
Particle Moving Right: v (t) > 0
Particle Moving Left: v (t) < 0
Particle at Rest: v (t) = 0
Change Direction:
The particle changes direction when v (t) or s (t) changes direction from
positive to negative or negative to positive

s(t ) t 2 3t 1
T

S(t)

V(t)=2t-3

-1

-3

V(t)=A(t
)
A(t)=2
2

-4

-1

1.5

-3.25

-3

-1

Speed=

v(t )

Particles Motion

Moving Left
Accel. To Right
Slowing Down
Moving Left
Accel Right
Slowing Down
Changes
Direction
Moving Right
Accel. Right
Speeding up
Moving Right
Accel. Right

51

Speeding up
Speed up/Slow Down:
A(t) < 0

A(t) > 0

A(t)=0

V(t) < 0

Speeding Up

Slowing Down

Constant
Velocity Left

V(t) > 0

Slowing Down

Speeding Up

Constant
Velocity Right

V(t) = 0

Stopped
Accel Left

Stopped
Accel Right

Stopped
No Accel

s(t ) t 2 6t 5
v(t ) s '(t ) 2t 6 0 t 3 stopped
a (t ) v '(t ) s ''(t ) 2
[0,3] the particle is slowing down
[3, ] the particle is speeding up

52

Displacement vs. Total Distance:

x(t ) t 3 2t 5 [0, 2]
v(t ) 3t 2 2
v(t ) 0 when t .81649 & changes sign
v(0) 2

v(.81649) 0 v(2) 10

Displacment : s f (t t ) f (t )
2 10 8 units displaced
Total Dis tan ce : f (t t ) f (t )
2 10 12 units traveled

53

FRQ #4
2005 AB 3
A particle moves along the x-axis so that its velocity v at time t, for
v(t ) ln(t 2 3t 3)
0t 5
is given by
. The particle is at the position
x=8 at time t=0
(a)

Find the acceleration of the particle at time t=4

(b)

Find all times t in the open interval

at which the
particle changes direction. During which time intervals , for

0t 5

0t 5

(c)

does the particle travel to the left

Find the position of the particle at time t=2

(d)

Find the average speed of the particle over the interval

Solution:

(a)

5
7

a(4)=v (4)=
v(t ) ln(t 2 3t 3)
v(t ) 0
t 2 3t 3 1
(t 2)(t 1) 0 t 1, 2
v(t ) 0 for 0 t 1
v(t ) 0 for 1 t 2

(b)

v(t ) 0 for 2 t 5

The particle changes direction @ t=1,2

The particle travels to the left when 1 < t <2

0t 2

54
1

s (t ) s (0) ln(u 2 3u 3)du

0

(c)
(d)

s (2) 8 ln(u 2 3u 3)du 8.368

0

1 2
v(t ) dt .370
2 0

Applications of Differential Calculus

Linearization:
Equation of tangent at x=a

y y1 m( x x1 )
y f (a ) f '(a )( x a )
y f (a ) f '(a )( x a)
f ( x) L( x) f (a ) f '(a)( x a )
Find the Linearization of f(x) at x=0

55

f ( x) 1 x
1
1
f '( x) (1 x) 1/2
2
2 1 x
f (0) 1 0 1 1
1
1

2 1 0 2
1
y 1 ( x 0)
2
1
y L( x) 1 x
2
f '(0)

Differential:

dy
f '( x)
dx
dy f '( x) dx
Estimated Change dy f '(a )dx

Absolute Error Actual Estimate

Estimate the change in the function value when x changes from 2 to 2.05

56

y x3 3x

2.05 2 dx .05

dy
3x 2 3
dx
dy (3x 2 3)dx
dy (3(2) 2 3)(.05) .45 ESTIMATED CHANGE
Actual Change:

y (2) 23 3(2) 2
y (2.05) 2.053 3(2.05) 2.465
2.465 2 .465
Error .465 .45 .015

Related Rates Problems

Find : Rate
When : Not Rate
Given : Rate
F & G relate in an equation

57

1. A hot air balloon is rising and is tracked by a range finder 500ft.

4
from the lift off point. When the range finder elevation angle is
the angle is increasing at a rate of .14 radians per minute. How fast
is the balloon rising at that moment?

Find :

dh
dt

When :
Given :

d
.14 rad / min
dt

h
tan
500 tan h
500
dh
d
500sec 2

dt
dt
2

dh
500 sec (.14)
140
4
dt

The balloon is rising at a rate of 140ft/min when

2. Water runs into the tank, which is a cone with the radius of 5ft and

9 ft 3 / min

the height of 10ft, at a rate of

. How fast is the water
level rising when the water is 6ft deep?

58

dh
dt
When : h 6 ft
dv
Given : 9 ft 3 / min
dt
Find :

r 5
1

r h
h 10
2
1
v r 2h
3
2

1 1
v h h
3 2
1
v h3
12

dv 1 2 dh
h
dt 4
dt
1
2 dh
9 (6)
4
dt
1 dh

dt
1

The water level is rising at a rate of

ft/min when the water level
is 6ft.
Optimization Problems:
1. A cylindrical tin can is to hold 50 cubic centimeters of juice.
How should the can be constructed (dimensions: r and h) in

59

order to minimize the amount of material needed in its

V r 2 h ; SA 2 r 2 2 rh
construction.

V r 2h

50 r 2 h

50
h
2
r
Min: Surface Area

SA 2 r 2 2 rh
50
2
r

SA 2 r 2 2 r

100
r
100
SA ' 4 r 2 0
r
r 1.996
SA 2 r 2

50
3.995
2
(1.996)
SECOND DERIVATE TEST
SA '(1.996) 0

SA ''(1.996) 0
min @ r 1.996
2. We want to construct a box whose base length is 3 times the
base width. The material used to build the top and bottom cost

60

$10 / ft 2

$6 / ft 2

and the material used to build the sides costs

. If
50 ft 3
the box must have a volume of
determine the dimensions
that will minimize the cost to build the box.

C 10(2lw) 6(2 wh 2lh) 60w2 48wh

50
50 lwh 3w2 h
h 2
3w

61

50
2 800
C ( w) 60w 48w 2 60w
w
3w
2

120w3 800
C '( w) 120w 800 w
w2
2

120w3 800 0

w 3

800
1.8821
120

w 1.8821
l 3w 3(1.8821) 5.6463
h

50
3 1.8821

4.7050

C (1.8821) $637.60

Graph f(x) from f(x) Problems:

1.

C ''( w) 120 1600w3

62

(a) g increasing : g>0 : (-2,2) , (2,3.5)

(b) g decreasing : g<0 : (-7,-2),(3.5,4)
(c)Max: g=0 and changes sign + to - : x= 3.5
(d)Min: g=0 and changes sign to + : x=-2
(e)Concave up : g increasing , g>0: [-7,-2] [-2,0] [2,3]
(f) Concave down : g decreasing , g<0 : [0,2] [3,4]
(g)POI: x= 0 ,2 ,3

2.

63

(a) f(x) increasing : f >0 : (a,c) (e, ) (above x-axis)

(b) f(x) decreasing : f<0 (

,a) (c,e) (below x-axis)
(c)f(x) max : f=0 And changes from + to - : x=c
(d)f(x) min : f=0 And changes from to + : x=a,e

(e)f(x) concave up : f increasing :(

,b),(d, )
(f) f(x) concave down: f decreasing : (b,d)
(g)POI : max/min of f: x=b ,d

FRQ #5

64

1985 AB 5
The balloon shown is in the shape of a cylinder wither the hemispherical
ends of the same radius as that cylinder. The balloon is being inflated at
261
the rate of
cubic centimeters per minute. AT the instant the radius
144
of the cylinder is 3 centimeters. The volume of the balloon is
cubic
centimeters and the radius of the cylinder is increasing at the rate of 2
centimeters per minute. (The volume of a cylinder is
volume of a sphere is
(a)
(b)

4 3
r
3

r 2h

and the

At this instant, what is the height of the cylinder

At this instant, how fast is the height of the cylinder increasing?
Solution:
4
V r 2h r3
3

(a)

4
144 (3) 2 h 33
3
h 12

At this instant, the height is 12 centimeters.

(b)

dV
dh
dr
dr
r2
2 rh 4 r 2
dt
dt
dt
dt
dh
261 (3) 2
2 (3)(12)(2) 4 (3) 2 (2)
dt
dh
5
dt

At this instant, the height is increasing at the rate of 5

centimeters per minute.

65

Theorem 6: Fundamental Theorem of Cal.:

Part 1:
x

f ( x ) f (t )dt

Definition: If f is continuous on [a,b] then the function

df
d

f (t )dt f ( x )
dx dx
has a derivative at every part in [a,b] and

Algebraic Example:
Find the derivative of the function of g(x)

g ( x ) t dt
3

g '( x ) x 4

66

Part 2:
Definition: If f is continuous on [a,b] and if F is any anti-derivative of f
on [a,b] then

f (t )dt F (b) F (a )

Algebraic Example:

/2

cos(t )dt sin(t ) 0 sin( x ) sin(0) sin( x )

x

cos(t )dt sin 1
2

67

1
x
0 1 t 2 dt arctan(t ) 0 arctan( x)
1
1

0 1 x 2 dt arctan(1) 4
x

FRQ #6
2005 AB 4

Let f be a function that is continuous on the interval [0,4). The function f

is twice differentiable expect x= 2. The function f and its derivatives
have the properties indicated in the table above, where DNE indicates
that the derivative of f does not exist at x=2
(a)

(b)

For 0 < x < 4, find all values of x at which f has a relative

extremum. Determine whether f has a relative maximum or a
relative minimum at each of these values. Justify your answer
Sketch a graph of a function that has all the characteristic of f
x

(c)

g ( x ) f (t )dt
1

Let g be the function defined by

on the open
interval (0,4) For 0< x < 4, find all values of x at which g has a
relative extremum. Determine when ether g has a relative

68

(d)

maximum or a relative minimum at each of these values. Justify

your answer
For the function g defined in part (c) m find all values of x, for
0 <x < 4, at which the graph of g has a point of inflection.
Justify your answer.

Solution:
(a) f has a relative maximum at x=2 because f changes from
positive to negative at x=2

(b)
(c)

(d)

g '( x ) f ( x ) 0 at x 1,3
g changes from negative to positive at x=1 so g has a
relative minimum at x=1. g changes from positive to
negative at x=3 so g has a relative maximum at x=3
The graph of g has appoint of inflection at x=2 because
g=f changes sign at x=2

69

The Difference between

Anti-Derivatives:
dy
x3 1
dx
x4
y
xc
4
Indefinite Integrals:
x

g ( x) f (t )dt
0

g '( x) f ( x)

cos( x)dx sin( x) C

3x 2 x 5 x x 5x C
2

Definite Integrals:

70

F '( x ) f ( x )

f ( x) dx F ( x ) a F (b) F ( a )

5 2

6
x

5
x

2
dx

2
x

2
x

3
2

5
45
2
2 54 6 84
2
2
3

Accumulation Function:
t

s(t ) f ( x )dx
0

s(2) 4

Multiple Choice Questions #7:

1.

dx
1 x

(a)1
(b)3/2
(c)2
(d)4
(e)6
Correct answer is D

8
dx
2 1 x 6 2 4
0
1 x

2.

x 2 2 x 1dx

(a)-1
(b)-1/2

is

71

(c)
(d)1
(e)None of the above
Correct answer is B

x2
2
( x 1) dx
x
2

3. If

F ( x ) e t dt

1
2

, then F(x) =
2

(a)

2 xe x

2 xe x

e x 1
e
x2 1

(b)
(c)
Correct answer is E:
d x t 2
x2
e
dt

dt 0

(d)

e x 1

(e)

e x

Integration Techniques:
Ones you know:
Trig Functions:

sin( x) C cos( x) dx

csc( x) C csc( x) cot( x)dx

cos( x) C sin( x) dx sec( x) C sec( x) tan( x)dx

tan( x) C sec 2 ( x) dx
Inverse Trig Functions:

cot( x) C csc 2 ( x)dx

72

sin 1 ( x) C
cos ( x) C
1

1
1 x

dx

1
1 x

csc 1 ( x) C

dx

1
tan ( x) C 2
dx
x 1
1

sec ( x)

1
1
ln x C dx log a x C
dx
x
x ln a

What is

dx
?

We can use the Power Rule, where n=3

x n 1
x dx (n 1) C
n

x4
x dx 4 C
3

x 1

x 1
2

dx

1
cot ( x) 2
dx
x 1
1

a x C a x ln(a )dx

Power Rule:

x
1

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions:

e x C e x dx

dx

73

What is

x dx
?

We can use the Power Rule, where n=1/2

n 1
x
n
x
dx (n 1) C
1.5
x
.5
x
dx 1.5 C

U-Substitution:
Integrate

2
2 x 5 x 5x

dx

u x2 5x
du (2 x 5)dx
x 5x

u
2 x 5 x 5x dx u du 8 C 8 C
2

Multiple Choice Questions #8:

sec x tan xdx

1.
(a)
(b)

sec x C

tan x C

74

tan 2 x
C
2

(c)

sec 2 x
C
2

(d)
(e)

sec 2 x tan 2 x
C
2

Correct answer is A

sec x tan xdx sec x C

dy
sec x sec x tan x
dx

2.

dx

1 x

(a)1
(b)3/2
(c)2
(d)4
(e)6
Correct answer is D
9
9
dx
1/ 2
1/2
0 1 x 1 u 2 u 1 4
u 1 x du dx u (8) 9 u (0) 1
8

Properties of Definite Integrals:

75

1.

. We can interchange the limits on any

definite integral, all that we need to do is tack a minus sign onto the
integral when we do.

2.

. If the upper and lower limits are the same then

there is no work to do, the integral is zero.

3.

, where c is any number. So, as with

limits, derivatives, and indefinite integrals we can factor out a
constant.

4.

. We can break
up definite integrals across a sum or difference.

5.

where c is any number.

This property is more important than we might realize at first. One of
the main uses of this property is to tell us how we can integrate a
function over the adjacent intervals, [a,c] and [c,b]. Note however
that c doesnt need to be between a and b.

6.

. The point of this property is to notice

that as long as the function and limits are the same the variable of
integration that we use in the definite integral wont affect the answer.

Multiple Choice Questions #9:

76

1.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

x 2 2 x 1dx is
-1
-1/2

1
None of the above

Correct answer is B

2.

sin(2 x 3)dx
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

x
2

( x 1) 2 dx x 1dx

1
cos(2 x 3) C
2

cos(2 x 3) C

cos(2 x 3) C
1
cos(2 x 3) C
2
1
cos(2 x 3) C
5

Correct answer is D

1
2

77

1
1
1
sin
udu

cos
u

cos(2 x 3) C

2
2
2
1
u 2 x 3 du 2dx
du dx
2

sin(2 x 3)dx

Approx. Areas: LRAM, RRAM, MRAM

From Equation
The velocity of an object in motion is modeled by the function
v(t ) 4t t 2

. Find the approximate total distance traveled in the first 4

seconds using Riemann Sums with 4 subintervals.
LRAM:

40
1
4
LRAM x v(0) v(1) v(2) v(3) 1 0 3 4 3 10

78

RRAM:
40
1
4
RRAM x v (1) v(2) v(3) v(4) 1 3 4 3 0 10

MRAM:

40
1
4
MRAM Q v(.5) v(1.5) v(2.5) v(3.5) 1 1.75 3.75 3.75 1.75 11

79

From Table:
The Table below shows the velocity of a model train engine moving
along a track for 10 seconds. Estimate the distance traveled by the
engine using 10 subintervals of the length 1 using LRAM and RRAM
Time (sec)

Velocity (in/sec)

0
1
2
3
4
5

0
12
22
10
5
12

t 1

Time
(sec)
6
7
8
9
10

Velocity
(in/sec)
11
6
2
6
0

LRAM t v(0) v(1) v(2)... v(9) 1 0 12 22 10 5 12 11 6 2 6 87 in

RRAM t v (1) v(2) v(3)... v(10) 1 12 22 10 5 12 11 6 2 6 0 87 in

Now using the table, estimate the distance traveled by the train with a
midpoint Riemann Sum using 5 sub intervals of equal length.

80

t 2

MRAM t v(0) v(2) v(4)... v(10) 2 0 22 5 11 2 0 80 in

From Graph:

f ( x) x 2 1 on 0, 2
To estimate, divide up into
subintervals

Lets use 4 intervals

RRAM:

81

RRAM uses the right

endpoint of each interval to
define the height of the
rectangle
The width of each rectangle
is

LRAM:
LRAM uses the left endpoint
of each sub interval to define
the height of the rectangle.
The width of each rectangle
is

82

MRAM:
MRAM uses the midpoint of
each sub interval to define
the height of the rectangle
The width of each rectangle
is

More rectangles = better estimate

Trapezoidal Approx.:
From Equation:
Just like in the other rules we
break up the interval [a,b]
into n subintervals of width

83

Using n=4 approximate the value of the following integral:

e x dx

e x dx

20 1

4
2
2
1/ 2 02
x2
.52
12
1.52
22
e
dx

2
e

2
e

2
e

e
20.64455905
0
2

From Table
T (sec) 0

15

25

30

35

50

60

V(t)
20
(ft/sec)

30

20

14

10

10

A car travels on a straight track. During the time interval 0 60 t

seconds, the cars velocity v, measured in feet per second is a continuous
function.

60

30

v(t )dt

Approximate
using a trapezoidal approximation with 3
subintervals determined by the table

84

60

30

v(t )dt

1
1
1
A 14 10 5 10 15 10 10 185 ft
2
2
2

Motion on a Line using Integration

Position:
x '(t ) v(t ) so

v(t )dt x(t ) C

Displacement vs. Total Distance:
Displacement:

v (t )dt

Total Distance:

85
b

v (t ) dt

Find the total distance traveled by a body and the body's displacement
0t

for a body whose velocity is v (t) = 6sin 3t on the time interval

Displacement:

/2

/2

6sin 3t dt 2 cos 3t 0

2 cos 3( ) 2 cos 3(0) 2

2

Total Distance:

(0, ) v(t ) 0 ( , ) v(t ) 0
3
3 2
6sin 3t 0 t 0,

/3

6sin 3t dt

/2

/3

/3

/2

6sin 3t dt 2 cos 3t 0 2 cos 3t /3 6

OR

/2

6sin 3t dt 6

Differential Equations:
Definition: A differential equation is the relationship satisfied by the
function and its derivative.
Solving Differential Equations:
1. Find the particular solution to y=f(x) to the differential equation
dy y 1
2
dx
x

with the initial condition f(2)=0

86

dy
dx
2
y 1
x

x 1
1
ln y 1
C
C
1
x
y 1 e
k e

1
C
x

1
x

e
c

k eC

1
2

f ( x) 1 e

1 1

2 x

,x 0

2. Find the particular solution to y=g(x) to the differential equation

dy xy 2

dx
2

with the initial condition f(-1)=2

dy
x

y 2 2 dx
1
x2
C
y
4
1
1
1
C; C
2
4
4
4
y 2
x 1
Drawing a Slope Field

87

Analysis of a Slope Field

Finding the solution at (1, 1)

Multiple Choice Questions #10:

88

1. The acceleration a(t) of a body moving in a straight line is given

terms of time t by a=8-6t. If the velocity of the body is 25 at t=1
and if s(t) is the distance of the body from the origin at the time
t, what is s(4)-s(2)
(a) 20
(b) 24
(c) 28
(d) 32
(e) 42
Correct answer is D

v(t ) a (t )dt 8 6tdt 8t 3t 2 C

v(1) 8(1) 3(1) 2 C 25 c 20

8t 3t 20dt 4t t 20t
2

4
2

32

2.
What differential equation is on
the slopefield?
(a) x/y
(b) y/x
(c) xy
(d) y+2
(e) 2x+y
Correct answer is A
B/c horizontal asymptotes at y=x and horizontal
asymptotes
FRQ #7:

89

Consider the differential equation

(a)
(b)

(c)

dy
x 2 ( y 1)
dx

On the axes provided, sketch a slope field for given differential

equations at the twelve points indicated
While the slope field in part (a) is drawn at only 12 points, it is
defined at every point in the xy-plane. Describe all points in the
xy-plane for which the slopes are positive
Find the particular solution y=f(x) to the given differential
equation with the initial condition f(0)=3
Solution:

(a)

(b)

Slopes are positive at the points (x,y) where

dy

( y 1) x dx
2

1
ln y 1 x 3 C
3
1 3
x
C 3

y 1 e e
1

x3

y 1 Ke 3 , K eC
2 Ke0 K

(c)

y 1 2e

1 3
x
3

x 0 and y 1

90

Applications of Integrals:
Average value of a function:

f (t ) t 2 5t 6 cos t on 1,
2

f avg

5
2 2
1

5
(1)
2

2 1
5
6

t 5 6 cos t t 3 t 2 sin( t )
7 3
2

5/ 2

1.620993
1

Areas:
To find the area under the curve
you do
A

f ( x ) g ( x ) dx OR

A Upper Func Lower Func dx

a

To find the area in between a curve

you do

f ( y ) g ( y ) dx OR

Right Func Left Func dx

91

Example:

A x 1 xe x dx 3.5092
2

Volumes:
Disk:
Find the Volume generated by revolving the region bounded by

y 3 x , the line y 3, and theline x 10, above the line y 3

10

x 3 dx 504.309

92

Washer:
Find the Volume generated by revolving the region bounded by
y x2 2x 2
y x 4
and the line
about the x-axis

R x 4
r x2 2x 2
V

.56155

.56155

3.561

3.561

( R 2 r 2 )dx
(( x 4) 2 ( x 2 2 x 2) 2 )dx 278.923

Shells:
Rectangle parallel to axis of rotation

V 2 ( shell rad )( shell height )

93

Find an expression for the volume generated by revolving the region

y x3 5 x
y 5x 2
bounded by
and revolved about the x-axis
r x h x 3 5 x (5 x 2 )
V 2

1.381966

x x 3 5 x (5 x 2 ) dx 5.326

Cross Sections:
y x2 2

Find the cross sections of

and Semi Circles

y4

Squares:
s 4 ( x 2 2) 2 x 2
A s2 2 x2
V

EQT:

2 x
2

dx 6.033

using Squares, Equilateral Triangles,

94

s 4 ( x 2 2) 2 x 2
2
3 2
3
s
2 x2

4
4

3
2 x 2 dx 2.6127

Semi-Circle:

s 4 ( x 2 2) 2 x 2
2
2
d 2 x2
8
8
2
2
2
V
2 x dx 2.36953
2 8

FRQ #8

Solution
(a)
1

Area f ( x) g ( x)dx 2 x 1 x 3 x 1 x dx 1.133

95

(b)

Volume
1

2 g ( x) 2 f ( x) dx
2

(2 3( x 1) x ) 2 2 x(1 x) dx 16.719
0

Volume h( x) g ( x) dx
0

kx 1 x 3 x 1
1

(c)

x dx 15