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The circulatory system is a vast network of organs and vessels that is responsible for
the flow of blood, nutrients, hormones, oxygen and other gases to and from cells.
Without the circulatory system, the body would not be able to fight disease or maintain a
stable internal environment such as proper temperature and pH known as
homeostasis.
The systemic circulation is the portion of the circulatory system is the network of veins,
arteries and blood vessels that transports blood from heart, services the body's cells
and then re-enters the heart, the Mayo Clinic noted.
One of the most common diseases of the circulatory system is arteriosclerosis, in which
the fatty deposits in the arteries causes the walls to stiffen and thicken the walls.
According to the Mayo Clinic, the causes are a buildup of fat, cholesterol and other
material in the artery walls. This can restrict blood flow or in severe cases stop it all
together, resulting in a heart attack or stroke.
Stroke involves blockage of the blood vessels to the brain and is another major
condition of the circulatory system, according to Mitchell Weinberg of the North ShoreLIJ Health System. Risk factors include smoking, diabetes and high cholesterol, he
noted.
Another circulatory disease, hypertension commonly called high blood pressure
causes the heart to work harder and can lead to such complications as a heart attack, a
stroke, or kidney failure, the NLM noted.
An aortic aneurysm occurs when the aorta is damaged and starts to bulge or eventually
tear, which can cause severe internal bleeding. This weakness can be present at birth
or the result of atherosclerosis, obesity, high blood pressure or a combination of these
conditions, according to Weinberg.
Peripheral arterial disease (also known as PAD) typically involves areas of narrowing or
blockage within an artery, according to Jay Radhakrishnan, an interventional radiologist
in Houston, Texas. In addition, chronic venous insufficiency (also known as CVI)
involves areas reflux (or backward flow) within the superficial veins of the lower
extremities.
PAD is diagnosed with noninvasive testing including ultrasound, CT scan, and/or MRI.
Ultrasound is the least expensive of these methods, but also gives the least amount of
detail, as CT and MRI show a much higher degree of anatomic detail when identifying
areas of narrowing/blockage within an artery. CVI is diagnosed with ultrasound as the
venous reflux can be measured accurately by ultrasound, which ultimately guides
treatment.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as
neurons that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is essentially the
bodys electrical wiring.
Structurally, the nervous system has two components: the central nervous system and
the peripheral nervous system. According to the National Institutes of Health, the central
nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The peripheral nervous
system consists of sensory neurons, ganglia (clusters of neurons) and nerves that
connect to one another and to the central nervous system.
Functionally, the nervous system has two main subdivisions: the somatic, or voluntary,
component; and the autonomic, or involuntary, component. The autonomic nervous
system regulates certain body processes, such as blood pressure and the rate of
breathing, that work without conscious effort, according to Merck Manuals. The somatic
system consists of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord with muscles and
sensory receptors in the skin.
Multiple sclerosis (MS), in which the protective lining of the nerves is attacked by
the bodys immune system
Huntington's disease, which is an inherited condition that cause the nerve cells in
the brain to degenerate
Alzheimer's disease, which covers a wide range of disorders that impacts mental
functions, particularly memory.
Mayo Clinic also noted that the nervous system can also be affected by vascular
disorders such as:
Stroke, which occurs when there is bleeding on the brain or the blow flow to the
brain is obstructed;
Transient ischemic attack (TIA), which are mini-type strokes that last a shorter
period of time but mimic stroke symptoms; and
Infections such as meningitis, encephalitis, polio, and epidural abscess can also affect
the nervous system, the NIH noted.
Treatments vary from anti inflammatory medications and pain medications such as
opiates , to implanted nerve stimulators and wearable devices, Gozani said. Many
people also turn to herbal and holistic methods to reduce pain, such as acupuncture.
Neurosurgeons perform surgeries involving the nervous system and are certified by
the American Association of Neurological Surgeons.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
While most people associate muscles with strength, they do more than assist in lifting
heavy objects. The 650 muscles in the body not only support movement controlling
walking, talking, sitting, standing, eating and other daily functions that people
consciously perform but also help to maintain posture and circulate blood and other
substances throughout the body, among other functions.
Muscles are often associated with activities of the legs, arms and other appendages,
but muscles also produce more subtle movements, such as facial expressions, eye
movements and respiration, according to theNational Institutes of Health (NIH).
Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is an involuntary muscle responsible for
pumping blood throughout the body, according to The Merck Manual. The heart's
natural pacemaker is made of cardiac muscle that signals other cardiac muscles to
contract. Like visceral muscles, cardiac muscle tissue is controlled involuntarily. While
hormones and signals from the brain adjust the rate of contraction, cardiac muscle
stimulates itself to contract.
Muscle shapes
Muscles are further classified by their shape, size and direction, according to the NIH.
The deltoids, or shoulder muscles, have a triangular shape. The serratus muscle, which
originates on the surface of the second to ninth ribs at the side of the chest, and runs
along the entire anterior length of the scapula (shoulder blades), has a distinctive
sawlike shape. The rhomboid major, which attaches the scapula to the spinal column, is
a diamond shape.
Size can be used to differentiate similar muscles in the same region. The gluteal region
(the buttocks) contains three muscles differentiated by size: the gluteus maximus
(large), gluteus medius (medium) and gluteus minimus (smallest), the NIH noted.
The direction in which the muscle fibers run can be used to identify a muscle. In the
abdominal region, there are several sets of wide, flat muscles, according to the NIH.
The muscles whose fibers run straight up and down are the rectus abdominis, the ones
running transversely (left to right) are the transverse abdominis and the ones running at
an angle are the obliques. As any exercise enthusiast knows, obliques are among the
hardest muscles to develop to achieve "six-pack" abs.
Muscles also can be identified by their function. The flexor group of the forearm flexes
the wrist and the fingers. The supinator is a muscle that allows you to roll your wrist over
to face palm up. Adductor muscles in the legs adduct, or pull together, the limbs,
according to the NIH.
Learn about the muscles that move your body and keep you alive.
Credit: by Ross Toro, Infographics Artist
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SKELETAL SYSTEM
The adult human skeletal system consists of 206 bones, as well as a network of
tendons, ligaments and cartilage that connects them. The skeletal system performs vital
functions support, movement, protection, blood cell production, calcium storage and
endocrine regulation that enable us to survive.
Animals with internal skeletons made of bone, called vertebrates, are actually the
minority, as 98 percent of all animals are invertebrates, meaning they do not have
internal skeletons or backbones. Human infants are born with about 270 bones, some of
which fuse together as the body develops. By the time we reach adulthood, we have
206 bones, according to Arizona State Universitys School of Life Sciences.
The skeletons of adult males and females have some variation, primarily to
accommodate childbirth. The female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and proportionally
larger. A male's pelvis is about 90 degrees or less of angle, whereas a female's is 100
degrees or more.
While they become brittle when outside of the body, bones are very much alive inside
the body, being fed by a network of blood vessels from the circulatory system and
nerves from the nervous system, according to Healthline.
A typical bone has a dense and tough outer layer. Next is a layer of spongy bone, which
lighter and slightly flexible. In the middle of some bones is jelly-like bone marrow, where
new cells are constantly being produced for blood, the Merck Manuals noted.
Teeth are considered part of the skeletal system but they are not counted as bones.
Teeth are made of dentin and enamel, which is strongest substance in your body. Teeth
also play a key role in thedigestive system.
The skeletal system has two distinctive parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular
skeleton, according to the U.S National Library of Medicine(NLM).
The axial skeleton, with a total of 80 bones, consists of the vertebral column, the rib
cage and the skull. The axial skeleton transmits the weight from the head, the trunk and
the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints, which help humans
maintain our upright posture, the NLM noted.
The appendicular skeleton has a total of 126 bones, and is formed by the pectoral
girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle and the lower limbs, according to the NLM.
Their functions are to make walking, running and other movement possible and to
protect the major organs responsible for digestion, excretion and reproduction.
Osteoporosis is a prevalent disease, particularly among the elderly, resulting in the loss
of bone tissue. In osteoporosis, bone loses calcium, becomes thinner and may
disappear completely, according to Wei.Osteomalacia is a softening of the bones,
according to the Mayo Clinic. It is often caused by a vitamin D deficiency and results
from a defect in the bone-building process. Osteoporosis, on the other hand, develops
in previously constructed bones.
Arthritis is a group of more than 100 inflammatory diseases that damage joints and their
surrounding structures. Arthritis can attack joints, joint capsules, the surrounding tissue,
or throughout the body. It usually affects the joints of the neck, shoulders, hands, lower
back, hips, or knees. The diagnosis is suspected by a careful history and physical
exam and confirmed through laboratory and imaging studies. Treatment depends on the
type of arthritis, Wei said.
Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a
pronounced "C" or "S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is
typically becomes evident during adolescence, the Merck Manuals noted.
About 90 percent of people will experience lower back pain at some point in their lives,
according to Dr. James Nace of LifeBridge Health. Patients can often be helped with
things such as anti-inflammatory medications, but in some cases may need treatments
such as topical medications, patches or electrical stimulation.
One of the much rarer diseases of the skeletal system is bone cancer. It may originate
in the bones or spread there from another part of the body. In the United States, primary
bone cancers accounts for less than 1 percent of all cancer cases, according to
the American Cancer Society. Cancers that metastasize originate from other parts of
the body and then spread to the bones are much more common than primary bone
cancer.
Bone cancer is a malignancy arising in the bones and supporting structures such as
cartilage, according to Dr. Robert Christie, medical oncologist and hematologist
at Virginia Cancer Specialists, a practice inThe U.S. Oncology Network. Unfortunately,
these bone cancers are often seen in younger patients in their 20s and 30s versus lung
cancer and breast cancer which are typically diagnosed later in life.
While leukemia is a cancer that primarily affects the blood, the skeletal system is
involved as the cancer starts in the marrow of the bone. With this type of cancer,
abnormal white blood cells multiply uncontrollably, affecting the production of normal
white blood cells and red blood cells, according to the American Cancer Society.
Bursitis is a disorder that most commonly affects the shoulder and hip joints, Nace said.
It is caused by an inflammation of the bursa, small fluid-filled bags that act as lubricating
surfaces for muscles to move over bones.
The skeletal system is also susceptible to breaks, strains and fractures. While bones
are meant to protect the bodys vital organs, it takes about 10 to 16 pounds of pressure
to break an average bone. Bones such as the skull and femur are much tougher to
break.
Hippocrates, the ancient Greek father of medicine, develops splints for fractures
of the tibia.
During the Roman era, Galen (199-129 B.C.) describes the skeletal system and
the surrounding muscles. Medical experts of the time also develop the first
artificial prostheses.
In 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen accidentally discovers an image cast from his
cathode ray generator, projected far beyond the possible range of the cathode
rays. He wins the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1901 for his discovery of X-rays.
In 1949, H. Lowry Rush (1879-1965) uses stainless steel pins to treat long bone
fractures.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction,
sleep, and mood, among other things.
The endocrine system is made up of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid
glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (in females) and testicles (in males), the
Mayo Clinic notes.
The word endocrine derives from the Greek words "endo," meaning within, and "crinis,"
meaning to secrete, according to Health Mentor Online. In general, a gland selects and
removes materials from the blood, processes them and secretes the finished chemical
product for use somewhere in the body. The endocrine system affects almost every
organ and cell in the body, according to the Merck Manual.
Although the hormones circulate throughout the body, each type of hormone is targeted
toward certain organs and tissues, the Merck Manual notes. The endocrine system gets
some help from organs such as the kidney, liver, heart and gonads, which have
secondary endocrine functions. The kidney, for example, secretes hormones such as
erythropoietin and renin.
The most common endocrine disease in the United States is diabetes, a condition in
which the body does not properly process glucose, a simple sugar. This is due to the
lack of insulin or, if the body is producing insulin, because the body is not working
effectively, according to Dr. Jennifer Loh, chief of the department of endocrinology
for Kaiser Permanente in Hawaii.
Hormone imbalances can have a significant impact on the reproductive system,
particularly in women, Loh explained.
Another disorder, hypothyroidism, occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce
enough thyroid hormone to meet the bodys needs. Loh noted that insufficient thyroid
hormone can cause many of the body's functions to slow or shut down completely.
Thyroid cancer begins in the thyroid gland and starts when the cells in the thyroid begin
to change, grow uncontrollably and eventually form a tumor, according to Loh.
Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs when blood
glucose drops below normal levels. This typically happens as a result of treatment for
diabetes when too much insulin is taken. While Loh noted that the condition can occur
in people not undergoing treatment for diabetes, such an occurrence is fairly rare.
What is an endocrinologist?
After completing four years of medical school, people who want to be endocrinologists
then spend three or four years in an internship and residency program. These specialty
programs cover internal medicine, pediatrics, or obstetrics and gynecology, according to
the American Board of Internal Medicine.
Endocrinologists-in-training then spend two or three more years learning how to
diagnose and treat hormone conditions. Overall, an endocrinologist's training will take
more than 10 years after the undergraduate degree. They are certified by the American
Board of Internal Medicine. Endocrinologists typically specialize in one or two areas of
endocrinology, such as diabetes or infertility. These specialists treat patients with fertility
issues and also assess and treat patients with health concerns surrounding
menstruation and menopause, Loh noted.
URINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system, also known as the renal system, produces, stores and eliminates
urine, the fluid waste excreted by the kidneys. The kidneys make urine by filtering
wastes and extra water from blood. Urine travels from the kidneys through two thin
tubes called ureters and fills the bladder. When the bladder is full, a person urinates
through the urethra to eliminate the waste.
The urinary system is susceptible to a variety of infections and other problems, including
blockages and injuries. These can be treated by a urologist or another health care
professional who specializes in the renal system.
The urinary system works with the lungs, skin and intestines to maintain the balance of
chemicals and water in the body. Adults eliminate about 27 to 68 fluid ounces (800 to
2,000 milliliters) per day based on typical daily fluid intake of 68 ounces (2
liters), National Institutes of Health(NIH). Other factors in urinary system function
include fluid lost through perspiring and breathing. In addition, certain types of
medications, such as diuretics that are sometimes used to treat high blood pressure,
can also affect the amount of urine a person produces and eliminates. Some
beverages, such as coffee and alcohol, can also cause increased urination in some
people.
The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which are bean-shaped
organs that are located just below the rib cage in the middle of the back. The kidneys
remove urea waste product formed by the breakdown of proteins from the blood
through small filtering units called nephrons, according to the Cleveland Clinic. Each
nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a
small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances,
forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the
kidney.
From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes, called ureters, to the bladder. The
ureters are about 8 to 10 inches long (20 to 25 centimeters), according to the Cleveland
Clinic.
Muscles in the ureter walls continuously tighten and relax to force urine away from the
kidneys, according to the NIH. A backup of urine can cause a kidney infection. Small
amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters about every 10 to 15
seconds.
The bladder is a hollow, balloon-shaped organ that is located in the pelvis. It is held in
place by ligaments attached to other organs and the pelvic bones, according to
the Kidney & Urology Foundation of America. The bladder stores urine until the brain
signals the bladder that the person is ready to empty it. A normal, healthy bladder can
hold up to 16 ounces (almost half a liter) of urine comfortably for two to five hours.
To prevent leakage, circular muscles called sphincters close tightly around the opening
of the bladder into the urethra, the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The
only difference between the female and male urinary system is the length of the urethra,
according to Merck Manuals. In females, the urethra is about 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) to 2
inches (5.1 cm) long and sits between the clitoris and the vagina. In males, it runs the
length of the penis, is about 8 inches (20 cm) long and opens at the end of the penis.
The male urethra is used to eliminate urine as well as semen during ejaculation.
Kidney stones are clumps of calcium oxalate that can be found anywhere in the urinary
tract. Kidney stones form when chemicals in the urine become concentrated enough to
form a solid mass, according to the Cleveland Clinic. They can cause pain in the back
and sides, as well as blood in the urine. Many kidney stones can be treated with
minimally invasive therapy, such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, which
disintegrates the kidney stones with shock waves.
Kidney failure, also called renal failure and chronic kidney disease, can be a temporary
(often acute) condition or can become a chronic condition resulting in the inability of the
kidneys to filter waste from the blood. Other conditions, such as diabetes and
hypertension, can cause chronic kidney disease, according to the Mayo Clinic. Acute
cases may be caused by trauma or other damage, and may improve over time with
treatment. However, renal disease may lead to chronic kidney failure, which may require
dialysis treatments or even a kidney transplant.
Bladder cancer is diagnosed in about 75,000 Americans each year and is more frequent
in men and the elderly according to the American Cancer Society. The symptoms,
including back or pelvic pain, difficulty urinating and urgent/and or frequent urination,
mimic other diseases or disorders of the urinary system
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs in both males
and females that work together for the purpose of procreating, according to
the Cleveland Clinic. Due to its vital role in the survival of the species, many scientists
argue that the reproductive system is among the most important systems in the entire
body.
The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes, where sperm are
produced, and the penis, according to Merck Manuals. The penis and urethra belong to
both the urinary and reproductive systems in males. The testes are carried in an
external pouch known as the scrotum, where they normally remain slightly cooler than
body temperature to facilitate sperm production.
The external structures of the female reproductive system include the clitoris, labia
minora, labia majora and Bartholins glands, according to the Cleveland Clinic. The
major internal organs of the female reproductive system include the vagina and uterus
which act as the receptacle for semen and the ovaries, which produce the
female's ova. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the fallopian
tubes connect the uterus to the ovaries. In response to hormonal changes, one ovum,
or egg or more in the case of multiple births is released and sent down the
fallopian tube during ovulation. If not fertilized, this egg is eliminated as a result of
menstruation.
Fertilization occurs if a sperm enters the fallopian tube and burrows into the egg,
according to WebMD. While the fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, it can also
happen in the uterus itself. The egg then becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus,
where it begins the processes of embryogenesis (in which the embryo forms) and
morphogenesis (in which the fetus begins to take shape). When the fetus is mature
enough to survive outside of the womb, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus
propel it through the birth canal.
Tests to detect ovarian cancer, as well as cancer of the fallopian tube, and primary
peritoneal cancer are currently being studied, according to the National Cancer
Institute.
There are two tests used to screen for cervical cancer. The Pap test screens for cellular
changes in the cervix called cytology, while the genital human papillomavirus (HPV) test
identifies the presence of infection with high risk HPV, the strains that are linked to
cervical cancer, according to Dr. Charles Dubin, an OB/GYN in Santa Monica, Calif.
A recent study published by Cancer Cytopathology, found that HPV-only screening
misses more cervical cancer in women than Pap-only or co-testing, based on
approximately 8.6 million women ages 30 to 65. There is approximately a three-fold
improvement in the cancer detection rate of co-testing compared to HPV only.
Current guidelines recommend that women first start getting the Pap test alone when
they turn 21 and repeat every three years if the test is normal until age 30. A Pap-plusHPV test, or co-testing, is recommended for women ages 30 to 65, and if both are
negative repeated every five years, regardless of whether they have received HPV
vaccination. However, there is compelling scientific evidence that co-testing every three
years misses less cases of cancer and pre-cancer than every five year co-testing,
Dubin noted.
While genital HPV is typically associated with females, it is the most common sexually
transmitted infection. The majority of sexually active people in the United States male
and female will have HPV at some time in their lives, but most will not experience
any symptoms. In a small portion of women it can result in cervical cancer and genital
warts and in men it can cause penile and anal cancer and genital warts, according to
the NIH.
Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases, including genital herpes,
gonorrhea and syphilis, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). HIV/AIDS, a
disease of the immune system, is not exclusively transmitted through sexual contact;
sexual activity is one of the ways that the HIV virus is spread.
For females, severe menstrual cramping, or dysmenorrheal, is the most common
disease of the reproductive system occurs with a womans monthly menstrual period,
according to Dr. Sheryl Ross, OB/GYN and Womens Health Specialist at Providence
Saint Johns Health Center. Ross was also a medical consultant on the books
Expecting Fitness and Two at a Time.
Severe pain before or during your period can last anywhere from one to seven days
and disrupt your normal day-to-day routines at school, work and socially, Ross noted.
Diagnosis is made by the patients medical history and a pelvic exam. The best
treatment includes medications that block the effects of prostaglandins and include
ibuprofen and naproxen. The birth control pill also works well in treating dysmenorrhea
by decreasing the blood flow, Ross noted.
Another common disorder of the female reproductive system is a vaginal yeast
infection, which is caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina. Most can be successfully
treated with over-the-counter medications, according to WebMD.
Endometriosis is a condition where that normally lines the inside of your uterus the
endometrium ends up outside of uterus, most commonly in the ovaries, bowel or the
tissue lining your pelvis. The endometrial tissue becomes trapped, causing pain,
according to the Mayo Clinic.
Pelvic inflammatory disease can involve an infection of any of the female reproductive
organs, including the uterus and ovaries. Sexually transmitted diseases, such as
gonorrhea and chlamydia, are typical causes of pelvic inflammatory disease, according
to the NIH. Any of these STIs can cause serious and potentially long term reproductive
problems that include chronic pelvic pain and infertility, Ross said.