01 EE M EE Intro and Basic Concepts A

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014
ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT
ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT
ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT
SUBJECT
2
SUBJECT
0. Subject.
1. Introduction and basic concepts.
2. Power transformers.
3. Electromechanical conversion of energy.
4. Static converters.
SUBJECT
Final grade = 0,3Report + 0,7Exam
Report: Individual, Matlab+simulink

Exam: 1 form DIN A4 (two sides), calculator, ballpoint pen
ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION
5
INTRODUCTION

a) Electric current. Electric voltage. Power. Energy.
b) Signs conventions.
c) Kirchhoffs laws.
d) General response of an electric circuit.
e) Sinusoidal magnitudes. Phasors. Impedance. Ohms
generalized law.
f) Power in AC.
g) Three-phase systems.
INTRODUCTION

2. Electric power transformers.
a) Ideal single-phase power transformer
b) Nearly-ideal single-phase power transformer
c) Real single-phase power transformer
d) Three-phase power transformers
3. Electro-mechanic conversion of energy.
7
INTRODUCTION

a) Conductive, dielectric and magnetic materials.
Magnetic modelling. Electrical machines.
b) Contactors
c) DC machine
d) Synchronous machine
e) Induction machine
INTRODUCTION

a) Semiconductors
b) Rectifiers
c) Choppers
d) Regulators
e) Inverters
BASIC CONCEPTS
Electric current:
Three-dimensional charge movement, usually in
conductors, slender structure with length much greater than
the diameter, so we were a one-dimensional system and
the current intensity is defined as "Total charge per unit
time passing through a control surface" (usually the straight
section of the wire).
d
Coulomb

= Amper (A)
d
second
10
BASIC CONCEPTS
Voltage (or electrical potential difference):

Energy involved in the movement of the electrical charge
unit between two points.
=
d
Joule

= Volt (V)
Coulomb
d
Depending on the signs conventions the energy can be

transferred or absorbed.
Synonyms: potential, potential difference, voltage,
electromotive force, back electromotive force, induced
voltage ...
11
BASIC CONCEPTS
Electric power:
Energy per unit time involved in passing a current i
between two points that have a voltage difference of u.
=
d
d d
=
=
d
d d
Joule
= Watt W
second
Voltage: Energy Availability

Current: Effectiveness of availability
12
BASIC CONCEPTS
Electric energy:
Integration of electric power over time.
=
d Wattsecond = Joule J
1 kWh = 3,6 10 J
Storage difficulties. Balance of powers.

Energy only for financial and administrative purposes.
13
BASIC CONCEPTS
Signs Conventions:
Arrows assessment of voltages and currents to different
elements.
Meaning of the sign of a quantity:
Positive: The reality coincides with the valuation
Negative: The reality is the opposite of the valuation
For DC current signs are maintained over time
For AC current signs vary in time
14
BASIC CONCEPTS
Signs Conventions:
The implementation signs conventions is especially useful in
determining the energy performance of systems, that is, to know
whether a particular element delivers or receives power.
For evaluating energy we can use two criteria: electrical power
consumed by a particular element or group of elements, or electrical
power delivered to a particular element or group of elements. In order
to maintain the coherence of the system, the expression of the power
will vary the sign depending on the voltages and currents assessment
arrows for that element or group of elements that the power is
calculated.
15
BASIC CONCEPTS
Signs Conventions:
Currents
Voltages
A
uAB
B
16
BASIC CONCEPTS
Signs Conventions:
Matching
assessment arrows
Not matching
assessment arrows
i
u
Pdelivered = -ui
Pconsumed = ui
Pdelivered = ui
Pconsumed = -ui
17
BASIC CONCEPTS
Kirchhoffs laws:
Although always associated to electric circuits, they are
actually useful expressions of energy and mass conservation
laws.
An electrical knot is a connection point where converge more

than two electric currents.
18
BASIC CONCEPTS
1st. Kirchhoffs Law or Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL):

The sum of currents entering a knot must equal the sum of
the currents leaving the knot. Result in the electrical circuit
there is no possibility of storing mass and this must be
preserved (law of conservation of mass).
19
BASIC CONCEPTS
2nd. Kirchhoffs Law or Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL):

The addition of voltages in a closed path is zero.
Consequence of the electric field is conservative.
If you take a charge and moves it from one point to another
the voltage is the energy per unit charge moved, if the
process is repeated by a closed path energy balance
should be zero because the point arrival is the same as the
output one (the law of conservation of energy).
= 0
20
MODELING ELEMENTS
Lineal modelization of the electric system elements:

The elements presented are idealizations. Idealized
elements hardly correspond to reality; however, the
combined use of different models can describe reality quite
accurately.
They will be categorized into two groups: Actives
characterized by the fact that can generate and consume
energy (in average value in case of AC), and passives
characterized by the fact that they only consume energy
(on average value in case of AC).
21
MODELING ELEMENTS
Active elements
Voltage source: Constant voltage in their terminals
(connection points) regardless of how much current is
delivering.
DC current
AC current
u(t)
u(t)
u(t)
u(t)
22
MODELING ELEMENTS
Active elements
Current source: Constant current that flows through it
regardless of the voltage at its terminals.
DC current
i(t)
AC current
i(t)
i(t)
i(t)
i(t)
i(t)
23
MODELING ELEMENTS
Passive elements
Resistor: Linear relationship between voltage and current,
valued in the same direction (Ohm's law). The ratio is the
value of the resistor R, measured in Ohm ().
i(t)
u(t)
( )
24
MODELING ELEMENTS
Passive elements
Resistor:
In the usual electro materials (Cu and Al) and the industrial
temperature range the resistor varies linearly with
temperature according to the expression
=
1+ (
where the thermal coefficient is

0,004 K
25
MODELING ELEMENTS
Passive elements
Resistor:
In metals, in addition to temperature, the resistor depends
on the material and shape, for wire type conductors
(slender), is directly proportional to length and inversely
proportional to cross section:
=
Where is the resistivity, characteristic of the material,

and, of course, a function of temperature:
=
1+ (
)
26
MODELING ELEMENTS
Passive elements
Resistor:
The power consumed by a resistor is
=
0 as > 0
The materials of very high resistivity are called insulators or

dielectrics, and are used to prevent the circulation of
currents.
27
MODELING ELEMENTS
Passive elements
Inductance: Linear relationship between the voltage and
the time derivative of the current valued in the same
direction. The ratio is the value of the self-induction
coefficient or inductance L, measured in Henry (H).
i(t)
u(t)
d( )
d
28
MODELING ELEMENTS
Passive elements
Inductance:
Inductance or self-inductance coefficient reflects the
presence of a magnetic field in a zone of the space. The
magnetic field is due (or linked) to the flow of electric
current. If the presence of the field was not desired it is said
that is a parasite inductance. The magnetic field stores
energy according to the expression
=
1
2
29
MODELING ELEMENTS
Passive elements
Inductance:
The power consumed by an inductance is
=
d( )
=
d
( )
At instantaneous value (in a given time) can have positive

or negative values, but in steady state (constant or variable
repetitive) the average value of the power consumed will
be null.
30
MODELING ELEMENTS
Passive elements
Capacitance: Linear relationship between the current and
the time derivative of the voltage measured in the same
direction. The ratio is the value of the capacity C, measured
in Farads (F).
i(t)
u(t)
d ( )
d
31
MODELING ELEMENTS
Passive elements
Capacitance: The capacitance reflects the presence of an
electric field in a zone of the space. The electric field is due
(or linked) to the voltage between two points separated by
a dielectric material. If the presence of the field was not
desired it is said that is a parasite capacitance; however if it
was desired then a device called capacitor is manufactured
specifically. The electric field stores energy according to
the expression
=
1
2
32
MODELING ELEMENTS
Passive elements
Capacitance:
The power consumed by a capacitance is
=
d ( )
=
d
( )
At instantaneous value (in a given time) can have positive

or negative values, but in steady state (constant or variable
repetitive) the average value of the power consumed will
be null.
33
MODELING ELEMENTS
Passive elements
Magnetic coupling: Linear relationship between the
voltages and time derivatives of the currents from two
circuits, which are said to be magnetically coupled. The
coupling coefficients that are called self inductances (L1
and L2) and the mutual coupling coefficient (M ) are
measured in Henry (H).
i1(t)
i2(t)
=
u1(t)
L1
L2
u2(t)
d ( )
+
d
d ( )
+
d
d ( )
d
d ( )
d
34
MODELING ELEMENTS
Passive elements
Magnetic coupling: The two inductances share part of the
magnetic field, which is represented by the mutual
induction coefficient M. Self inductances reflect the total
magnetic field seen by each inductance, which is formed by
the common part and the each self part. In order to be
magnetically coupled, two inductances must be relatively
close together. If the presence of the magnetic field,
especially the common part was not desired it is said that it
is parasite.
35
General Response of a Circuit
General response of an electric circuit

Evolution of magnitudes in time:
In a circuit formed by the mentioned linear elements, its
behavior can be described by a system of linear differential
equations, which is called the system state equations when
written in the following format:
d
d
with the initial conditions
0 =
where X is the vector of state variables, consisting of voltages on

capacitances and currents in inductances. The A matrix is a function of
the passive elements of the system (with constant coefficients) and B is
the excitations vector function of passive and active elements of the
system.
36
Being a linear system with constant coefficients, we know

that the solution is of type:
=
+ p
(homogeneous solution + particular solution)
37
Physical significance: The homogeneous solution, that in electrical

circuits we know as free response corresponds to the evolution of the
circuit without active elements. Since the elements involved are only
passive ones, and resistors always dissipate energy, the hypothetical
energy stored in inductances and capacitances will dissipate in more or
less time.
The free response of the system in a real system always ends up going
extinct with time (time constants) which depends on the values of the
circuit elements.
The particular solution, that in electrical circuits we will call forced
response corresponds to the evolution of the circuit "forced" by energy
sources, or active elements. This response 'never' finishes as the
capability of the sources to provide energy.
38
Whenever there is a change in a circuit (e.g. opening or closing a

switch) during the first instants after the change the system response is
called transient system response (the sum of free and forced
responses) and when the free response becomes extinct (only remains
the forced response) it is said that the circuit is in steady state.
As steady state is where the system evolves most of the time, the first
interest of electrical engineering is steady state, remaining secondly the
transient response.
To determine the steady state response of circuits it can be used the
common tools of mathematics (Laplace transform, test solutions, etc.).
But in order to minimize efforts we will develop electrical specific
methodologies in order to short the calculation time.
39
System state equation example

iU
iL
R1
uR1
iC
C
uL
uC
R2
uR2
The state variables are the voltage on the capacitance

and the current in the inductance, so the order of the
system is 2.
To find the state equation, we can write for each element:
40

iU
iC
uR1
=
=
iL
R1
uL
R2
uC
uR2
From 1st. Kirchhoffs law:
d
d
d
=
d
From 2nd. Kirchhoffs law:

+
+
=0
=0
41

iU
iL
R1
uR1
iC
C
uL
uC
R2
uR2
Substituting the previous equations into the last two result in:
d
d
=
d
d
And in matrix form:

1
d
d
with the initial condicions

0
0
0
=
42

iU
iL
R1
iC
uR1
uL
R2
uC
uR2
Solving the differential equation we find the transient response

and the steady state response, but if we only want to find the
steady state response, we can go much faster, since we can
directly write:
iC
iL
uC
+
t
43
SINUSOIDAL MAGNITUDES
Sinusoidal Magnitudes
m(t)
Mpeak
T = 1/f
= 2
cos
in rad/s and f in Hz (s-1)

Maximum value = Peak value = Mpeak
Peak to peak value = 2Mpeak
44
m(t)
Mpeak
T = 1/f
Mean value:
( )=
cos
1
2
cos
)=0
Rectified mean value:

( ) =
cos
)=
0,64
45
Effective value (RMS, root mean square):

=
=
1
2
(
cos
2
=
= 2 cos
)=
)=
2
=
cos
0,707
= 2 cos
46
PHASOR REPRESENTATION
Phasor representation of
sinusoidal magnitudes
Sinusoidal waveform:
Eulers formula:
=
= 2
cos
+
= 1
= cos + sin
Biunivocal correspondence sinusoid - phasor

= 2
cos
=
47
Phasor Diagram
Sign convention: Positive angles in counter clockwise
=
I
48
Phasor Diagram
Example: Sum of two sinusoidal magnitudes
= 2
cos
= 2
cos
= +
M3
M2
M1
49
Operations with phasors

Linear combination of sinusoids:

( )
Derivative:
d
d
=4+ 3
4 + 3 = 3 + 4
j 90
Triangle inequality (Schwarz):

I1 = 30 A
I2 = 40 A
I3 = ?
I2
I1
I3 = 10 A
I1
I2
10 A I3 70 A
+
I1
I2
I3 = 70 A
50
LINEAR ELEMENTS IN AC
Linear elements in sinusoidal

steady state
Resistors (R ) satisfy Ohms Law:
i(t)
u(t)
= 2 cos
= 2 cos
u(t)
R
i(t)
Taking into account phasors:
=
51

steady state
Inductances (L ):
i(t)
u(t)
= 2 cos
= 2 cos
=
u(t)
+
+
XL
i(t)
=
52

steady state
Capacitances (C ):
u(t)
XC
i(t)
i(t)
u(t)
= 2 cos
= 2 cos
=
+
=
=
53

steady state
Magnetic coupling (M ):
i1(t)
u1(t)
d ( )
d
d ( )
d
=
=
+
+
=
=
+
+
i2(t)
L1
d ( )
+
d
d ( )
+
d
L2
u2(t)

54
IMPEDANCE
Impedance
Complex number Z is named (complex) impedance whose
real part is the resistive part and the imaginary part is the
reactance (inductive or capacitive) part. This definition
allows to express the generalized Ohm's Law:
=
Where Z, in a generic form, it can be expressed as:

=
55
IMPEDANCE
u(t)
Z
XC
Z
X XL
i(t)
= 2 cos
= 2 cos
+
+
56
POWER IN AC
Power in AC
= 2 cos
= 2 cos
The consumed instantaneous power is:

=
=2
cos
cos
+
cos
=2
=2
cos
cos
cos
+
cos
cos
cos
sin
+
= cos cos
sin
sin sin
sin
+
sin
57
POWER IN AC
( )=2
cos
cos
cos
sin
cos
=2
1 + cos 2
2
=2
1
cos
2
+2
cos
cos 2
+2
2
cos
sin 2
1
cos
2
cos 2
+2 +
2
sin 2
2
sin
sin
1 + cos
; sin cos
2
+2
sin 2
+2
2
cos
=2
+
cos
sin
= cos cos
+ cos 2
sin sin
+2 +
58
POWER IN AC
cos
cos 2
+2 +
p(t )
UI
= 0
= 90 ?
UIcos
UI
Tp
= 2
= 2
59
POWER IN AC
Thermal, electrical, mechanical, chemical, etc. system inertia

filters the sinusoidal component of the electric power since
the time constants are much higher than the electric one.
The only systems that have similar time constants to the
electric power time constant are those with electronic
components. These systems are nonlinear, and therefore
excluded from the study. So what matters for electro technical
applications is the mean value of the instantaneous power,
called ACTIVE POWER P.
60
POWER IN AC
Active power P, energy consumed by time unit, measured

in Watts (W)
=
( )
cos
Reactive power Q, measured in volt-ampere-reactive (var),

is defined (for convenience) as
=
sin
Apparent power S, measured in volt-ampere (VA), is

defined as
=
61
POWER IN AC
The three AC powers can be grouped under the named

complex apparent power:
=
cos
sin
The power factor fdp is defined as

=
= cos
We are interested in unity power factor. Why?
62
POWER IN AC
Power in each element
Generic Z :
R :
+ 0
L :
C :
=0+
=0

63
POWER IN AC
Power in each element

Magnetic coupling M :
=
=
+
+
cos
=0+
64
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Three-phase systems
Usually, a three-phase system is obtained with a three-phase
generator and not with three single-phase generators.

65
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Three-phase generator
uan(t )
ubn(t )
ucn(t )
Direct sequence (abc) and inverse sequence (acb).

66
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
The generator provides a balanced (phase to neutral voltages
are equal) and symmetric (phase to phase voltages are equal)
three-phase system.

120
=2
30
cos 30 = 2
3
= 3
2
Line to line voltage = 3 Line to neutral voltage
67
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
uab

uan
ubc
ubn
uca
120
120
ucn
30
120
120
The rated voltage of a three-phase system is the line to line

voltage!
68
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Three-phase systems: a operator

120
69
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Wye connection (generators and load)

70
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Why not to supply loads with line to line voltages?

71
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
A three-phase system of line to line voltages can be
created by connecting generator windings in the named
delta connection
a

72
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Usually we do not care (or do not know) how the supply

grid is connected to. The sources, therefore, are omitted in
the drawings.
We just need to know if the power system is a 3-wire (3
phases) or 4-wire (3 phases and neutral) grid.
LV grid: 4-wire, due to non-symmetric consumers.
MV grid: 3-wire, because three-phase consumers are
intrinsically symmetric.
73
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
3-wire system:
4-wire system:
74
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Wye-connected load

Line current (Ia) matches load branch current (I1)

75
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Delta-connected load

Line current does NOT match load branch current!
76
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Power
If the three-phase load is symmetric (quite common) the
total power is as follows
=3
cos
= 3 cos
= 3 sin
=
=
3 cos
+
3 sin
= 3
cos
+ sin
= 3
77

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Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Final grade = 0,3Report + 0,7Exam

Report: Individual, Matlab+simulink

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

1. Introduction and basic concepts.

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

1. Introduction and basic concepts.

1. Introduction and basic concepts.

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

1. Introduction and basic concepts.

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Voltage (or electrical potential difference):

Depending on the signs conventions the energy can be

Voltage: Energy Availability

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Storage difficulties. Balance of powers.

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

An electrical knot is a connection point where converge more

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

1st. Kirchhoffs Law or Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL):

2nd. Kirchhoffs Law or Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL):

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Lineal modelization of the electric system elements:

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

where the thermal coefficient is

Where is the resistivity, characteristic of the material,

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

The materials of very high resistivity are called insulators or

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

At instantaneous value (in a given time) can have positive

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

At instantaneous value (in a given time) can have positive

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

General Response of a Circuit

General response of an electric circuit

with the initial conditions

where X is the vector of state variables, consisting of voltages on

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

General Response of a Circuit

Being a linear system with constant coefficients, we know

(homogeneous solution + particular solution)

General Response of a Circuit

Physical significance: The homogeneous solution, that in electrical

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

General Response of a Circuit

Whenever there is a change in a circuit (e.g. opening or closing a

General Response of a Circuit

System state equation example

The state variables are the voltage on the capacitance

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

General Response of a Circuit

System state equation example

From 1st. Kirchhoffs law:

From 2nd. Kirchhoffs law:

General Response of a Circuit

System state equation example

And in matrix form:

with the initial condicions

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

General Response of a Circuit