Microstructure and Hardness

of Large Diameter Wire Ropes

George F. Vander Voort and Gabriel M. Lucas
Buehler Ltd
Lake Bluff, Illinois USA

Wire Rope Golden Gate Suspension Bridge

Support Cables for Main Deck

A Section From a Main Cable

Suspension Bridge in Dubrovnik, Croatia

Bridge from Rosario to Victoria (Argentina)

One of about 12 spans

Radio Telescope, Arecibo, Puerto Rico

8 Large Diameter Ropes Moor the Ocean

America to the Sea Floor Gulf of Mexico

Wire Rope Recovered from Ocean America

Ocean America Wire Ropes Broken During

Hurricane Ivan

Another View of Broken Ropes

Sections from 11 Used Wire Mooring Ropes

Rope 1 (Right Regular Lay)

Rope 1 Taken Apart to show 6 Outer

Strands and 1 IWRC

IWRC

Identification Tape

6 Strands and the IWRC of a 6 x 47 Rope

IWRC

Broken End of an Outer Strand

3.5 Diam. Galvanized 6 x 47 Rope

IWRC
Outer
Strand

(7 x 19
wires)

(47 wires)

Bridon Intl. (UK) Winch 2, Ocean America

3.5 Diam. Galvanized 6 x 47 Rope

IWRC
Outer
Strand

Bridon Intl. (UK) Rope Winch 7, Ocean America

Cross Section of the IWRC for a

Bridon Intl. 6 x 47 Wire Rope

3.5 Diam. Galvanized 6 x 47 Rope

IWRC
Outer
Strand

Unknown Manufacturer, Found on Sea Floor, Gulf of Mexico

Outer Strand Rope 1 (6 x 55 Rope)

Outer Strand Rope 3 (6 x 55 Rope)

Ocean America, Winch 2, Outer Strand

Transverse Plane, Galvanized Surface and Knoop Traverse

Ocean America, Winch 2, Outer Strand

Transverse Plane, Zinc Coating

Ocean America, Winch 7, Outer Strand

Galvanized Coating, 500x, 4% Picral

20 m

1070 CS, 900 F, 482 C

20 m

1072 CS, 900 F, 482 C

0.67 m

1080 CS, 900 F, 482 C

20 m

1072 CS, 950 F, 510 C

11 m
m

1070 CS, 900 F, 482 C Cold Drawn

Light micrographs (4% picral) and TEM replicas of patented carbon steel wire.
Wire was 0.161 (4.1 mm) diam., except for cold drawn wire (0.08, 2 mm diam.)

Ocean America, Winch 7, Outer Strand

500x 4% Picral Longitudinal Plane

Ocean America, Winch 7, IWRC

500x, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Ocean America, Winch 7, IWRC

Pearlite, 500x, Klemms I, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor Rope Outer Strand

Zn Coating, 4% Picral, 500x, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor Rope Outer Strand

Zn Coating, 500x, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor Rope, Outer Strand

No Zn Coating, 200X, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor Rope, Outer Strand

Pearlite, 500x, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor, IWRC

Zn Coating, 200x, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor Wire, IWRC

No Zn Coating, 200x, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor, IWRC

Pearlite, 500x, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor Rope, IWRC

Pearlite, 500x, Klemms I, Longitudinal Plane

Knoop Hardness Traverse

Outer Strand, OA Winch 7 vs Unknown Rope

Knoop Hardness Values 500

gf

OA-7 Outer Strand LD 0.1659" Vs. SF Outer Strand

LD 0.1669"
560
540
520
500
480
460
440
420
400
380
360
340
320
300

OA -7- LD 0.1659
SF LD 0.1669

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Thousandths of an Inch, mils

Wires are same approximate diameter, 0.1659 vs

0.1669 diameter

Knoop Hardness Traverse

IWRC of OA Winch 2 vs IWRC of Unknown Rope

Knoop Hardness Values 500 gf

OA-2 IWRC TD 0.1786" Vs. SF IWRC TD 0.1773

600
580
560
540
520
500
480

OA-2 IWRC TD 0.1786

460

SF IWRC TD 0.1773

440
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Thousandths of an Inch, mils

Wires are the same approximate size, 0.1786 and

0.1773 in diameter

Knoop Hardness Traverse

Outer Strand of OA Winch 2 vs Unknown Rope

Knoop Hardness Values 500gf

OA-2 Outer Strand TD 0.1148" Vs. SF Outer Strand TD 0.1148"

620
600
580
560
540
OA-2 Strand T D 0.1148

520

SF Strand T D 0.1148
500
0

10

20

30

40

50

Thousandths of an Inch, mils

Wires are the same diameter, 0.1148

Knoop Hardness Traverse

IWRC of OA Winch 7 vs Unknown Rope
OA-7 IWRC LD 0.1143" Vs. SF IWRC LD 0.1143"

Knoop Hardness Values 500 gf

580
560
540
520
500
OA-7 IWRC LD1143

480

SF IWRC LD1143

460
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Thousandths of an Inch, mils

Wires are the same diameter, 0.1143

Knoop Hardness Traverse

IWRC of OA Winch 2 vs. Unknown Rope

Knopp Hardness Values 500 gf

OA-2 IWRC T D 0.0727 Vs. SF IWRC T D 0.0732

620
600
580
560
540
OA-2 IWRC T D 0.0727

520

SF IWRC T D 0.0732

500
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Thousandths of an Inch, mils

Wires are same approximate size, 0.0727 vs.

0.0732 diameter

Knoop Hardness Traverse

Kiswire IWRC, Various Sizes

Knoop Hardness Values 500 gf

KIS IWRC L D 0.084", 0.116", 0.152", 0.180"

KIS
KIS
KIS
KIS

580
560
540

IWRC L D 0.084"
IWRC L D 0.116"
IWRC L D 0.152"
IWRC L D 0.180"

520
500
480
460
440
420
400
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Thousandth of Inches

70

80

90

Knoop Hardness Traverses

Kiswire Outer Strands

Knoop Hardness Values 500 gf

KIS Outer L D 0.063", D 0.072", D 0.111", D 0.129", D

0.145"
KIS Outer L D 0.063"

580
560
540
520
500

KIS Outer L D 0.072"

KIS Outer L D 0.111"
KIS Outer L D 0.129"
KIS Outer L D 0.145"

480
460
440
420
400
0

20

40
Thousandth of Inches

60

80

Pearlite in Wire from Ocean America,

Winch 7 (Bridon UK)

Pearlite in Wire from Sea Floor

1848 Delaware Aqueduct (Roebling Aqueduct)

Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania and Minisink Ford, New York, USA

Originally constructed to carry the Delaware and Hudson

Canal. Converted to a one-lane vehicular bridge soon after the
canal closed in 1898. Substantially restored in 1980's and
1990's, but retains original cables (2150 wires in 7 strands,
surrounded by wrapping wires; 8.5-inch diameter). The oldest
surviving suspension bridge in the USA.

The Restored Bridge with Ice Breakers

Photo by David Denenberg

Photo by Patrick S. ODonnell

Originally an aqueduct
for canal boats, since
converted for vehicular
and foot traffic (one-lane,
with walkway)

National Park Service

After the National Park Restoration

1923 Photograph of the bridge surface

Microstructure of Main Cable Wires

50 m
50 m

Transverse Plane

2% Nital

Longitudinal Plane

Microstructure of Wrapping Wires

50 m
50 m

Transverse Plane

2% Nital

Longitudinal Plane

1976 Tests of Wire from the Lackawaxen Bridge

Tensile Tests
Wire

Diam.
(inch)

UTS
(psi)

Breaking
Strength,
lbs.

Elongation
(% in 10)

Reduction
of Area, %

Main Cable

0.139

93,500

1410

7.0

53.1

Wrapping
Wire

0.0804

76,818

390

40.1

The 2150 wires in the 8.5 diameter cable were required to

have a UTS of 90,000 minimum psi

Chemical Analysis, Weight Percent

Wire

Mn

Si

Ni

Cr

Mo

Al

Mg

Ca

Main Cable

0.09

<0.01

0.26

0.014

0.03

0.05

<0.01

0.001

0.007

0.001 0.005

Wrapping
Wire

0.23

<0.01

0.09

0.021

0.026

0.02

0.01

<0.01

0.013

0.031

0.10

IWRC Rope 2 (6 x 47 Rope)

Outer Strand Rope 2 (6 x 47 Rope)

Outer Strand Sea Floor Rope (6 x 47)

IWRC Deep Down (6 x 47 Rope)