Coral Reef Islands of Spermonde:

morphodynamics and prospect.

D.A. Suriamihardja, <dahmad@unhas.ac.id>
Study Program of Geophysics, Faculty of Sciences,
University of Hasanuddin, Makassar 90245, Indonesia

Abstract
Coral Reef Islands of Spermonde (Sangkarang) extends widely in southwest of South
Sulawesi Province composed of coral reef islands which are functioning as natural
breakwaters, and as coral reef islands providing biological production. This paper aims to
describe some problems of coastlines of the islands due to exceeding exploitation from
view points of morphogenetics and morphodynamics, and to prepare a policy in
promoting the islands as tourist destinations. There is anxiety that once the islands have
degraded, the west coast will be threatened by incoming waves during west monsoon.
The proper utilizations of the islands might be considered and promoted as sustainable
tourism, by which Regional governments should be able to identify potencies of its
natural characteristics and cultural peculiarity to formulate marketable tourist
destinations and related facilities. The discussion will arrive at the need of a strong
networking for cooperation, partnership, collaboration with various stakeholders who are
accessible to the resources, and coordination among surrounding regional governments
for smooth access and supporting needs. If the nature of the Spermonde Islands have
been understood and completed with clear understanding and proper formulation to
manage sustainable tourism, it will bring the area to be attractive as tourist destinations,
from where the potency to maintain the islands will be prospective.

1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Coral Reef Islands of Spermonde (Sangkarang in local language) comprises of more than a
hundred islands which are formed by fringing reefs platform around each island located along
the southwestward off-shore of the main land of South Sulawesi Province and occupied with
the communities originated from ethnic groups of mainly Makassarese, Buginese, and
Mandarese, and other minor ethnic groups are Butonese and Maduranese who manage
effectively marine resources less than a century. The communities have challenge to sustain
their life and livelihood in facing various changes produced by global interventions on the
one hand, and weakening local wisdom on the other hand. Particularly over the last 30 years
the islands began to connect with external markets by which their fishing techniques have
changed as was reported by studies conducted by the Center for Coral Reef Studies (CCRS),
University of Hasanuddin, as well as by the others.
The research conducted by of CCRS is of ecological assessment which aims to gather
information on several aspects, such as: biology, ecology, and environments around the
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islands that were selected as representative sites for the archipelago. The change threats
significantly the availability of sustain resources due to destructive fishing and coral mining.
In order to reduce the worried condition for future generation's livelihoods, some studies
aiming to explore weakened local values in preventing the resources for its degradation are
really needed. The results will give benefit to take lesson from the process being implemented
recently by various agencies, and to recommend insights of how to promote sustainable
development occupying the coastal shelf of coral reef platform.
The coastal shelf of Coral Reef Islands of Spermonde is covering by water of depth less than
60 meters, while the depth of oceanic trench in Makassar Strait is nearly 1500 meters. Imran
& Kaharuddin (2005) argued that Makassar Strait was formed in early Miocene epoch or
more older. The formation is owing to injection of material from asthenosphere layer
below the continent plate caused rifting followed by spreading of oceanic
bottom. This reason is supported by Guntoro (1997) who has carried out a
study on the characteristics of bottom sediment in Makassar Strait.
The spreading caused the splitting of Sulawesi Island from eastern part of
Kalimantan Island and followed by complicated geological processes.
Suriamihardja & Imran (2010) mentioned that Hamilton (1979) and Katili
(1980) have divided this tectonic activity into two phases, i.e. prespreading and post-spreading which are resulted in different phenomena.
Pre-spreading was begun from early Mesozoic era where collision and
subduction were taking place between the plates of west Pacific with east
Kalimantan as an extension of the plate of Asia. According to Bergmen et
al. (1996) the resulted rifting during pre-spreading was followed by
subsidence of ocean bottom which made the Makassar Strait become
deeper. Post-spreading was begun from lower to middle Miocene epoch
which made the condition of Makassar Strait into more complicated
tectonic activities, i.e. formation of volcanic activities and geological
structure of faults in Sulawesi Island. Moreover, quarter tectonic activity is
taking place to current situation which drives the Sulawesi Island northwestward by pressure of two plates, Australia and west Pacific. This slow
movement makes subsidence and uplifting the ocean bottom of Makassar
Strait which gives influence to the condition of Coral Reef Islands of
Spermonde.
Imran & Kaharuddin (2005) as well as Suriamihardja & Imran (2010) mentioned that
morphogenesis of the Coral Reef Islands of Spermonde in Makassar Strait is a result
of the interaction zone between Asian and Pacific oceanic plates. The interaction covers
subduction and spreading between eastern part of Kalimantan Island and western part of
Sulawesi Island which resulted in emerging coastal shelf. Based on theory of Inman and
Nordstorm (1971), the coastal shelf of Coral Reef Islands of Spermonde was formed
by trailing-edge of coastal plate which completed with dispersed coral reef islands extending
from south to north.
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Jompa et al. (2003) mentioned that based on Hoeksema (1990) finding, the first scientist to
make division to the coastal shelf of Spermonde Islands was Hutchinson (1945). He has made
division of the Islands into four zones seaward extending from south to north. According to
de Klerk (1983), Moll (1983), and Hoeksema dan Moka (1989) this division becomes basic
method to study coral reef in this coastal shelf as depicted in Figure-1. The first zone
composes of islands which are closest, the second zone composes of islands which are far,
and the third and the forth zones compose of islands which are the farthest to the mainland.
The first zone has averaged water depth of 10 meters, and its sea bottom is dominated by
muddy sand. The second zone is located nearly 5 km from the mainland with averaged water
depth of 30 meters, mostly coral reef islands. The third zone begins from 12.5 km from the
mainland seaward with averaged water depth of 20 to 50 meters, in this zone there are still
submerged coral reef islands. The forth zone is the outer coral reef as barrier zone, and has
distance of nearly 30 km from the mainland, its averaged water depth is of 40 to 50 meters in
the east coast, and more than 100 meters for west coast of each island. The first zone
contains organic material related to phytogenic origin and inorganic material related to fluvial
deposition from the mainland, and organic material related to zoogenic origin from the
platform of coral reefs. Organic and inorganic material from the mainland of the second zone
is lesser than the first, but dominated by organic material from marine origin. The third and
forth zones are dominated by organic and inorganic material from marine origin. Wind during
west monsoon and tidal currents are responsible to distribute sediment material either from
mainland origin as well as from marine origin. Wind-generated incoming waves to the islands
during west monsoon are much bigger than east monsoon.

Figure-1. Spermonde Islands with four division zones of coral reefs (after de Klerk 1983) in Working
paper of Imran & Kaharuddin (2005).

It is in line that the theory of Wallacea Line which is existed in Makassar

Strait with the geological process of sea floor spreading between
Kalimantan and Sulawesi. Alfred Russell Wallace has distinguished fauna
mammals, birds, and insects (Kinnaird, 1995; George, 1981; Whitten et
al., 1987, in Rotinsulu, 2005) living in the western part of Wallacea Line to
that of living in the eastern part. Rotinsulu (2005) mentioned that Wallacea Line
divides Malay Archipelago into Indomalayan Zone and Australasian Zone. Indomalayan
Zone composes of Sumatra, Kalimantan, Jawa and Bali which is known as Sunda Shelf.
Australasian Zone composes of islands around Papua which is known as Sahul shelf.
Between Sunda Shelf and Sahul shelf there is a transition zone composes of Sulawesi,
Maluku, and Nusatenggara which are located also in the eastern part of Wallacea Line.
1.2 Questions and motives of study
The first motive is to collect geological, ecological, and cultural information from citatory
references and report of field studies concerning the existing situation in the Spermonde
Islands and to formulate the problems and recommendation to be solved later by involved
agencies.
The second motive is to understand deeply some processes of the coastal shelf formation of
Coral Reef Islands of Spermonde using geological approach, morphogenesis, and
morphodynamics based on the theory developed by Inman & Nordstorm (1971). This motive
is driven by the questions of (1) how is the formation process of the coastal shelf of Coral
Reef Islands of Spermonde related to the formation process of Makassar Strait ?; (2) how do
we understand the future prospects of the Spermonde Islands?
The third motive is to see some possibilities to the coastal shelf of Spermonde Islands as a
sustainable tourism based on ecological and economical balance. This motive is driven by the
questions of (1) what is the meaning of sustainable use as a means towards local
sustainability for the Coral Reef Islands of Spermonde?; (2) do stakeholders profound to
share and compromise in establishing sustainable use using local and non-local potencies?;
and (3) how do we promote the local wisdom to be constructive measure to manage natural
resources?
Those questions are of importance to strengthen the needs to manage comprehensively
regarding optimal utilization of strategic values without degrading ecologically,
economically, and culturally the environmental quality of the Coral Reef Islands of
Spermonde.
1.3 Methods and approach of study
We understand that livelihood including quality of living in every community is of practical
implementation of potencies guiding by values and intelligence. Actualization of their
potencies to improve their quality of living would be continually self-developed together with
the progress in acquiring new knowledge. Using this new knowledge, development
frequently results in undesirable directions or outside system of values, and finally brings
them into difficult situation ecologically as the effect of chains reaction of the nature.
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Recently, knowledge on environmental management including coastal engineering has

continually been increasing to achieve better efficiency in using production factors as well as
in managing financial effectiveness. Due to the development of this knowledge, we are forced
to think transitions of many shifting thoughts, including from conventional use to sustainable
use. To accept undoubtedly a new thought, we need some basic illustrations scientifically in
widening insights and choices. The scientific illustrations are required to explain some
processes concerning geological, ecological, and economical activities.
2.

Basic Theory of Formation of Coasts

2.1. Morphogenesis

Based on the dynamics of tectonic plates, Inman and Nordstorm (1971) has classified the
formation of coasts into three categories, namely collision coasts, trailing-edge coasts, and
marginal sea coasts. The collision coasts are resulted from the proccess of tectonic plates
collision, such as thick-thin plates collision and thin-thin plates collision. The trailing-edge
coasts are resulted from the process of tectonic spreading, such as owing to passive-active
plates, sediment accumulation, or continental edge movement. The marginal sea coasts are
open coasts protected by the arc of islands. After formation of those coasts, there will be a
locally morphological process as a further development or retreatment depending on
terrestrial or marine sediment suplly, incoming waves, or other tectonic plate movement.
Based on the theory of Inman & Nordstorm (1971), Makassar Strait was formed during
collision resulted in subduction and followed by spreading of the plates of west Pacific and
Asia as mentioned by Hamilton (1979) and Katili (1980) in early Mesozoic era. According to
Bergman (1996), during the pre-spreading, rifting was followed by subsidence of sea floor
which made oceanic trench of more than 1500 meters depth along Makassar Strait. Imran &
Kaharuddin (2005) and Suriamihardja & Imran (2010) argued the same conclusion
concerning oceanic trench of Makassar Strait formation. Suriamihardja & Imran (2010) gave
further conclusion about the formation of the coastal shelf of Coral Reef Islands of
Spemonde, the conclusion argued that it was formed by trailing-edge movement of coastal
plate which completed eventually by dispersed coral reef islands extending from south to
north. In this case, it is also possible to consider that the tectonis activities could be
experiencing oscillation movement between subduction and collision to achieve an
equlibrium condition in the epoch during Meiocene and Pliocene. At the very beginning, sea
water flown into oceanic trench followed by Indonesian Throuh Flow (ITF) flowing from
Pacific ocean into Indian ocean, and coastal areas are formed along the eastern part of
Kalimantan, the western part of Sulawesi and the islands in the Makassar Strait including
along coastline of Coral Reef Islands of Spermonde. Because of this process, we understand
why the Fauna living in Kalimantan different to that of Sulawesi is, as was mentioned by
Alfred Russell Wallace.
2.2. Morphodynamics

Coastal areas based on morphogenetic classification during Miocene-Pliocene epoch is still to

be developed in the quarternary period, as was developed by Inman & Nordstorm (1971) into
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three classes. The first class is a coastal shelf of 50 km wide extended seaward from the foot
of a hilly mainland; the second class is a coastal shelf with dispersed coral reef islands
extended seaward from the foot of a hilly or flat mainland completed with deltaic
rivermouths; and the third is a coastal areas formed by older erosive glacial. Based on this
classification, Suriamihardja & Imran (2010) argued that the Makassar Strait was formed in
Miocene epoch and followed by the process of the Coral Reef Islands of Spermonde
formation which could be happened in quarternary period.
2.3. Mobility of organic and inorganic material

Valentin (1952) has made pragmatic classification of coastal morphodynamics earlier than
others. The classification is based on simple abrasive coastal typology, namely progressive
coasts due to uplift of sea bottom or sediment accumulation and retrogressive coasts due to
fluvial erosion or wave abrasion. Recent analysis has been carried out by Center for Coral
Reef Studies (CCRS), Hasanuddin University. Yanuarita (2011) in her working paper
reported that most islands in Spermonde are experiencing a change in circumference lines of
the coral reef platform as well as in coastline of islands owing to reducing area, namely the
former because of coral mining and the later because of retrogressive process. Both processes
are depicted in Figure-2 which describes an abrasive coastline at Kondongbali Island and
reclaimed coastal area in Sarappo Keke Island using mined coral reef. To protect the coast
line, people mined the platform of coral reef and used the material as blocking sand. While
Figure-3 and Figure-4 show a change in area of the islands and the platforms. When the
condition of coastline of an island is being eroded, people will try to protect the area by
material obtained from the adjacent resources.

Figure-2. The pictures show an abrasive coast of Kondongbali Island (above) and reclaimed
coastal area of Sarappo Keke Island using mined coral reef (below). To protect the
coast line, people mined the platform of coral reef and used the material to block
reclaimed sand (Photo by Dewi Yanuarita, CCRS, 2011).
The sustainability of marine resources is related to the ratio of people population to the
amount of resources biomass available and also to the wisdom of preventive selection in
implementing local values towards attacking market demands and natural disaster. The
former condition very much depends on how to share the resources based on collective
understanding among local stakeholders, while the later needs not only the strength of the
local values but also requires a basic knowledge of coastal engineering, beside governmental
commitment of how to safe nature from its continuous deterioration.

Figure-3. The area of Kondongbali Islands becomes lesser, as the area of platform of coral
reef becomes lesser from the year of 1978 to 2010.

Figure-4. The area of Sarappo Keke Islands becomes lesser, as the platform of coral reef
becomes lesser from the year of 1978 to 2010.
3.

Formulating Sustainable Tourism

3.1. A concept of Sustainability

McMahon and Mrozek (1997) have mentioned that a new neo-classical economy is also
considering the sustainability for future generations to utilize the wealth along with the
ecological principles and regulations. Even though there is an importance to combine
economy and ecology, particularly in the field of economy of natural resources. Nevertheless
in this combination, the interaction between economy and ecology is not easy as we
immediately think. The difficulty is on the use of the concept of entropy in economy to relate
with the use of resources. The explanations of this difficulty can be divided in to two fold as
follow:
a) the first is that in the case that sustainability is the result from how to manage the
natural resources, so that the concept of entropy will limit the economic growth, and
be the basic correction to the theory of neo-classical economy and market behavior;
b) the second is that in the case that sustainability can be gained from improvement of
technological capability, so that the neo-classical economy still can be retained in
scarcity paradigm towards economical growth.
3.2. Development of Sustainable Tourism
Srinavas based on the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (2002), expressed voice to
promote Agenda 21 for sustainable tourism. The main purpose of the sustainable tourism
besides to include non-consumptive and eco-tourism, is to increase the benefits from tourism
resources for the population in host communities while maintaining the cultural and
environmental integrity of the host communities and enhancing the protection of ecologically
sensitive areas and natural heritages. This promotion needs to develop and to strengthen rural
and local communities shortly covering to:
a) enhance international cooperation, foreign direct investment and partnerships with
both private and public sectors;
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b) develop education and training programs to improve the protection of the

environment, natural resources and cultural heritage;
c) provide technical assistance to stimulate entrepreneurial development in improving
domestic tourism;
d) assist host communities in managing visits to their tourism attractions for their
maximum benefit, while ensuring the least negative impacts on and risks for their
traditions, culture and environment;
e) promote the diversification of economic activities, including through the facilitation
of access to markets and commercial information, and participation of emerging local
enterprises, especially small and medium-sized enterprises.
Among many voices from Indonesian side, the voice for sustainable tourism was exposed by
Ardiwidjaja (2003) who argued that the national government realized both the potential and
pitfalls of tourism as an engine of economic and social development for Indonesia. To avoid
the negative effects of unregulated and uncontrolled growth, a national master plan for
sustainable tourism development for the entire country was mapped out, supported by
international agencies such as UNDF, UNESCO, WTO, and ILO. The Indonesian government
believes those natural and cultural potencies are tourism assets that could bring benefits to the
local people and the country, if the proper roles of government prepare designated regions for
tourists by good planning, minimizing the harmful influences of tourists and protecting the
local culture and way-of-life.
3.3. Sustainable Tourism as Local Sustainability
To construct global co-existence for the communities in Coral Reef Islands of Spermonde,
firstly they should be locally sustainable through compromising natural assets economically.
It means that they need to be an entity giving benefit to the external communities, in return
they will be able to survive; and more than that they will be able to sustain their life and
livelihood. Local sustainability is badly needed in order to keep alive their identity from
being deteriorated by global co-evolution.
Secondly, they should integrate themselves in global co-evolution not for being degraded but
for participating to renew our universe. Mappadjantji (2005) suggested that the thought to
maintain the identity in global co-existence is of importance, but the more important thing is
to participate in the process of renewable our universe. It is more than that adaptable to global
co-existence, but wisely creative to craft reality through shared vision in co-evolution.
Therefore, to realize collective benefits and lovely cooperation in the Coral Reef Islands of
Spermonde, we need to re-explore weakening local values, formulates it to be a system of
values, promotes it to be formal norms in everyday life, and help them to conscious their
identity. The system of values to be formulated may be covering inner, sociological, and
cultural behaviors. Those behaviors might be promoted along the sequence of persuasive,
enticing, and coercive ways depending on context and contexture dimensions.
4.

Some Short Discussions as Conclusions

We back to the basic questions as a main purpose of the paper. Firstly, the formation of the
coastal shelf of Coral Reef Islands of Spermonde is of the process in quarternary period after
the formation of Makassar Strait in Miocene-Pliocene epoch. The formation of Makassar
Strait is of the process of oscillatory movement of subduction and collision between two
plates of West Pacific and Asia. The coastal shelf was a result of trailing-edge of coastal plate
which was completed eventually by disperses coral reef islands. We understand that Coral
Reef Islands of Spermonde has potency and good prospect to develop eco-tourism to give
benefit to host community while other get benefit in the form of biological production and
tourism activities, such as diving, wind surfing, sailing, camping, fishing, etc.
Secondly, we can recognize that the term of sustainability is not to assure strongly the safety
of human life in the future owing to the limitation of our governing effort in managing
entropy of the system. Both pessimism and optimism thoughts need newer technological
capability and beyond. That is to say that beyond newer technological capability, we still
need system of values to guide the use of natural resources by human wisdom to better coexistence and co-evolution in constructing the so-called human-sphere.
The resources are not completely owned by regional government, but some owned by various
stakeholders. To manage sustainable tourism, government should take initiative to cooperate and collaborate with various stakeholders who run transportation, hotels, restaurants,
travel agencies, tourist guides, promotions and any other related services.
The decentralization endows opportunities to the communities in emerging their collective
identity and showing their capacity to solve the problems effectively. Apparently, the
decentralization should be more advocated intensively to achieve better results in
compromising their global co-existence and participating in co-evolution. Promoting the local
wisdom to the global communities through tourism is a matter to be thought in constructing
local sustainability in the interrelated local to global connections.
Acknowledgement
This paper is fertilized and invested by Prof T. Yamashita of Hiroshima University and all the
members of APAC 2011, to whom I am very much indebted.
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