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List of Figures
2.1 Typical wing structural layout
2.2 Typical single-spar D-nose wing layout
2.3 Cross section of two-spar mass boom wing layout
2.4 Typical box beam wing layout
2.5 Cross sections of two & three spar box beam wing layouts
2.6 Built-up skin-stringer-rib examples
2.7 Integrally-stiffened panel examples
2.8 Typical fighter aircraft multi-spar wing section & details
2.9 Examples of Fighters with Multi-Spar Wings
2.10 Multi-spar delta wing layout possibilities
2.11 Typical spar construction & configuration
2.12 Types of spars
2.13 Typical rib construction & configuration
2.14 Rib alignment possibilities
2.15 Typical swept wing airliner rib alignments
3.1 Typical mass boom & longeron fuselage layout
3.2 Typical semi monocoque fuselage layout
3.3 Typical bulkhead designs
3.4 Typical circular section fuselage aircraft – Airbus A310 and BAC111
3.5 Typical double bubble section fuselage aircraft – Airbus A320 and B707
3.6 Typical ovoid section fuselage aircraft – Airbus A380
3.7 Typical flat-sided fuselage aircraft – Shorts 330
4.1 Typical small transport aircraft horizontal stabilizer layout (Boeing 707)
4.2 Typical large transport aircraft horizontal stabilizer layout (Boeing 747)
4.3 Full depth honeycomb construction used on fighter aircraft tailplanes
4.4 Typical fin and rear fuselage layout
4.5 Typical light aircraft fin layout
4.6 Typical transport aircraft fin layouts
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1. Function of the Structure
The primary functions of an aircraft’s structure can be basically broken down into the following:
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2. Wing Structure
2.1 Specific Roles of Wing (Mainplane) Structure
The specific structural roles of the wing (or mainplane) are:
• To transmit:
Wing lift to the root via the main spanwise beam
Inertia loads from the powerplants, undercarriage, etc. to the main beam.
Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil, control surfaces & flaps to the
main beam.
• To react against:
Landing loads at attachments points.
Loads from pylons/stores.
Wing drag and thrust loads.
• To provide:
Fuel tankage space.
Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aeroelastic requirements.
To fulfil these specific roles, a wing structural layout will conventionally comprise:
• A covering skin.
• Stringers.
Figure 2.1 shows a typical arrangement for these members.
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Figure 2.1 Typical wing structural layout
2.2 Basic Functions of Wing Structural Members
The structural functions of each of these types of members may be considered independently as:
2.2.1 Spars
Form the main spanwise beam.
Transmit bending and torsional loads.
Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension loads.
In particular:
Webs - resist shear and torsional loads and help to stabilise the skin.
Flanges - resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.
2.2.2 Skin
To form impermeable aerodynamic surface.
Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers.
Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
React axial bending loads (with stringers).
2.2.3 Stringers
Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections.
React axial bending loads.
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2.2.4 Ribs
Maintain the aerodynamic shape.
Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads.
Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress around any
discontinuities (e.g. undercarriage wells, access panels, fuel tanks, etc.).
Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end restraint.
Increase the skin panel buckling strength.
2.3 Wing Box Configurations
Several basic configurations are in use nowadays:
Mass boom concept
Box beam (distributed flange) concept – built-up or integral construction
Multi-spar
Delta wing
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Figure 2.3 Cross section of two-spar mass boom wing layout
The resulting layout is simple in terms of design, manufacture and analysis.
2.3.2 Box Beam or Distributed Flange Layout
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Figure 2.5 Cross sections of two & three spar box beam wing layouts
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• Reduced overall assembly time/costs.
• Improved possibility to use optimised panel tapering.
Disadvantages include:
• Reduced damage tolerance so that planks are used.
• Difficult to use on large aircraft panels.
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the stringers altogether and replace them with more substantial additional spars. This tends to
improve skin buckling stability. These types of wings are usually of low aspect ratio as well as
being thin and results in a closely-packed matrix of ribs & spars, sometimes known as an “egg-
box” layout. Several layout possibilities exist (Figure 2.10).
Figure 2.8 Typical fighter aircraft multi-spar wing section & details
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Figure 2.10 Multi-spar delta wing layout possibilities
2.4 Wing Component Fabrication Methods
2.4.1 Spars
These usually comprise thin aluminium alloy webs and flanges, sometimes with separate vertical
stiffeners riveted to the webs. The flanges are extruded or machined and bolted or riveted onto
the webs.
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Figure 2.12 Types of spars
In the case of a two or three spar box beam layout, the front spar should be located as far
forward as possible to maximise the wing box size, though this is subject to there being:
• Adequate wing depth for reacting vertical shear loads.
• Adequate nose space for LE devices, de-icing equipment, etc.
This generally results in the front spar being located at 12% to 18% of the chord length.
For a single spar D-nose layout, the spar will usually be located at the maximum thickness
position of the aerofoil section (typically between 30% and 40% along the chord length).
For the standard box beam layout, the rear spar will be located as far aft as possible, once again
to maximise the wing box size, but positioning will be limited by various space requirements for
flaps, control surfaces, spoilers, etc. This usually results in a location somewhere between about
55% and 70% of the chord length. If any intermediate spars are used, they would tend to be
spaced uniformly unless there are specific pick-up point requirements.
2.4.2 Ribs
For a typical two spar layout, the ribs are usually formed in three parts from sheet metal by the
use of presses & dies. Flanges are incorporated around the edges so that they can be riveted to
the skin and the spar webs. Cut-outs are necessary around the edges to allow for the stringers to
pass through. Lightening holes are usually cut into the rib bodies to reduce the rib weight and
also to allow for the passage of control runs, fuel, electrics, etc. Rib bulkheads do not include
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any lightening holes and are used at fuel tank ends, wing crank locations and attachment support
areas.
• Facilitating attachment points for control surfaces, flaps, slats, spoiler hinges,
powerplants, stores, undercarriage attachments, etc.
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(b) is usually the preferred option but presents several structural problems in the root
region.
(c) gives good torsional stiffness characteristics but results in heavy ribs and complex
connections.
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3. Fuselage Structure
The fundamental purpose of the fuselage structure is to provide an envelope to support the
payload, crew, equipment, systems and (possibly) the powerplant. Furthermore, it must react
against the in-flight manoeuvre, pressurisation and gust loads; also the landing gear and possibly
any powerplant loads. Finally, it must be able to transmit control and trimming loads from the
stability and control surfaces throughout the rest of the structure.
3.1 Fuselage Layout Concepts
There are two main categories of layout concept in common use:
• semi-monocoque layout
3.1.1 Mass Boom & Longeron Layout
This is fundamentally very similar to the mass-boom wing-box concept discussed in Section
2.3.1. It is used when the overall structural loading is relatively low or when there are extensive
cut-outs in the shell. The concept comprises four or more continuous heavy booms (longerons),
reacting against any direct stresses caused by applied vertical and lateral bending loads.
Frames or solid section bulkheads are used at positions where there are distinct direction
changes and possibly elsewhere along the lengths of the longeron members. The outer shell
helps to support the longerons against the applied compression loads and also helps in the shear-
carrying. Floors are needed where there are substantial cut-outs and the skin is stabilised against
buckling by the use of frames and bulkheads.
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3.1.2 Semi Monocoque Layout
This is the most common layout, especially for transport types of aircraft, with a relatively small
number and size of cut-outs in use. The skin carries most of the loading with the skin thickness
determined by pressurisation, shear loading & fatigue considerations.
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3.2 Fuselage Layout Considerations
The structural layout of an aircraft’s fuselage is critically affected in accordance with whether it
is a combat or transport type (in broad terms).
3.2.1 Fighter Aircraft
For the majority of fighter aircraft designs, the main features affecting the fuselage layout
include:
• Powerplant installation
The number and location of the engines directly influences the fuselage shape and sectional
area.
– Single central location (e.g. F16, F102, F106, Mirage, Gnat, MiG-17, etc.)
– Twin side-by-side installation (e.g. F5, F14, F15, F18, Jaguar, MiG-19, Su-15,
etc.)
– Twin vertical installation (uncommon, e.g. English Electric Lightning).
• Fuel/undercarriage installation
• Weapons carriage/integration
The selection of either internal or external carriage will significantly affect the resultant
fuselage structure. The advantages of internal carriage include:
– Improved stealth characteristics.
– Reduced wave drag.
– Constant area rule for further reductions in wave drag.
Internal carriage disadvantages include:
– Reduced flexibility to different roles and changed specifications.
– A significant volume and mass penalty with empty weapon compartment.
– Structural penalties due to the large cut-outs.
• The use of area ruling on transonic/supersonic fighters also significantly affects fuselage
section.
• Pressurisation is usually only required locally in the crew compartment and not in the
rest of the fuselage, leading to reduced loading requirements.
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3.2.2 Transport Aircraft
Transport aircraft have substantially longer “in-service” lifetimes than fighters and this leads to
two potential problem areas – fatigue and corrosion.
Fatigue prevention involves:
• Careful materials selection.
• Reduction of loads, stress levels and concentrations.
• Eased inspection and maintenance procedures.
Corrosion prevention involves:
• Adequate provision for moisture drainage.
• Maintenance of the surface finish and protective treatment integrity.
Fuselage Cross-Section
The sizing and selection of the fuselage cross-section of a transport aircraft is a lengthy process
and involves compromises between weight, drag, systems, stowage and comfort considerations
(also stealth & weapons integration for military transports). For pressurised aircraft a circular
section is the most efficient in purely structural terms (Figure 3.4); however, this is often
relatively wasteful in terms of volume so that “double bubble” or “ovoid” sections are often used
instead (Figures 3.5 and 3.6).
Figure 3.4 Typical circular section fuselage aircraft – Airbus A310 and BAC111
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Figure 3.5 Typical double bubble section fuselage aircraft – Airbus A320 and
B707/727/737/757
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4. Empennage (Tail) Structural Layout
This tends to be very similar in many respects to that of the wing structure, though is generally
of a lower aspect ratio and therefore subjected to smaller bending moments. Several designs are
possible for both the vertical and horizontal tails, including:
• A single spar layout with spar caps taking the bending loads – very popular for light
aircraft.
• A single spar with a root pivot operating either a full slab tail or a taileron - used on
many high-speed (supersonic) fighters.
• A standard two spar construction.
• A multi-spar layout, especially on thin section tails.
• Full-depth honeycomb construction.
There are two main categories used for transport aircraft. The smaller ones generally use a
standard built-up or integral layout but with simplifications due to the lack of any stringers
(Figure 4.1). Larger transports are even more conventional and have a classical configuration
comprising spars, skin, ribs and stringers (Fig 4.2).
Figure 4.1 Typical small transport aircraft horizontal stabilizer layout (Boeing 707)
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Figure 4.2 Typical large transport aircraft horizontal stabilizer layout (Boeing 747)
Many fighters use full depth honeycomb (FDH) construction (Figure 4.3) due to the required
section thinness.
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Figure 4.3 Full depth honeycomb construction used on fighter aircraft tailplanes
Regarding the vertical stabilizer (fin), it is common practice to combine the fin integrally with
the rear fuselage section (Figure 4.4). Using this method, the fin spars are extended to form the
rear fuselage frames or bulkheads. The fin “root rib” is made to coincide with the upper surface
of the rear fuselage. The rear fuselage bulkhead is often inclined to continue the line of the rear
spar. The fin root shear and bending loads are all transmitted into the fuselage skin via the root
rib.
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Figure 4.5 Typical light aircraft fin layout
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Figure 4.6 Typical transport aircraft fin layouts
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Bibliography
1. Curtis, M. Aircraft Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill, 1997
2. Donaldson, B.K. Analysis of Aircraft Structures, McGraw-Hill, 1993
3. Howe, D. Aircraft Conceptual Design Synthesis, Professional Engineering
Publications, 2000
4. Howe, D. Aircraft Loading & Structural Layout, Professional Engineering
Publications, 2004
5. Megson, T.H.G. Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students, Arnold, 1999
6. Niu, C.Y. Airframe Structural Design, Conmilit Press, 1988
7. Niu, C.Y. Airframe Stress Analysis & Sizing, Conmilit Press, 2001
8. Peery, D.J. & Azar, J.J. Aircraft Structures, McGraw-Hill, 1982
9. Sun, C.T. Mechanics of Aircraft Structures, Wiley, 1998
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