Comparative Anatomy of The

Skin & Exoskeleton

GENERAL FUNCTION OF THE

SKIN & EXOSKELETON
Protection against

Dehydration/dessication
Foreign bodies
Extreme environmental condition
Predation

Skin and Exoskeleton

Skin

surface covering
separable from the underlying muscle layer

Exoskeleton

external covering derived from the skin

Hardening processes in epidermis or dermis

The Skin
Occurs only in vertebrates
Lower chordates lack a skin
Urochordates one-layered
epidermis + tunic secreted by
epidermis
Amphioxus one-layered
epidermis only

Two general layers:

Epidermis

Outer
Epithelial cells
Derived from ectoderm

Dermis

Inner
Connective tissue
Derived from the mesoderm

Skin of Aquatic Vertebrates

Cyclostomes, fishes,
tailed amphibians
Thin epidermis
Mucous gland cells- skin
moist and slimy
Dermis
loose layer near epidermis
compact inner layer

Skin of Land Vertebrates

Keratinization
Frog Skin
Epidermis
Stratum corneum outermost, thin, flattened keratinized
Stratum germinativum inner, columnar, actively dividing

Dermis/ Corium
Stratum laxum loose connective tissue
Stratum compactum dense, parallel wavy fibers
Contains:

pigment cells (Chromatophores)

Cutaneous glands mucous and other secretions
Smooth muscles
Blood vessels and nerves

FROG SKIN
EPIDERMIS

MUCOUS
GLAND

Exoskeleton
Derived from skin
by hardening
processes in
epidermis or dermis
or both
Epidermal
special portions of
stratum corneum
Dermal consists
of bone

EXOSKELETON OF FISHES
Scales
Dermal in origin
Six types
Placoid
Cosmoid
Paleoniscoid
Ganoid/
Lepidosteoid
Cycloid
Ctenoid

PLACOID SCALES
Found in
elasmobranchs
shagreen (shark skin)
Basal plate carrying a
projecting spine
denticles consists of
dentine and structure is
identical with the dentine
of teeth
Spine contains a pulp
cavity from which
dentinal tubules branch

COSMOID SCALES
Occurs in extinct fish of
the groups
Crossopterygii and
Dipnoi
3 layers:
Cosmine outer; similar
to dentine but dentinal
tubules occur in clusters
Vascular bone middle
Lamellate bone - inner

PALEONISCOID SCALES
found in extinct
paleoniscids and
Polypterus
Intermediate between
cosmoid and typical
ganoid scale
Upper layer Ganoin
Middle layer Cosmine
Lower layer lamellate
bone

GANOID SCALES
Found in Chondrostei
and some Holostei
(sturgeons, pikes, and
allies)
Lamellae of Ganoin
deposited on a layer of
lamellate bone
Hard, shiny, rhomboid
plates Lepidosteus
Bony rhombic crested
plates - Acipenser

CYCLOID SCALES
Occur in modern fishes
(some Holostei, Dipnoi,
Teleostei)
Thin, flexible, rounded
scales with concentric
ridges
Set in pockets of skin in
overlapping row
Inner layer fibrous
connective tissue
Outer layer - hard bony
layer

CTENOID SCALE
Occurs in about half of
Osteichthyes (most
teleosts)
Similar to cycloid but the
free part is covered with
small teeth
age and growth rate of fish
can be determined using
scales

EXOSKELETON OF FISHES
Dermal Fin Rays
Rods that support the fins
Supported through ligamentous connections
with endoskeletal fin rays
4 types (Goodrich, 1904)

Ceratotrichia
Actinotrichia
Lepidotrichia
Camptotrichia

CERATOTRICHIA
Slender,
flexible,
unjointed
Keratinized
dermal rods
Elasmobranchs

ACTINOTRICHIA
Occur only during development of bony fish
Similar to ceratotrichia but is replaced by
lepidotrichia

LEPIDOTRICHIA
Branched, jointed
rays made up of
bone
Characteristic of
Osteichthyes in
general

CAMPTOTRICHIA
Limited to present
Dipnoi
Intermediate
between
Ceratotrichia and
Lepidotrichia
Dermal rays,
scale-covered

EXOSKELETON OF REPTILES
With scales and scale-like areas of
epidermal origin
Thickened areas of Stratum Corneum
Continuous horny layer
Some also have dermal bony plates
beneath epidermal scales
Epidermal thickenings scales or scutes
Dermal thickenings - plates

EXOSKELETONS OF SQUAMATES AND

CROCODILES
Scales on both dorsal and ventral portions
Bony plates under the scales in some

EXOSKELETON OF TURTLES
Scales in the head, limbs and tail
Entire body protected by the CARAPACE
AND PLASTRON
Horny beaks
Claws

CARAPACE scutes
(outer, dorsal
side)
1 nuchal scute
5 neural/vertebral
scutes
4 pairs costal/
pleural scutes
Marginal scutes
1 pair pygal
scutes

CARAPACE plates
Inner, ventral side
1 nuchal plate
8 neural/vertebral
plates
8 pairs costal/pleural
plates
Marginal plates
1 pair precaudal
plates
1 pygal plate

PLASTRON scutes
Outer,
ventral
side

PLASTRON

Inner, dorsal side

Epiplastron (paired)
Entoplastron (median)
Hyoplastron (paired)
Hypoplastron (paired)
Xiphiplastron (paired)

EXOSKELETON OF BIRDS
Clothed with
feathers
Scales and claws on
the feet
Horny beaks
Lacks dermal
exoskeleton

FEATHERS
Contour feathers
Remiges (wings)
Rectrices (tail/ anal part)
Coverts (body covering)

Down feathers or plumule fluffy covering,

in between the bases of contour feathers
Hair feathers or filoplume hairs visible
from a plucked bird

CONTOUR FEATHER PARTS

Quill (Central axis)
Inferior and Superior
umbilicus
Vane (web-like expansion)
outer and inner
Calamus (lower part of
quill)
Shaft or rachis (part of quill
that supports the vane)
Umbilical groove
Barbs and barbules

CONTOUR FEATHER PARTS

Quill (Central axis)
Inferior and Superior
umbilicus
Vane (web-like expansion)
outer and inner
Calamus (lower part of
quill)
Shaft or rachis (part of quill
that supports the vane)
Umbilical groove
Barbs and barbules

DOWN FEATHER PARTS

Short quill
Barbs soft rays
Barbules
minute side rays

FILOPLUME
Consists of a main axis with few terminal
barbs

FEATHER TRACTS
Pterylae- areas of skin which bear feathers
Apterylae featherless tracts

EXOSKELETON OF MAMMALS
Hair
Scales
Claws, Nails, Hooves and Horns
compressed layers of stratum corneum

HAIR OF MAMMALS
Found in no other
vertebrates
Types:

Facial vibrissae
Bristles/ spine-like hairs
spiny anteaters
Guard hairs fur
Aristate hairs smaller and
fairly numerous
Wool fine, short, wavy

Parts:

Hair follicles
Shaft
Root
Cuticle
Medulla
Cortex

SCALES OF MAMMALS
Epidermal, horny
(keratinized), usually
interspersed with
scanty hair
Tails of rats, mice or
beavers
Scaly anteaters

Epidermal scutes and

dermal scales
armadillos

CLAWS
Curved horny sheath covering the last joint of the
digit and enclose terminal skeletal joint
Ventral side sole
Compressed layer of stratum corneum compact
horn

NAILS
Reduced sole

HOOVES
Enlarged and thickened sole
Present in ungulates

HORNS
True horns
Hollow,
epidermal in
origin
Covers hollow
bony cores
Cattle, sheep,
goats, antelopes
Occur in both
sexes
Never shed

ANTLERS
False Horns
Family Cervidae (deer
family)
Solid bony outgrowths of
the frontal bone
Limited to males
Shed annually

TODAYS TASK
DRAW THE FF. SPECIMENS:
1. Placoid, Ganoid, Cycloid, Ctenoid Scales
2. Carapace (label the parts)
3. Plastron (label the parts)
4. Types of feathers (label the parts)
-5. Horns and Antlers