Metal Forming

Cold work
Warm work
Hot Work
Dr Juri

Metal Forming

Overview of processes

Dr Juri

Research Interests
Metal Forming Research

Sheet Metal
Forming

Deep
Drawing
Dr Juri

Stamping

Micro-Forming

Sheet

Bulk

Bulk Metal
Forming

Forging

Extrusion

Importance of Metal Forming in

Manufacturing Engineering

Net Shape or Close to Net Shape

High Production Rate
High Profit Margin
Low Scrap Rate
Improving Material Properties
Etc.

Dr Juri

Applications and Products of

Metal forming in Macro Scale

Automotive
Aerospace
Appliance
Cookware
Etc.

Dr Juri

Current Issues of Metal Forming

Industry
Lack of Experienced Metal Forming
Engineer
Short Product Life Cycle
New Metallic Materials
Developing New Hybrid Process
High Accuracy and Small Feature Products
Etc.
Dr Juri

OVERVIEW OF METAL FORMING

Surface Area /
Volume
is small

Surface Area /
Volume
is large

Dr Juri

Bulk Deformation Processes:

Compressive deformation force
Significant deformations
Massive shape changes
Starting work shapes include billets and
rectangular bars

Sheet metal working:

Also called Pressworking
Cold working processes
Use set of punch and die
Performed on metal sheets, strips and
coils

Metal Forming Processes

Rolling

Extrusion

Forging

Wire Drawing
Dr Deformation
Juri
Bulk
Processes

Bending

Cup Drawing

Shearing
Sheet Metal Working

Examples of Precision
Cold Forged Products

Dr Juri

Precision Hot Forging of

Complex Shapes

Dr Juri

Precision Hot Forging of

Complex Shapes

Dr Juri

Temperature in Metal Forming

For any metal, K and n in the flow curve
depend on temperature
Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are
reduced at higher temperatures
In addition, ductility is increased at higher
temperatures

Dr Juri

Temperature in Metal Forming

Any deformation operation can be
accomplished with lower forces and power
at elevated temperature
Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
Cold working
Warm working
Hot working

Dr Juri

Dr Juri

Cold working is metal forming performed at room temperature.

Advantages: better accuracy, better surface finish, high strength and hardness of
the part, no heating is required.
Disadvantages: higher forces and power, limitations to the amount of forming,
additional annealing for some material is required, and some material are not
capable of cold working.
Warm working is metal forming at temperatures above the room temperature but
bellow the recrystallization one.
Advantages: lower forces and power, more complex part shapes, no annealing is
required.
Disadvantages: some investment in furnaces is needed.
Hot working involves deformation of preheated material at temperatures above the re
crystallization temperature.
Advantages: big amount of forming is possible, lower forces and power are
required, forming of materials with low ductility, no work hardening and therefore,
no additional annealing is required.
Disadvantages: lower accuracy and surface finish, higher production cost, and
shorter tool life.
Dr Juri

Cold Working
Performed at room temperature or slightly
above
Many cold forming processes are important
mass production operations
Minimum or no machining usually required
These operations are near net shape or net shape
processes
Dr Juri

Advantages of Cold Forming

Better accuracy, closer tolerances
Better surface finish
Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product
No heating of work required
Dr Juri

Disadvantages of Cold Forming

Higher forces and power required for
deformation
Surfaces of starting work must be free of
scale and dirt
Ductility and strain hardening limit the
amount of forming that can be done
In some cases, metal must be annealed before further
deformation can be accomplished
In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to
be cold worked
Dr Juri

Warm Working
Performed at temperatures above room
temperature but below recrystallization
temperature
Dividing line between cold working and
warm working often expressed in terms of
melting point:
0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute
temperature) for metal
Dr Juri

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Warm Working
Advantages
Lower forces and power than in cold working
More intricate work geometries possible
Need for annealing may be reduced or
eliminated

Disadvantage
Workpiece must be heated
Dr Juri

Hot Working
Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
Recrystallization temperature = about one-half
of melting point on absolute scale
In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
Metal continues to soften as temperature increases
above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working
above this level
Dr Juri

Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation
- far more than is possible with cold
working or warm working
Why?
Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at
room temperature
Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically)
Ductility is significantly increased
Dr Juri

Advantages of Hot Working

Workpart shape can be significantly altered
Lower forces and power required
Metals that usually fracture in cold working
can be hot formed
Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
No strengthening of part occurs from work
hardening
Advantageous in cases when part is to be
subsequently processed by cold forming
Dr Juri

Disadvantages of Hot Working

Lower dimensional accuracy
Higher total energy required, which is the
sum of
The thermal energy needed to heat the
workpiece
Energy to deform the metal

Work surface oxidation (scale)

Thus, poorer surface finish

Shorter tool life

Dies and rolls in bulk deformation
Dr Juri

Metal
forming

Principle of the process

Structure

Process modeling

Defects

Design For Manufacturing (DFM)

Process variation
Dr Juri

25

Principle of Metal Forming

Dr Juri

26

Metal Forming
Metal forming includes a large group of manufacturing
processes in which plastic deformation is used to change
the shape of metal work pieces
Plastic deformation: a permanent change of shape, i.e.,
the stress in materials is larger than its yield strength
Usually a die is needed to force deformed metal into the
shape of the die
Dr Juri

Module 8

27

Metal Forming
Metal with low yield strength and high ductility is in
favor of metal forming
One difference between plastic forming and metal
forming is

Plastic: solids are heated up to be polymer melt

Metal: solid state remains in the whole process

- (temperature can be either cold, warm or hot)

Dr Juri

28

Metal Forming
Metal forming is divided into: (1) bulk and (2) sheet

Bulk: (1) significant deformation

(2) massive shape change
(3) surface area to volume of the work is small
Sheet: Surface area to volume of the work is large

Dr Juri

Module 8

29

Bulk deformation processes

Forging
Rolling
Traditionally
Hot

Extrusion

Dr Juri

Drawing

30

Sheet deformation processes (Press working/ Stamping)

Bending

Drawing

Shearing
Actually
Cutting
Dr Juri

31

Definitions
Plastic Deformation Processes
Operations that induce shape changes on the work piece by plastic deformation
under forces applied by various tools and dies.
Bulk Deformation Processes
These processes involve large amount of plastic deformation. The crosssection of workpiece changes without volume change. The ratio crosssection area/volume is small. For most operations, hot or warm working
conditions are preferred although some operations are carried out at room
temperature.
Sheet-Forming Processes
In sheet metalworking operations, the cross-section of work piece does not
changethe material is only subjected to shape changes. The ratio crosssection area/volume is very high.
Sheet metalworking operations are performed on thin (less than 6 mm)
sheets, strips or coils of metal by means of a set of tools called punch and
die on machine tools called stamping presses. They are always performed
as cold working operations.
Dr Juri

Bulk Deformation Processes

Rolling: Compressive deformation process in which the thickness of a plate is reduced
by squeezing it through two rotating cylindrical rolls.

Forging: The workpiece is compressed between two opposing dies so that the die
shapes are imparted to the work.

Extrusion: The work material is forced to flow through a die opening taking its shape
Drawing: The diameter of a wire or bar is reduced by pulling it through a die opening
(bar drawing) or a series of die openings (wire drawing)

Dr Juri

Rolling

Definition
Rolling is a Bulk Deformation
Process in which the thickness of
the work is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by
two opposing rolls

Dr Juri

Dr Juri
35

Progressive Hot Rolling:

smaller, uniform grains

Kalpakjian

Dr Juri

Rolling

Dr Juri

Rolling

Important Applications:
Steel Plants,
Raw stock production (sheets, tubes, Rods, etc.)
Screw manufacture

Dr Juri

Rolling Basics
Sheets are rolled in multiple stages (why ?)

tf

to

Vf

to

tf

Vf

Vo

Vo

stationary die

Screw manufacture:

rolling die
thread rolling machine

Reciprocating flat thread-rolling dies

Dr Juri

Forging
Definition
Forging is a Bulk Deformation Process in
which the work is compressed between
two dies. According to the degree to which
the flow of the metal is constrained by the
dies there are three types of forging:

Open-die forging

Impression-die forging
Flash less forging

Dr Juri

Forging

Dr Juri

Stages in Open-Die Forging

(a) forge hot billet to max diameter

(b) fuller: tool to mark step-locations

(c) forge right side

(d) reverse part, forge left side

(e) finish (dimension control)

Dr Juri
[source:www.scotforge.com]

Stages in Impression-die (Closed-Die) Forging

Dr Juri
[source:Kalpakjian & Schmid]

Stages in Impression-die (Closed-Die) Forging

Dr Juri

Flash less forging

Dr Juri

Forging grain flow

Dr Juri

Quality of forged parts

Surface finish/Dimensional control:
Better than casting (typically)
Stronger/tougher than cast/machined parts of same material

Dr Juri
[source:www.scotforge.com]

A material is pushed or drawn through a die of the

desired cross-section. Any solid or hollow cross-section
may be produced by extrusion, which can create
essentially semi-finished parts. The metal can forcing
through a die in the same direction or opposite direction.

Dr Juri

Extrusion
Typical use: ductile metals (Cu, Steel, Al, Mg),
Plastics, Rubbers
Common products:
Al frames of white-boards, doors, windows,

Dr Juri

Extrusion: Schematic, Dies

chamber

die
extruded shape

hydraulic
piston

stock

chamber

Exercise: how can we get hollow parts?

Dr Juri

The cross-sections that can be produced vary from solid round,

rectangular, to L shapes, T shapes.

Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long

material) or semi-continuous (producing many pieces). Extrusions can be
done with the material hot or cold.

Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, and

foodstuffs.

Dr Juri

Extruded products

Typical products made by extrusion are railings for

sliding doors, tubing having carious cross-sections,
structural and architectural shapes, and door and
windows frames.

Extruded products

Dr Juri

 Direct extrusion: A metal

billet is located into a
container, and a ram
compresses the material,
forcing it to flow through
one or more openings in a
die at the opposite end of the
container.
Indirect extrusion: The die is
mounted to the ram rather
than at the opposite end of
the
container.
One
advantage of the indirect
extrusion process is that
there is no friction, during
the process, between the
billet and the container liner.
Dr Juri

Drawing

Similar to extrusion, except: pulling force is applied

stock (bar)

die

wire

F (pulling force)

Commonly used to make wires from round bars

Dr Juri

WHAT is DRAWING?
Drawing is an operation in which the cross-section of solid rod, wire
or tubing is reduced or changed in shape by pulling it through a die.
The principle of this procedure consist of reducing the thickness of a
pointed ,tapered wire by drawing it through a conical opening in a
tool made of a hard material.The wire will take shape of the hole.

Dr Juri

 Drawing improves strength and hardness when these

properties are to be developed by cold work and not by
subsequent heat treatment

Where is it used?
This process is widely used for the production of
thicker walled seamless tubes and cylinders
therefore; shafts, spindles, and small pistons and
as the raw material for fasteners such as rivets,
bolts, screws.

Dr Juri

DRAWING TOOLS

The most important tool in the drawing process is without doubt the
drawplate.This consist of a plate of high grade steel into which
similar shaped holes have been placed whose size in evenly reduced
from one hole to another.

The most common drawplate have round holes and are used to
reduce the size of round wire.

Drawing wire with the

draw tongs
Dr Juri

drawbench

Deep Drawing (cold, for sheetmetal)

- Punch draws blank into die
- Metal is supported on both sides to avoid wrinkling
- Hold-down pressure (blankholder force)
is primary process variable
if too high: tearing
if too low: wrinkling
www.endo-mfg.co.jp

Dr Juri
Kalpakjian

How such a drawplate hole is made

Dr Juri

Spinning
Ideal for
Lower production volumes
Large parts
Inexpensive tooling
www.dissco.co.nz

www.ashfordmetalspinning.co.uk

Dr Juri

www.traditional-building.com

In the following series of lecture, we discuss:

1. General mechanics principle

2. Individual processes:
- mechanics principles
- design for manufacturing (DFM) rules
- equipment

Dr Juri

Module 8

61

1. General mechanics principle

The underlying mechanics principle for metal forming is
the stress-strain relationship; see Figure 1.

Figure 1
Dr Juri

Module 8

62

 True Stress: Applied load divided by instantaneous

value of cross-section area

F/A
True strain: Instantaneous elongation per unit length of
the material

dL
L

ln
L0 L
L0
L

L0: the initial length of a specimen

L:

Dr Juri

the length of the specimen at time t

the true strain at time t

Module 8

63

 In the forming process we are more interested in the

plastic deformation region (Figure 1)

Plastic
deformation
region

Dr Juri

Module 8

64

 The stress-strain relationship in the plastic deformation

region is described by

Called
FLOW
CURVE

Where
K= the strength coefficient, (MPa)
= the true strain, =the true stress
n= the strain hardening exponent,

The flow stress (Yf) is used for the above stress

(which is the stress beyond yield)
Dr Juri

Module 8

65

FLOW STRESS

As deformation occurs, increasing STRESS is required

to continue deformation (shown in curve)
Flow Stress: Instantaneous value of stress required to
continue deforming the material (to keep metal
flowing)

Yf K
Dr Juri

Module 8

66

AVERAGE FLOW STRESS

For many bulk deforming processes, rather than
instantaneous stress, average stress is used (extrusion)
The average flow stress can be obtained by integrating
the flow stress along the trajectory of straining, from
zero to the final strain value defining the range of
interest

k
Yf
1 n

Strength Coefficient

Average flow stress

Max. strain during

deformation

Strain hardening exponent

Dr Juri

Module 8

67

Example 1:
Determine the value of the strain-hardening exponent for a
metal that will cause the average flow stress to be threequarters of the final flow stress after deformation.
According to the statement of the problem, we have

Yf 3/ 4

of

Yf

Y f 0.75Y f
K /(1 n) 0.75K
n

Dr Juri

1 /(1 n) 0.75
n 0.333
Module 8

68

 The above analysis is generally applicable to the cold

working, where the temperature factor is not considered.

The metal forming process has three kinds in terms of

temperature: (1) cold, (2) warm, (3) hot
In the case of warm and hot forming, the temperature
factor needs to be considered, in particular
Temperature up The (yield) strength down and
ductility up

Dr Juri

Module 8

69

 Strain rate (related to elevated temperatures)

- Rate at which metal is strained in a forming process
- In the hot forming or warm forming, the strain rate
can affect the flow stress
Instantaneous
hh

Dr Juri

Strain Rate

Speed of
deformation (could
be equal to velocity
of ram)

height of
work-piece
being
deformed

v / h

Flow stress
Module
8

Y f C

m
70

Y f C

Strength
coefficient but not
the same as K

where

C strength constant
m strain-rate sensitivity exponent

Yf K
C and m are determined by the following figure
which is generated from the experiment
Dr Juri

Module 8

71

Dr Juri

Module 8

72

C and m are affected by temperature

Temperature Up

Dr Juri

Module 8

Down

Up

73

Even in the cold work, the strain rate could affect the
flow stress. A more general expression of the flow stress
with consideration of the strain rate and strain is
presented as follows:

Y f A
n

A is a strength coefficient, a combined effect of K, C

All these coefficients, A, n, m, are functions of
temperature
Dr Juri

Module 8

74

Example 2:
A tensile test is carried out to determine the strength
constant C and strain-rate sensitivity exponent m for a
certain metal at 1000oF. At a strain rate = 10/sec, the
stress is measured at 23,000 lb/in2; and at a strain rate =
300/sec, the stress=45,000 lb/in2. Determine C and m

Solution:

23000=C(10)^m
45000=C(300)^m
From these two equations, one can find m=0.1973
Dr Juri

Module 8

75

Finite Element Simulations

Predict and minimize tearing and wrinkling locations

www.esi-group.com

nsmwww.eng.ohio-state.edu

Dr Juri
tmku209.ctw.utwente.nl