EgyptAir

Technical Training Center

Electrical Systems
(Basic Complementary Course)
E1-0-COM
By Engineer: Amr Eissa

Course Outlines
Part I: Electrical Fundamentals.
Duration : 18 Hours

Part II: Electrical Power (ATA 24).

Duration : 9 Hours

Part III: Light System (ATA 33).

Duration : 3 Hours

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Electricity is the flow of free electrons in a conductor

from one atom to the next atom in the same general
direction.

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ATOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

ATOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER view gives a better understanding
of electrical and electronic phenomena.

The electrical properties of the atom are determined by how tightly the
electrons are bound by electrical attraction to the nucleus.

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The Periodic Table of Elements

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Electron shells (EL)

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Electron shells (EL)

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IONS
A neutral atom contains an equal number of positive
charges (protons) and negative charges (electrons).
It is possible for an atom to gain or loose an electron.

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POSITIVE IONS
An atom (or possibly a group of atoms) which loses an
electron has lost one of its negative charges and is
therefore left with an excess of one positive charge; it is
called a positive ion.

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NEGATIVE IONS
An atom that gains an electron has an excess of negative
charge and is called a negative ion.

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GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY
There are six sources of external energy that are capable
of separating the electrons from their nuclei, these are:
Friction, Static Electricity
Pressure, Piezoelectric emf
Magnetism, Generators
Heat, The Seebeck effect the thermocouple
Light, The Photovoltaic Cell or Solar Cell
Chemical Action, Battery

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STATIC ELECTRICITY
If electrons are removed from one material and placed

on another, or if they are moved from one region of a

piece of material to another, we have a separation of
charge.
If these accumulations of charge remain stationary
after their transfer, they are referred to as static
electricity.

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STATIC ELECTRICITY
This type of static charging between two or more
dissimilar materials is known as Triboelectric charging
and is a very important factor in the design of aircraft
and aircraft furnishings and equipment.
The nature and size of the charge produced depends on
the materials, some loose or gain electrons more easily
than others.

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Triboelectric Series

Cats That Found Out About Static

Electricity The Hard Way

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STATIC ELECTRICITY (Cont.)

If two statically charged items are brought into

contact with one another, electrons will transfer from

the more negative to the more positive one.
This movement of electrons constitutes a current flow,

which will vanish once the charges are equal.

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ATTRACTION & REPULSION

Like Charges Repel, Unlike Charges Attract
The force of attraction or repulsion is governed by an
inverse square law

UNIT OF CHARGE
The charge on an electron is very small, therefore a
more practical unit of charge called a Coulomb, has
been chosen:
One Coulomb = 6.29 x 10^18 electrons
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STATIC ELECTRICITY & AIRCRAFT

During flight, a build-up of electrical energy occurs
in the Structure of an aircraft, developing in two
ways:

by Precipitation Static Charges.

by Charges due to Electrostatic Induction.

One of the hazards is the possibility of discharges

occurring within the aircraft as a result of differences
between the potentials of the separate parts of
aircraft.
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1.
2.

3.
4.

A System is called bonding system which will

form a continuous low-resistance link between all
parts and in so doing will:
Limit the potential difference between all
parts.
Eliminate spark discharges and fire risks.
Reduce interference with radio and
navigational aid signals.
Prevent the possibility of electrical shock
hazards to persons contacting equipment and
parts of the aircraft.
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The continuous link is formed by:

Metal Strip conductors joining fixed metal parts.
Short-Length Flexible Braid Conductors for

joining moving parts.

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Bonding Classifications
Depend on the magnitude of current which is
expected from the electrostatic charges.
Primary Bonding:
used between major components, engines,
external surfaces, e.g. flight control surfaces, and

the main structure or earth.

Secondary Bonding:
used between components and earth for which

primary conductors are not specifically required,

e.g. pipelines, metal conduits, door plates, etc.
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Grounding & Earthing Discharge Of Static

Charges On Touch Down :
This is achieved by:
1. the nose or main wheel tires which contain a high
proportion of carbon in the rubber.
2. Or provides a leakage path via short flexible steel
wires secured to the nose wheel or main wheel axle
members and making physical contact with the
grown.
During the refueling operation:

physical contact between the hose nozzle and tank

filler is always maintained.
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Static Wicks
They are fitted to reduce static build up on the
airframe .
They allow static electricity to disperse from them
into the atmosphere Corona Discharge
breakdown.
Static Wick is a small wire brush or a straight
metal stick.
They are located on the trailing edge of the
aircraft control surface and on the tips of wings
and stabilizers.
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Safety
It essential to maintain the integrity of bonding when

carrying out any maintenance work on aircraft.

You can build up a charge on yourself as you move and

work around the aircraft.

Much of the equipment in modern aircraft is electronic,
and can easily be destroyed by you discharging static
through it.

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ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
VOLTAGE volt
CURRENT ampere
RESISTANCE Ohm

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ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
VOLTAGE volt
If one coulomb of electricity requires one joule of
work to move it between two points, then there is a
potential difference of 1 volt between them.
It is sometimes helpful to
think of potential difference
as a difference of electrical
pressure forcing a current
through a load.
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ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
Electromotive Force (emf) volt
To make use of electricity by provision of an electric
current, the potential different must be maintained.

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ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
Electromotive Force (emf) volt
The potential difference across the terminals of the

source (cell, battery or generator) when it is not

supplying current, is called Electromotive Force
(emf), since this is a measure of the force available to
push electrons around the circuit.

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ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
CURRENT ampere
An electric current is a flow of free electrons through a
conductor.
When a current of one ampere is flowing in a
conductor, one coulomb of charge passes any point in
the conductor every second.
Since one coulomb = 6.29 x 10^18 electrons, one
ampere equals a flow rate of 6.29 x 10^18 electrons per
second.

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ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
RESISTANCE Ohm
An electric current is a flow of free electrons through a
conductor.
The size of current flowing through a conductor for a
given applied voltage depends on:

The number of free electrons.

The opposition to free movement of the electrons caused by
the structure of the material.

The opposition to current flow is called resistance of a

Conductor.
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FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE

The four factors that affect the resistance of a wire
conductor are:
Material. Some materials conduct better than others.
Length (l ). Resistance is directly proportional to

length, thus if the length is doubled (other factors

remaining constant), resistance is doubled.
Cross Sectional Area (A). Resistance is inversely
proportional to A. Thus if the cross sectional area is
doubled, resistance is halved.
Temperature. Temperature affects the number of free

electrons and hence resistance.

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CHANGES OF RESISTANCE WITH TEMPERATURE

The resistance of all materials changes with changes in
temperature.
The resistance of all pure metal increases with
temperature.
The resistance of electrolytes, insulators, carbon and
semi-conductors decreases with increasing
temperatures.

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TEMPERATURE CO-EFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE

The temperature co-efficient of resistance is defined as;
The Fractional change in resistance from 0C, per degree
temperature change.
The temp. co-efficient of resistance equals:

= Rt-Ro/R0(t-to)
THERMISTORS
thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance alters with
temperature; a negative temperature coefficient (n.t.c.)
thermistor is one whose resistance reduces with increase
in temperature.
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Resistors COLOUR CODES Table

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OHMS LAW
The relationship which exists between electric current
(as a movement of free electrons through a conducting
material), voltage (or potential) and potential difference
and the resistance to current flow by any conducting
material quantities

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OHMS LAW
For a fixed metal conductor, with temperature and

other conditions remaining constant, the current

through it is proportional to the potential difference
between its ends.
Georg Ohm
Mathematically this is expressed as:
IV

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RESISTORS IN DC CIRCUITS
RESISTORS IN SERIES:

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL:

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ENERGY & POWER IN DC CIRCUITS

ELECTRICAL WORK
Whenever a force of any kind causes motion, work is
accomplished.
Electrical work is done if a quantity of charge (coulombs)
is moved between two points which are at different
electrical potentials.
Electrical Work (joule) = Charge (coulomb) Potential
Difference (volt)
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ELECTRICAL POWER
Electrical power (symbol P) is the rate at which work is
done or the rate of conversion of energy by an electrical
system.
The SI unit of power is the watt which is a rate of work
of 1 joule per second.
P=VI
That is watts = volts amps
By substituting V = IR in the above formula, two other
expressions for electrical power are obtained:
P = VI = I^2R = V^2/R watts
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POWER RATINGS
Current flow through a resistive material causes heat.
An electrical component can be damaged if the
temperature is too high.
Electrical equipment can only stand a certain amount
of heat production without damage and the safe
power which a piece of equipment can consume
without damage is its Power Rating or Wattage
Rating.
Each component is given a wattage rating and if this is
exceeded the component will overheat.
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Power Sources Internal Resistance

Power systems are designed to have the minimum
internal resistance to minimize loses in the power
supply.

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CELLS & BATTERIES

To study electrical principles further we require a

source of emf.
Although an emf can be produced by any of the six
methods mentioned earlier, large amounts of useable
power can only be produced chemically or by
generation. Generation requires a more in depth study
of magnetism and therefore cells and batteries will be
studied first.

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Batteries Principle of Operation

Principle based on:
Change Of Chemical Energy To Electrical Energy.
The exchange of electrons between the Electrodes
through an Electrolyte due to chemical reactions.

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Batteries usage at
1. Transient conditions.

(At starting large D.C motor).

2. Supplying power for short term to heavy loads.
(when generator or ground power is not available, at

Engine, APU starting).

3. Emergency conditions.

(to operate flight instrumentsFor 30 min as the

capacity of the batteries allow).
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Battery Construction
An aircraft battery consists of a number of individual

cells interconnected together.

It contain separators between plates.
Each cell consists of an odd number of -Ve plates and

even number of +Ve plates.

the plate assemblies are supported
in acid-proof container.

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Battery Construction Cont.

Terminal posts are connected by cell straps and

brought out to a main receptacle for connection into

the aircrafts main wiring.
Cell

Cell Strap

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ Main Receptacle

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Types of Cells
Primary Cell
Output
Power

Secondary Cell

Higher Output Power

Lower Output Power

Charging

Cant Be charged

Can Be Charged Many Times

Active
Material

Is destroyed during
discharging

Is not destroyed during

discharging but converts to
another form

Life Time

Short Life Time

Long Life Time

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Types of Batteries
Lead Acid Battery.
Nickel Cadmium Battery.

Battery type is derived from the plate material

(electrodes) and liquid (electrolyte) that is used
during construction.

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Capacity Rating
The maximum current, in amperes, which the battery

will deliver for a known time period, in hours, until

the output voltage has fallen to minimum value,
measured in
AMPERE-HOURS (AH).
Whats the factors The Battery capacity Rating depend

on ???

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Capacity Rating Cont.

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Lead Acid Vs. Ni-Cad Batteries

A Nickel Cadmium battery has the following advantages
over a Lead Acid battery:
They have a longer life
The terminal voltage remains almost constant during

the discharge cycle

They can be charged and discharged at much higher
currents without causing cell damage
They can be discharged to a very low voltage without
causing cell damage

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Lead Acid Vs. Ni-Cad Batteries

But have the following disadvantages:
They are far more expensive to buy and maintain
Each cell has a lower voltage, therefore more cell are

required to produce a battery.

They are more susceptible to thermal runaway.

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Battery Charging & Discharging

Battery will be CHARGING when ??
Battery will be DISCHARGING when ??

Discharge Rate
It is the time taken to discharge until a permissible
minimum voltage.
The two methods of battery charging are: Constant Voltage.
Constant Current (used).
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Thermal Runaway
It is the condition which causes violent gassing,
boiling of electrolyte and finally melting of plates.

Increase
Charging
Current

Increase
Battery
Temperature

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Constant Current Charging Method

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THE BASIC CAPACITOR

If we have two metal plates close together, but separated
by an insulator or dielectric (which could be air) and we
apply a voltage across them, electrons are removed from
one plate and applied to the other and each becomes
charged.
Thus, a capacitor is a device which
opposes voltage change in a circuit
through its capacity to store electrical
energy (or charge) in the form of an
electric field.
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CAPACITANCE Farad
If we increase the voltage between the plates, the charge
increases, but the ratio of charge to voltage remains the
same. This ratio gives the capacitance (C) of the
capacitor.
Charge/Voltage = A constant called capacitance
The Farad is a huge unit and smaller units are used in
practice.
1 microfarad (F) = 10^-6 farad
1 picofarad (pF) = 10^-12 farad

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FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE

The factors which affect the capacitance of a parallelplate capacitor are:
Overlapping area of the plates (A).
Distance between the plates (d).
Material between the plates. This introduces a constant

called the absolute permittivity ().

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FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE

The constant is actually the product of two constants, the

permittivity of space (o) which has a value of 885 x 10^-12

Fm-1 and the relative permittivity (r), which is basically a
multiplication factor (no units) that indicates how many
more times the material is able to concentrate the electric
flux compared with space.

We may summarize this in equation form as:

The units of C are Farads if the units of the other

quantities are:
Area (a) square metres (m^2).
Distance between plates (d) metres (m).
Absolute permittivity () farads per metre (Fm-1).
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CAPACITORS IN DC CIRCUITS
CAPACITORS IN SERIES:

CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL:

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CHARGE & DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS

If we had a perfect d.c. circuit and a perfect capacitor,
then only an instantaneous current would flow, charging
the capacitor instantaneously to equal the applied
voltage (but in the reverse sense) and so preventing
further current flow.
However, in any real circuit, resistance is present in the
form of:
the connecting wires.
Internal resistance within the d.c. source.

This causes the capacitor to take a finite time to charge

up.
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CHARGING A CAPACITOR
It is found that the time taken to charge up the capacitor
depends on the product of capacitance and resistance.
This product is called the time constant of the circuit
and its value is in seconds, providing R is in ohms and C
in farads.
TIME CONSTANT = CR

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CHARGING A CAPACITOR
The time constant is defined as either:
The time which would be taken for the capacitor

voltage to reach its maximum value if it continued to

increase at the initial value, or
The time for the capacitor voltage to reach 0.632 of its
maximum
TIME TO FULLY CHARGE = 5CR

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DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR

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A CAPACITOR IN A DC CIRCUIT
It can be seen that although current does flow for a
period of time in a d.c. circuit containing a capacitor
(until the capacitor is fully charged), the current is
eventually reduced to zero.
Thus, a capacitor inserted in a d.c. circuit prevents
current flow and is sometimes called a dc blocking
capacitor.

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Michael Faraday
Faraday discovered that
electricity could be made by
moving a magnet inside a
wire coil, which allowed him
to build the first electric
motor. From this knowledge
he later built the first
generator and transformer.

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Michael Faraday
Faraday's experiments and discovery of electromagnetic
induction paved the way for changing mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
He also introduced words we still use in the electric trade
today:
Ion
Electrode
Electrolytes
Cathode
Anode
The farad, a unit of electricity, was also named in his honor.
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Nikola Tesla
Tesla was responsible for a great many inventions and
devices as well as principles we still use today.

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Nikola Tesla
His work with gas-filled lamps led to the creation of
fluorescent lighting.
His work with electromagnetic waves led to the
invention of the radio, radar and the MRI, a type of x-ray
enabling us to look inside the human body.
Tesla's greatest achievement, the invention of the
alternating current motor, led to the creation of the
electric utility.

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Nikola Tesla
Tesla Noted inventions:
Alternating current induction motor
Polyphase transmission system
Multiphase power system (we use this today)
Wireless transmission of energy
Hydroelectric generator

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Nikola Tesla
Radio
Radar
Fluorescent light
Vacuum tubes
Loud speaker

MRI x-rays

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MAGNETISM
DOMAIN THEORY
it is assumed that magnetic materials are composed of
tiny individual magnets called domains, a single
domain is very small - about 10^12 atoms.
Considering each atom - orbital electrons not only
orbit the nucleus but spin axially on their own axis.
In non magnetic materials the same number of
electrons spin clockwise as anti-clockwise.
In magnetic materials more electrons spin one way
than the other way
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MAGNETISM
The unbalanced spin creates twists called magnetic

moments.
In unmagnetised state the moments of the electrons
are in the same direction in a single domain, but the
domains produce random pockets of magnetism.
As the magnetic material becomes magnetised the
domains become partially aligned.
In fully magnetised material all domains become fully
aligned.

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MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
The region around a magnet in which it exerts a force is
called the magnetic field.
The magnetic field is three-dimensional and it may be
shown visually by drawing imaginary lines called lines
of magnetic flux.

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Electromagnetism
An electromagnetic field is a magnetic field generated
by current flow in a conductor.
Whenever current flows a magnetic field exists around
the conductor.

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THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

COMPARISON OF ELECTRICAL & MAGNETIC
CIRCUITS

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MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (MMF)

a flux is established due to the existence of a
magnetomotive force.
The mmf is produced by the current flowing in the coil
and its value is the product of the current and the
number of turns on the coil.
Magnetomotive Force = Current x Number of Turns
on the Coil

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MAGNETISING FORCE
is a measure of the intensity of the magnetic effects at
any given point in the magnetic field.
Magnetising Force (H) = Magnetomotive Force
/Length of magnet

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FLUX & FLUX DENSITY

A magnetising force produces a certain amount of
magnetic flux (), measured in Webers.
The magnetic field is represented by imaginary lines of
magnetic flux.
The number of lines of flux passing though a given area
is called the flux density.
Flux density is denoted by the symbol B and given the
unit Tesla.

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PERMEABILITY
When an mmf produces a magnetizing force H, a certain
flux density B is established.
Ratio B/H is termed the permeability of the
material'.
Permeability is an indication of the ability of the flux to
permeate the material.
If a flux is established in any material other than air or
free space, then the flux density will increase.
The number of times by which the flux density increases
is called the relative permeability of the material
denoted by the symbol r.
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PERMEABILITY
The product of o the permeability of free space, 4
10^-7 H/M and r is called the absolute permeability
and is denoted by the symbol .

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RELUCTANCE
The opposition experienced by a magnetizing force to
the creation of a flux is called reluctance and denoted
by the symbol S.

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BH CURVE and HYSTERESIS LOOP

When a material is subjected to a changing magnetizing
force, the flux density is affected by its previous
magnetic history.
There is tendency for the magnetic conditions to lag
behind the magnetizing force that is producing them.
This is known as hysteresis.
If a piece of material is taken through a complete cycle

of magnetizing and demagnetizing the graph of B

against H is called a hysteresis loop.
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HYSTERESIS LOOP

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HYSTERESIS LOOP
The area of the loop represents the energy loss during
each magnetic cycle, or the power dissipated.
Its size is dependent upon the type of material and
frequency at which the magnetizing force is switched.
Materials with large loops are used for permanent

magnets .
Materials with small loops are used for temporary
magnets .

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INDUCTION
Michael Faraday discovered that an electric current was
produced by the relative movement of a magnet and a
coil, a phenomenon which is known as electromagnetic
induction.

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ELECTRICITY FROM MAGNETISM

If a magnet is moved into or out of a coil of wire and if
the coil is connected to a meter, the meter records a flow
of current as long as the magnet is moving.

FACTORS AFFECTING INDUCED EMF:

The faster the magnet (or coil) is moved, the greater is

the deflection obtained on the meter.

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FACTORS AFFECTING INDUCED EMF

Repeating the experiment using a stronger magnet

results in greater meter deflection for the same rates

of movement.
Reversal of the direction of motion produces meter

deflecting in the opposite sense.

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FACTORS AFFECTING INDUCED EMF

Using the south pole of the magnet instead of the

north results in meter deflections in the opposite

sense.
If more turns are used on the coil, meter deflection is

greater and is proportional to the number of turns(N).

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LENZS LAW
A change of flux in a closed circuit induces an emf and
sets up a current.
The direction of this current is such that its magnetic
field tends to oppose the change of flux.

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SELF INDUCTANCE
When current through a coil changes, the changing flux
induces an emf that opposes the current flow.
This emf is the result of self inductance and is called
back emf.
The term self inductance is often replaced merely by
inductance.

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SELF INDUCTANCE
The value of back emf is given by:
Where L is the inductance in henries, and
dI/dt the rate of change of current.
The minus indicates back emf.

N = Number of Turns
o r= Absolute Permeability

A = Area in square metres

I = Length of coil in metres (not wire)
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MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
If the changing flux in a coil links with the turns of a
second coil, the two coils are said to be mutually coupled
and mutual inductance exists .
If the primary current, changing at a rate of 1 amp per
second, induces a secondary voltage of 1v, then the
mutual inductance is 1 henry.
Thus:
Es = M dIprimary/dt between them.
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INDUCTORS IN DC CIRCUITS
INDUCTORS IN SERIES
With no mutual coupling:

LT = L1 + L2 etc
If the coils are positioned so that the mutual induced

emfs in each coil aid the self induced emfs then the
coils are said to be series aiding, and

LT = L1 + L2 + 2M
If the coils are positioned so that mutually induced

emfs in each coil oppose the self induced emfs, the

coils are said to be in series opposing, and

LT = L1 + L2 - 2M
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INDUCTORS IN DC CIRCUITS
INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL

If inductors are connected in parallel, the total

inductance decreases. With no mutual coupling:

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INDUCTORS IN A DC CIRCUIT
Time Constant = LR Seconds
Maximum Current flows after 5L/R

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WHEN DC CURRENT IS REMOVED

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SAFETY
As the current increases through an inductor, flux builds

up and energy is stored in the magnetic field.

On short circuiting an inductor, the magnetic field
collapses and the energy is returned to the circuit in the
form of an emf that tries to maintain the current flow.
If the circuit is open-circuited rather than short-circuited
by a resistor, then the collapsing flux will produce a large
back-emf that may cause sparking across the switch
contacts as they are opened. The sparks damage the
contacts, produce heat, could ignite fuel vapor and
transmit electromagnetic radiation which interferes with
communication and navigation equipment.
The large emfs can also cause electric shocks on what are
considered safe, low voltage d.c. circuits
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100 of 219

101 of 219

DC MOTORS
If a current carrying conductor is placed at right angles
to a magnetic field, a force will be exerted on it, causing
it to move.
The direction of the force and the resultant movement
depends on two factors,
the :
direction of current flow in the conductor
direction of the magnetic field

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DC MOTORS
The direction of the force and the resultant movement
can be found by using Flemings left hand rule

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DC MOTORS CONSTRUCTION
DC motors are made up of several major components
which include the following:
Main Field Windings (Stator)
Frame
Shaft
Bearings
Armature (Rotor)
Commutator
Brush Assembly

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DC MOTORS CONSTRUCTION

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BACK EMF
When a conductor moves in a field, an emf is induced in
the conductor.
The armature coils of the motor are moving in a
magnetic field and therefore must have an emf
induced in them, this emf acts against the applied
voltage and is called back emf.
The resultant of the two voltages is called the
effective voltage.
The armature current is due to the effective
voltage, not the applied voltage.
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BACK EMF
When running, the back emf is almost equal to the

applied voltage, therefore the effective voltage and the

current taken from the supply are both small.

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STARTING D.C. MOTORS

On starting, the rotor is stationary and therefore
producing no back emf, this results in a high effective
voltage and a large current being taken from the supply.
To limit the current, a starting resistor is often used,
the resistor being removed from the circuit once the
motor is running.

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TORQUE
The Torque produced by a d.c. motor is directly

proportional to the armature current and the

magnetic field strength.
.

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SPEED CONTROL
The speed of a d.c. motor can be varied by controlling
the field current or by controlling the armature current.
Field control
With field control, a decrease in field current causes
an increase in motor speed;
main field decreases
back emf across armature decreases
effective voltage increases

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SPEED CONTROL
armature current increases
motor torque increases over load torque
motor speed increases

This occurs because a small change in the main field

strength causes a large change in the armature current.
Field control is generally used for speed control of
normal running speed and upwards.

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SPEED CONTROL
Armature control
With armature control, an increase in armature
current causes an increase in motor torque over load
torque and an increase in motor speed.
A decrease in armature current causes a decrease in
motor speed.
Armature control is generally used for control of
normal running speed and downwards.

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CHANGING THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION

To change the direction of rotation it is only necessary to
change the direction of the main field or the armature
current.

113 of 219

MOTOR CLASSIFICATIONS

114 of 219

SERIES MOTOR
A series motor has a low resistance, heavy gauge field
winding in series with the armature winding.
In series motors the field strength depends on the
armature current, so the torque produced is
approximately proportional to the square of the
armature current.

115 of 219

SERIES MOTOR
As speed increases, the torque decreases, until the

load torque and motor torque balance.

If the load of a series motor is removed, the speed may
become dangerously high.
It is not normal practice to run series motors off-load .
When starting a series motor, it is normally connected

straight to the supply, The field strength builds up

quickly, giving a high starting torque, a fast
acceleration and a rapid back-emf build up.
116 of 219

SERIES MOTOR
There is a short period of high current drain on the

supply.
Applications include starter motors, winches and
aircraft actuators.
Some series motors are fitted with two separate
windings. This enables motor rotation to be quickly
reversed.
Applications include fuel valves and landing lights.

117 of 219

SHUNT MOTOR
Shunt wound motors have a high resistance field
winding connected in parallel with the armature.

118 of 219

SHUNT MOTOR
Applications - Shunt motors are used where a constant
speed is required and will be found in inverter drives and
windscreen wipers.

119 of 219

Speed control
The speed of a shunt motor is normally controlled by a
variable resistor placed in series with the field winding.
When the resistance is increased, the field current is
reduced, the back-emf decreases and the effective
voltage increases.
The increase in effective voltage produces an increase
in armature current and an increase in speed.
When required to reduce the speed of the motor, the
field resistance is decreased.

120 of 219

SPLIT FIELD MOTOR

In certain applications as valves and actuators, it is
necessary to change the direction of rotation of a motor.
A split field motor is simply a series motor with two
field windings.
The fields are wound in opposite directions, with one
being used for each direction of rotation.
The direction is usually
controlled by a single pole,
double throw switch as shown.

121 of 219

STARTER GENERATORS
operates as a starter motor to drive the engine during
starting, and after the engine has reached a
selfsustaining speed, operates as a generator to supply
the electrical system power.

122 of 219

STARTER GENERATORS
The starter-generator unit is basically
a shunt generator with an additional
heavy series winding.
This series winding is electrically
connected to produce a strong field
and a resulting high torque for starting.

123 of 219

DC GENERATORS
If a conductor is moved at right angles to a magnetic

field, an emf is induced in the conductor.

If an external circuit is then connected to the
conductor a current will flow.
The direction of the current flow depends on two
factors, the:
direction of the magnetic field
direction of relative movement between the conductor

and the field

124 of 219

DC GENERATORS
The size of the generated emf depends on three factors,
the:
strength of the magnetic field - B

effective length of the conductor in the field - l

linear velocity of the conductor - v

125 of 219

COMMUTATION
In order to make the current flow in the same direction
through the load, the connections to the external circuit
must be switched every time the loop moves past its
neutral position.
This can be achieved using a commutator.

126 of 219

COMMUTATION

127 of 219

DC GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION

128 of 219

GENERATOR INTERNAL RESISTANCE

A d.c. machine has resistance due to the:
armature windings
brushes

brush to commutator surface contact

Internal resistance causes the generators terminal

voltage to vary with changes in the load current.
As the load current increases, the voltage dropped across
the internal resistance increases and the terminal
voltage decreases.
The generated emf E = Ir + V
129 of 219

GENERATOR CLASSIFICATIONS
Generators are usually classified by the method of
excitation used.
There are three classifications; permanent magnet,
separately excited and self excited.
A permanent magnet generator has a limited
output power and an output voltage that is directly
proportional to speed.

130 of 219

GENERATOR CLASSIFICATIONS
A separately excited generator has its field supplied

from an external source. The output voltage being

controlled by varying the field current.
Self excited generators supply their own field

current from the generator output, again the output

voltage is controlled by varying the field current.
This group may be subdivided into three sub-groups;
series, shunt and compound.

131 of 219

GENERATOR CLASSIFICATIONS

132 of 219

SERIES GENERATOR
The series generator has a field winding consisting of a
few turns of heavy gauge wire connected in series with
the armature.
A series generator therefore has a rising characteristic
and is generally only used as a line booster.

133 of 219

SHUNT GENERATOR
The shunt generator has a field consisting of many turns
of fine wire connected in parallel with the armature.
The shunt generator has a falling characteristic and is
used for d.c. generation on aircraft.

134 of 219

SELF EXCITATION GENERATORS

For a d.c. generator to self excite, certain conditions
must be met:
The generator must have residual magnetism.
The excitation field, when formed, must assist the

residual magnetism.

135 of 219

AC THEORY
PRODUCTION OF A SINEWAVE
The only practical way of generating an electromotive
force (emf) by mechanical means is to rotate a
conductor in a magnetic field.

136 of 219

THE SINEWAVE

137 of 219

AC VOLTAGE & CURRENT

The type of load (resistive, capacitive or inductive)
placed on an a.c. power supply affects the phase angle
relationship between the voltage and current.

ac resistance is
called
reactance

138 of 219

SERIES L/C/R CIRCUITS

INDUCTANCE AND RESISTANCE IN SERIES:

CAPACITANCE AND RESISTANCE IN SERIES:

139 of 219

SERIES L/C/R CIRCUITS

INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE AND RESISTANCE

IN SERIES:

140 of 219

IMPEDANCE
When inductance, capacitance and resistance appear

together in an a.c. circuit, in any combination, the

total opposition to current flow is referred to as
impedance and given the symbol Z.

141 of 219

APPARENT POWER & ACTUAL CURRENT

142 of 219

PRACTICAL GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION

There are two types of alternating current generator, a
rotating field type and a rotating armature type.

143 of 219

PRACTICAL GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION

rotating field generator has several advantages over the rotating
armature type:
Because the output windings are now stationary they are no
longer subject to high centrifugal forces and can therefore be
larger.
By having the output windings on the outside of the machine
there is more room for good insulation and higher voltages can
be used.
With the output windings on the outside of the machine they
are more easily cooled and can therefore carry larger currents.
Using a rotating field only requires the use of two slip rings and
two brushes, also the current required is relatively small.
These advantages mean a larger output can be obtained from a
smaller machine.
144 of 219

TWO PHASE GENERATOR

A two phase generator has two output windings wound
on separate pairs of poles positioned 90 degrees apart as
shown.
The output from the generator will be two voltages of
equal amplitude and frequency, but phase displaced
from each other by 90.

145 of 219

THREE PHASE GENERATOR

A three phase a.c. generator has three sets of output

windings, each physically displaced from the other

two by 120.
The windings are normally connected together in one
of two ways, called star or delta.

146 of 219

STAR & DELTA SYSTEMS

The voltage from the neutral line, or star point, to the

other end of each phase winding is called the phase

voltage, the voltage from one phase to another is
called the line voltage.
STAR Connection

DELTA Connection

VLine = 1.73 * VPhase

VLine = VPhase

ILine = IPhase

ILine = 1.73 * IPhase

147 of 219

STAR & DELTA SYSTEMS

In aircraft a.c. systems, the phase voltage is 115V and

the line voltage is 200V.

On some aircraft systems the frequency is variable
(wild), however, on the majority of modern aircraft,
the frequency is kept constant at 400 Hz.

148 of 219

AC MOTORS
the operation of an a.c. motor relies on the production

of a rotating magnetic field.

To create a rotating field, the current in one pair of
field windings must be 90 degrees out of phase with
the current in the other pair of field windings.
TYPES OF AC MOTOR:
induction motor.
synchronous motor.
Hysteresis motor.
149 of 219

INDUCTION MOTOR
The rotor of an induction motor consists of a number

of copper or aluminum bars connected by two end

rings to form a cage.
The cage is enclosed in a laminated iron core to
reduce its reluctance.

150 of 219

INDUCTION MOTOR
When the rotor is placed in a rotating magnetic field,
the bars are cut by the rotating flux, causing emf's to be
induced in them, because the bars are shorted by the
end rings, currents then flow in the bars.
Current flow in the bars produces a magnetic field
around them, which reacts with the main field of the
machine, causing the rotor to turn.

151 of 219

INDUCTION MOTOR
It is not possible for the rotor to rotate at synchronous
speed (the speed of the field), because there would be
no emfs induced in the rotor bars, no current flow and
no magnetic field produced.
The difference between synchronous speed and rotor
speed is called Slip Speed and is usually expressed as a
percentage of the synchronous speed.

152 of 219

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
The synchronous motor gets its name from the fact

that the rotor runs at synchronous speed (the speed of

the field), for it to do this, the rotor must be a
permanent magnet or an electro-magnet.

153 of 219

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
In order for the magnet to lock-on to the field, it must

be brought up to about 75% of synchronous speed, to

achieve this the majority of synchronous motors have
the cage of an induction motor built into them.
The motor starts as an induction motor and when
sufficient speed has been attained, the electromagnet
is energized, allowing the rotor to lock onto the field.
Once running, no emf's are induced in the rotor bars,
however, they are useful in holding the rotor and rotor
windings in place and also assist in smooth running
during load changes.
154 of 219

HYSTERESIS MOTOR
The motor is so named because the material used for

the rotor has a large hysteresis loop.

This type of motor requires a two phase a.c. supply
and is often used as a servo motor, one phase being
supplied from a reference source, the other from a
control circuit.
The current in the control phase is made to either lead
or lag the reference phase by 90 degrees, depending
on the direction of rotation required.

155 of 219

TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are electromagnetic devices that transfer

electrical energy from one circuit to another by

mutual induction.
Because the flux must be changing state, static
transformers can only be used on alternating current.
In order for a transformer to be used on direct current,
part of the transformer must be rotated.

156 of 219

POWER TRANSFORMERS
A simple transformer consists of two coils, a primary
and a secondary, wound on a high permeability, soft
iron core.
The changing current
in the first coil creates
a changing magnetic
field that induces an
alternating voltage in
the secondary coil.
157 of 219

POWER TRANSFORMERS
All of the energy transferred from the primary winding
to the secondary must be stored in the magnetic field
created in the core, therefore, sufficient iron must be
provided to store the energy of each half cycle of the a.c.
waveform

158 of 219

CIRCUIT SYMBOLS & DOT CODES

The basic symbol used for a transformer with one

primary winding and one secondary winding.

The two dots are used to indicate the phase
relationship between the two windings, the terminals
marked with a dot are always in phase with each other.

air cored - used on

very high frequencies
(VHF) and above

iron core -used at low

frequencies

a ferrite core - used on

medium to high
frequencies.

159 of 219

TURNS RATIO
If the number of turns on the secondary is less than

the number of turns on the primary, the output

voltage will be less than the input voltage, and the
transformer is called a step-down transformer.
If the number of turns on the secondary is greater

than the number of turns on the primary, the

transformer is a step-up type and the output voltage
will be greater than the input voltage.

160 of 219

TURNS RATIO
when writing the transformation ratio, the
secondary voltage is put before the primary.

therefore a 4:1 transformer is a step-up transformer, the

secondary voltage being 4 times the primary voltage.

161 of 219

AUTOTRANSFORMERS
Auto transformers have only one winding, this serving

as both the primary and secondary.

They may be used as "step up" or "step down
transformers.

162 of 219

AUTOTRANSFORMERS
Auto transformers are used for:
line boosters to compensate for the voltage drops in

long cable runs.

motor starting.
Several tappings being used in sequence to apply an increasing
voltage to the motor.
to step the 115V a.c. aircraft supply down to 26V for

lighting circuits.

163 of 219

AUTOTRANSFORMERS
The major disadvantage of auto transformers, especially
step down types, is that should the common portion of
the winding go open circuit, the primary voltage is
applied directly to the load on the secondary.

164 of 219

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Current transformers (CT's) are designed to enable

circuit currents to be measured without breaking the

circuit.
The outputs are applied directly to instruments, or
used in control circuits.

165 of 219

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

The preferred methods of connection are the last two.

166 of 219

DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT's), rotary
variable differential transformers (RVDT's) and E and I
bar transducers all use transformer principles to produce
electrical signals from mechanical movement.

167 of 219

DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS
The magnitude of the signals produced is dependent on
the amount of movement, and the phase of the signal on
the direction of movement.
All three devices are used in control systems,

168 of 219

SERIES RESONANCE
If the frequency applied to L/R/C circuit was altered to
decrease XL and at the same time increase XC, then at
one particular frequency XL would be equal to XC. This
frequency is called the Resonant Frequency and is
denoted by the symbol fo.

169 of 219

SERIES RESONANCE
At the resonant frequency, the applied voltage and the
circuit current are in phase, and the impedance of the
circuit equals the resistance.
In a Series Circuit at Resonant Frequency (fO):
XL = XC

XL = VC
VL and VC are in antiphase and therefore cancel each

other out.
VR = Applied Voltage V.
Z = R.

170 of 219

SERIES RESONANCE
The only opposition to the flow of current comes from

the resistive element of the circuit, therefore current

rises to a maximum value.
Because I is a maximum, this series resonant circuit is
known as an acceptor circuit.

171 of 219

BANDWIDTH
The bandwidth (B) of a circuit is the difference between
two frequencies either side of the resonant frequency at
which the power has fallen to half its value at resonance,
i.e. the half power points.

172 of 219

PARALLEL L/C/R CIRCUITS

In a Parallel Circuit at Resonant Frequency (fO):
XL = XC
XL = VC
VL and VC are in antiphase and therefore cancel each

other out.
VR = Applied Voltage V.
Z =L/CR and current is a minimum.

Because the impedance is a maximum, the parallel

resonant circuit is known as a rejecter circuit.

173 of 219

Parallel RESONANCE
if R is very small, the term involving resistance may be

ignored and for most practical purposes the resonant

frequency is given by:

174 of 219

FILTERS
Filter circuits are four terminal networks designed to

pass a band of frequencies from the input to the

output terminals, and to filter-off or attenuate, the
remaining unwanted frequencies present at the input
terminal.
Such circuits are made from capacitors and inductors
whose reactance changes with change in frequency.

Filter circuits take four main forms:

High pass, Low pass, Band pass, and Band stop
175 of 219

HIGH PASS FILTERS

High pass filters allow all frequencies above a certain

cut-off frequency to be passed from the input

terminals to the output terminals.
All frequencies below the cut-off frequency are
filtered off or attenuated.

176 of 219

LOW PASS FILTERS

Low pass filters allow all frequencies below a certain

cut-off frequency to be passed from the input

terminals to the output terminals.
All frequencies above the cut-off frequency are filtered
off or attenuated.

177 of 219

BAND PASS FILTERS

These circuits allow a certain narrow band of

frequencies to be passed onto the output terminals

and filter off, or attenuate the frequencies above and
below this band.

178 of 219

BAND STOP FILTERS

These circuits pass onto the output terminals all

frequencies except a certain narrow band which is

attenuated or filtered off.

179 of 219

FILTERS FREQUENCY RESPONSE

180 of 219

Electrical Power Outlines

Power Distribution
Cables

Emergency Supplies AC and DC

Voltage regulation
Inverters

TR Units
Ground Power Supplies
Typical Aircraft Power Distribution Network.
182 of 219

Power Distribution
In order for the power available at the appropriate

generating source, to be made available at the

terminals of the power-consuming equipment then
clearly, some organized form of distribution
throughout an aircraft is essential.
Busbars
In most types of aircraft, the output from the
generating sources is coupled to one or more low
impedance conductors referred to as busbars To
provide a convenient means for connecting positive
supplies to the various consumer circuits.
183 of 219

Split Busbar Systems

a distribution system must meet requirements which
concern a power source, or a power consumer system
operating either separately or collectively, under
abnormal conditions.
The requirements and abnormal conditions are:
1. Power-consuming equipment faults must not
endanger the supply of power to other equipment.

184 of 219

Split Busbar Systems

2. Power-consuming equipment must not be deprived

of power in the event of power source failures unless

the total power demand exceeds the available supply.
3. Faults on the distribution system (e.g. fault currents,

grounding or earthing at a busbar) should have the

minimum effect on system functioning, and should
constitute minimum possible fire risk.
it is usual to categorize all consumer services into their

order of importance and, in general, they fall into

three groups: vital, essential and non-essential
185 of 219

consumer services category:

Vital services are those which would be required after
an emergency wheels-up landing, e.g. emergency
lighting and crash switch operation of fire extinguishers.
These services are connected directly to the battery.
Essential services are those inquired to ensure safe
flight in an in-fight emergency situation.
They are connected to d.c. and a.c. busbars, as
appropriate, and in such a way that they can always be
supplied from a generator or from batteries.
186 of 219

consumer services category:

Non-Essential services
are those which can be
isolated in an in-flight
emergency for load
shedding purposes, and are
connected to d.c.
and a.c. busbars, as
appropriate,
supplied from a generator.

187 of 219

Emergency Supplies, A.C. and D.C.

In the event of total loss of generated power, it is
necessary to resort to emergency services.
These can be provided by:
A battery which supplies essential d.c. loads and a

static inverter which supplies the a.c. essential busbar.

An electrical generator driven by a ram air turbine.
An electrical generator driven by a hydraulic motor.

188 of 219

GENERATORS PARALLELING

189 of 219

Emergency Supplies, A.C. and D.C.

Prior to paralleling, there are quite a few conditions that must
be followed:
The frequencies on either side of the bus-tie breaker
must be within specified limits.
The frequency difference must be less than 6 Hz.

The voltage on either side of the bus-tie breaker must be

within specified limits.

The voltage difference must be less than 10 V.

The phase angle difference must be less than 90 degrees.

The phase rotation of polyphase generators must be

identical.
The generators must share the load on tie bus within
specified limits.
190 of 219

Voltage Regulator
The voltage is regulated to maintain a constant

output regardless of engine speed or Electrical

loading.
Regulation is achieved by adjusting the strength of

the magnetic field by altering the Field Current.

191 of 219

Types of Voltage Regulators

Automatic adjustment of the field current is

achieved by using one of two types of voltage

regulator:-

Carbon pile voltage regulator.

Semi-conductor (transistors).

192 of 219

Carbon Pile Regulator

193 of 219

Carbon Pile Regulator Construction

A device in which a number of carbon coated

metal discs are placed together to form a cylinder.

This is placed in the field winding circuit, and

will vary the field current by varying its resistance

as a function of applied pressure.

194 of 219

Multi-Generator Operation
When two or more generators are connected in

parallel to a power system, the generators should

share the electrical load.
If the voltage of one generator is higher than that of
the other, then that generator will take a greater part
of the electrical load, which may lead to failure of the
generator.

196 of 219

Equalizing Circuit

197 of 219

INVERTERS
Some of aircraft equipments require a 115 volts

AC, these include: Fluorescent lighting.

Radio/radar/navigation & autopilot equipment.
Engine instrument, motors and actuators.
INVERTER is used for converting d.c power from
batteries to a.c power.

198 of 219

INVERTERS
There are two types of inverter, which will convert 28
volt d.c. to 115 volts a.c., they are the: rotary inverter,
static inverter.

199 of 219

THE ROTARY INVERTER

The inverter consists of a d.c. motor and an a.c.

generator mounted on a common shaft.

A fan attached to the shaft draws cooling air through
the unit.
As the motor armature rapidly rotates under the
influence of motor action, the a.c. output windings
rotate through an electro magnetic field producing 115
volts3 phase a.c. at a standard frequency of 400 Hz.

200 of 219

Static Inverter
Its a non-rotating inverter which utilizes

transistorized electronic circuit to convert 28 V

d.c to 115 V a.c.
The advantages of a static inverter are: High efficiency & Low weight.
Low maintenance and long life.
Does not require warm up time.
Quiet in operation.
Has a fast response to load changes.

201 of 219

Static Inverter (Contd)

Square Wave
Generator

Pulse Shaper

Power Amp.
And Filter

Voltage &
Frequency
Sensor

202 of 219

TRANSFORMER-RECTIFIER UNITS
Transformer-rectifier units-(T.RU;'s) are combinations of
static transformers and rectifiers, and are utilized in
some a.c. systems as secondary supply units, and also as
the main conversion units in aircraft having rectified a.c.
power systems.

203 of 219

TRANSFORMER-RECTIFIER UNITS

204 of 219

GROUND POWER SUPPLY

most aircraft have the facility to be connected to an
external power source during servicing or maintenance.
This allows systems to be operated without having to
start the engines or use the battery.

205 of 219

GROUND POWER SUPPLY

In its simplest form, a
ground power supply
system consists of a
connector located in the
aircraft at a conveniently
accessible point'( at the side
of a fuselage for example)
and a switch for completing
the circuit between the
ground power unit and the
bus bar system.
206 of 219

Electric Cables
Wires and cables constitute the framework of power
distribution systems conducting power in its various

forms and controlled quantities, between sections

contained within consumer equipment, and also
between equipment located in the relevant areas of
an aircraft.

207 of 219

Electric Cables
Two metals are used for conductors:
(Copper and Aluminum)
Wires requirements:
The wire must be able to carry the required

current without over heating and burning.

The wire must be able to carry the required
current without producing an appreciable
voltage drop.
The wire must minimize the fire risk and
structural damage in the event of failure of any
kind.
208 of 219

Wire Vs. Cable

A Wire is described as:-

A single solid conductor or as a stranded

conductor covered with an insulating material.

209 of 219

A Cable is described as:-

Two or more separate wires in the same jacket

or twisted together or covered with a metallic
shield.

210 of 219

Types of Wires and Cables

The wire and cable are derived from the names
of the various Insulating materials used.
"NYVIN" is derived from NYlon and from
polyVINyl-chloride (P.V.C.).
"TERSIL" is derived from polyesTER and
SILicone.
"EFGLAS" is derived from GLASs braid and
polytetraflouroethylene (ptFE).

211 of 219

The insulation materials used for wires and cables

must be:
Flexibility over a fairly wide temperature range.
Resistance to fuels, lubricants and hydraulic
fluids.
Ease of stripping for terminating.
No flammability.
Minimum weight.

212 of 219

Special Purpose Cables

Ignition Cables.

Thermocouple Cables.
Co-axial Cables.

213 of 219

Electro-Magnetic Interference
Methods to reduce interference to the minimum:

Use of metallic shielded cables, connected to

the airframe earth.
Twisting wires together.
Grouping specific wires together in bundles.

214 of 219

Routing of Wires and Cables

215 of 219

Routing of Wires and Cables

Types of Routing:-

1.

Open Loom.

2.

Ducted Loom.

3.

Conduits.

216 of 219

Earthing Or Grounding
It refers to the return of current to the
conducting mass of the earth or ground.
Since in most aircraft the structure is of metal
and of sufficient mass to remain electrically
neutral, then it can function as an earth or
"negative busbar" and so provide the return path
of current.
power supply and consumer circuits can be
completed by coupling all negative connections
to the structure at various "earth stations.
217 of 219

The selection of types of connection for earth return

cables is based on:

Mechanical strength, Current to be carried,

Corrosive effects.
In aircraft in which the primary structure is of
non-metallic construction, a separate
continuous main earth and bonding system is
provided.
It consists of four or more soft copper strip-type
conductors extending the whole length of the
fuselage and disposed so that they are not more
than six feet apart.
218 of 219

Typical Aircraft Power Distribution Network

219 of 219